The Dogmas of Judaism
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Dogmas The Dogmas of Judaism Chapter VI of Schechter's Studies in Judaism, First Series, Copyright, 1896 by the Jewish Publication Society of America (in the public domain) Note: Scanned in and uncorrected text. Index to this essay [Introductory material] [The Bible: Are we commanded to believe?] [The Mishnah - Sanhedrin as source for dogma] [Caraite belief] [Saadiah and the beginning of Jewish dogma] [Maimonides and the 13 Articles] [The Anti- Maimonists] [Chasdai Ibn Crescas] [Albo] [Introductory material] The object of this essay is to say about the dogmas of Judaism a word which I think ought not to be left unsaid. In speaking of dogmas it must be understood that Judaism does not ascribe to them any saving power. The belief in a dogma or a doctrine without abiding by its real or supposed consequences (eg. the, belief in creatio ex nihilo without keeping the Sabbath) is of no value. And the question about certain doctrines is not whether they possess or do not possess the desired charm against certain diseases of the soul, but whether they ought to be considered as characteristics of Judaism or not. It must again be premised that the subject, which occupied the thoughts of the greatest and noblest Jewish minds for so many centuries, has been neglected for a comparatively long time. And this for various reasons. First, there is Mendelssohn's assertion, or supposed assertion, in his Jerusalem, that Judaism has no dogmas -- an assertion which has been accepted by the majority of modern Jewish theologians as the only dogma Judaism possesses. You can hear it pronounced in scores of Jewish pulpits; you can read it written in scores of Jewish books. To admit the possibility that Mendelssohn was in error was hardly permissible, especially for those with [p. 148] whom he enjoys a certain infallibility. Nay, even the fact that he himself was not consistent in his theory, and on another occasion declared that Judaism has dogmas, only that they are purer and more in harmony with reason than those of other religions; or even the more important fact that he published a school-book for children, in which the so- called Thirteen Articles were embodied, only that instead of the formula "I believe," he substituted "I am convinced," -- even such patent facts did not produce much effect upon many of our modern theologians. [n. 1] They were either overlooked or explained away so as to make them harmonise with the great dogma of dogmalessness. For it is one of the attributes of infallibility, that the words of its happy possessor must always be reconcilable even when they appear to the eye of the unbeliever as gross contradictions. Another cause of the neglect into which the subject has fallen is that our century is an historical one. It is not only books that have their fate, but also whole sciences and literatures. In past times it was religious speculation that formed the favorite study of scholars, in our time it is history with its critical foundation on a sound philology. Now as these two most important branches of Jewish science were so long neglected -- were perhaps never cultivated in the true meaning of the word, and as Jewish literature is so vast and Jewish history so far-reaching and eventful, we cannot wonder that these studies have absorbed the time and the labour of the greatest and best Jewish writers in this century. There is, besides, a certain tendency in historical studies that is hostile to mere theological speculation. The historian deals with realities, the theologian with abstrac- [p149] tions. The latter likes to shape the universe after his system, and tells us how things ought to be, the former teaches us how they are or have been, and the explanation he gives for their being so and not otherwise includes in most cases also a kind of justification for their existence. There is also the odium theologicum, which has been the cause of so much misfortune that it is hated by
Transcript of The Dogmas of Judaism
Dogmas
TheDogmasofJudaism
ChapterVIofSchechter'sStudiesinJudaism,FirstSeries,Copyright,1896bytheJewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica(inthepublicdomain)
Note:Scannedinanduncorrectedtext.
Indextothisessay
[Introductorymaterial][TheBible:Arewecommandedtobelieve?][TheMishnah-Sanhedrinassourcefordogma][Caraitebelief][SaadiahandthebeginningofJewishdogma][Maimonidesandthe13Articles][TheAnti-Maimonists][ChasdaiIbnCrescas][Albo]
[Introductorymaterial]TheobjectofthisessayistosayaboutthedogmasofJudaismawordwhichIthinkoughtnottobeleftunsaid.
InspeakingofdogmasitmustbeunderstoodthatJudaismdoesnotascribetothemanysavingpower.Thebeliefinadogmaoradoctrinewithoutabidingbyitsrealorsupposedconsequences(eg.the,beliefincreatioexnihilowithoutkeepingtheSabbath)isofnovalue.Andthequestionaboutcertaindoctrinesisnotwhethertheypossessordonotpossessthedesiredcharmagainstcertaindiseasesofthesoul,butwhethertheyoughttobeconsideredascharacteristicsofJudaismornot.
Itmustagainbepremisedthatthesubject,whichoccupiedthethoughtsofthegreatestandnoblestJewishmindsforsomanycenturies,hasbeenneglectedforacomparativelylongtime.Andthisforvariousreasons.First,thereisMendelssohn'sassertion,orsupposedassertion,inhisJerusalem,thatJudaismhasnodogmas--anassertionwhichhasbeenacceptedbythemajorityofmodernJewishtheologiansastheonlydogmaJudaismpossesses.YoucanhearitpronouncedinscoresofJewishpulpits;youcanreaditwritteninscoresofJewishbooks.ToadmitthepossibilitythatMendelssohnwasinerrorwashardlypermissible,especiallyforthosewith[p.148]whomheenjoysacertaininfallibility.Nay,eventhefactthathehimselfwasnotconsistentinhistheory,andonanotheroccasiondeclaredthatJudaismhasdogmas,onlythattheyarepurerandmoreinharmonywithreasonthanthoseofotherreligions;oreventhemoreimportantfactthathepublishedaschool-bookforchildren,inwhichtheso-calledThirteenArticleswereembodied,onlythatinsteadoftheformula"Ibelieve,"hesubstituted"Iamconvinced,"--evensuchpatentfactsdidnotproducemucheffectuponmanyofourmoderntheologians.[n.1]Theywereeitheroverlookedorexplainedawaysoastomakethemharmonisewiththegreatdogmaofdogmalessness.Foritisoneoftheattributesofinfallibility,thatthewordsofitshappypossessormustalwaysbereconcilableevenwhentheyappeartotheeyeoftheunbelieverasgrosscontradictions.
Anothercauseoftheneglectintowhichthesubjecthasfallenisthatourcenturyisanhistoricalone.Itisnotonlybooksthathavetheirfate,butalsowholesciencesandliteratures.Inpasttimesitwasreligiousspeculationthatformedthefavoritestudyofscholars,inourtimeitishistorywithitscriticalfoundationonasoundphilology.NowasthesetwomostimportantbranchesofJewishscienceweresolongneglected--wereperhapsnevercultivatedinthetruemeaningoftheword,andasJewishliteratureissovastandJewishhistorysofar-reachingandeventful,wecannotwonderthatthesestudieshaveabsorbedthetimeandthelabourofthegreatestandbestJewishwritersinthiscentury.
Thereis,besides,acertaintendencyinhistoricalstudiesthatishostiletomeretheologicalspeculation.Thehistoriandealswithrealities,thetheologianwithabstrac-[p149]tions.Thelatterlikestoshapetheuniverseafterhissystem,andtellsushowthingsoughttobe,theformerteachesushowtheyareorhavebeen,andtheexplanationhegivesfortheirbeingsoandnototherwiseincludesinmostcasesalsoakindofjustificationfortheirexistence.Thereisalsotheodiumtheologicum,whichhasbeenthecauseofsomuchmisfortunethatitishatedby
thehistorian,whilstthesuperficial,rationalisticwayinwhichthetheologianmanagestoexplaineverythingwhichdoesnotsuithissystemismostrepulsivetothecriticalspirit.
Butitcannotbedeniedthatthisneglecthascausedmuchconfusion.EspeciallyisthisnoticeableinEngland,whichisessentiallyatheologicalcountry,andwherepeoplearebutlittlepronetogiveupspeculationaboutthingswhichconcerntheirmostsacredinterestandgreatesthappiness.ThuswhilstweareexceedinglypoorinallotherbranchesofJewishlearning,wearecomparativelyrichinproductionsofatheologicalcharacter.Wehaveasuperfluityofessaysonsuchdelicatesubjectsaseternalpunishment,immortalityofthesoul,thedayofjudgment,etc.,andmanytreatisesonthedefinitionofJudaism.ButknowinglittleornothingoftheprogressrecentlymadeinJewishtheology,ofthemanyprotestsagainstallkindsofinfallibility,whethercanonisedinthiscenturyorinoldentimes,weinEnglandstillmaintainthatJudaismhasnodogmasasifnothingtothecontraryhadeverbeensaid.WeseekthefoundationofJudaisminpoliticaleconomy,inhygiene,ineverythingexceptreligion.Followingthefashionofthedaytoesteemreligioninproportiontoitsabilitytoadaptitselftoeverypossibleandimpossiblemetaphysicalandsocialsystem,weare[p.150]anxioustosqueezeoutofJudaismthelastdropoffaithandhope,andstrivetomakeitsoflexiblethatwecanturnitineverydirectionwhichitisourpleasuretofollow.Butalas!theflexibilityhasprogressedsofarastoclassifyJudaismamongtheinvertebratespecies,thelowestorderoflivingthings.ItstronglyresemblesacertainChristianschoolwhichaddressesitselftotheworldingeneralandclaimstosatisfyeverybodyalike.ItclaimstobesocialismfortheadherentsofKarlMarxandLassalle,worshipofmanforthefollowersofComteandSt.Simon;itcarefullyavoidstheword"God"forthecomfortofagnosticsandsceptics,whilstontheotherhanditpretendstoholdswayoverparadise,hell,andimmortalityfortheedificationofbelievers.Insuchillusionsmanyofourtheologiansdelight.Forillusionstheyare;youcannotbeeverythingifyouwanttobeanything.Moreover,illusionsinthemselvesarebadenough,butwearemenacedwithwhatisstillworse.Judaism,divestedofeveryhigherreligiousmotive,isindangeroffallingintogrossmaterialism.Forwhatelseisthemeaningofsuchdeclarationsas"Believewhatyoulike,butconformtothisorthatmodeoflife";whatelsedoesitmeanbut"Wecannotexpectyoutobelievethatthethingsyouarebiddentodoarecommandedbyahigherauthority;thereisnotsuchathingasbelief,butyououghttodothemforconventionalismorforyourownconvenience."
Butboththesemotives--thegoodopinionofourneighbours,aswellasourbodilyhealth--havenothingtodowithournoblerandhighersentiments,anddegradeJudaismtoamatterofexpediencyordiplomacy.Indeed,thingshaveadvancedsofarthatwell-meaning,butill-advisedwriterseventhinktorenderaservicetoJudaism[p.151]bydeclaringittobeakindofenlightenedHedonism,orratheramoderateEpicureanism.
Ihavenointentionofhereansweringthequestion,WhatisJudaism?Thisquestionisnotlessperplexingthantheproblem,WhatisGod'sworld?JudaismisalsoagreatInfinite,composedofasmanyendlessUnits,theJews.AndtheseUnit-Jewshavebeen,andarestill,scatteredthroughalltheworld,andhavepassedunderanimmensityofinfluences,goodandbad.Ifso,howcanwegiveanexactdefinitionoftheInfinite,calledJudaism?
Butifthereisanythingsure,itisthatthehighestmotiveswhichworkedthroughthehistoryofJudaismarethestrongbeliefinGodandtheunshakenconfidencethatatlastthisGod,theGodofIsrael,willbetheGodofthewholeworld;or,inotherwords,FaithandHopearethetwomostprominentcharacteristicsofJudaism.
InthefollowingpagesIshalltrytogiveashortaccountofthemannerinwhichthesetwoprinciplesofJudaismfoundexpression,fromtheearliesttimesdowntotheageofMendelssohn;thatis,topresentanoutlineofthehistoryofJewishDogmas.First,afewobservationsonthepositionoftheBibleandtheTalmudinrelationtoourtheme.InsufficientandpoorastheymaybeinproportiontotheimportanceofthesetwofundamentaldocumentsofJudaism,theseremarksmayneverthelesssuggestaconnectinglinkbetweentheteachingsofJewishantiquityandthoseofMaimonidesandhissuccessors.
[TheBible]
IbeginwiththeScriptures.
TheBibleitselfhardlycontainsacommandbiddingustobelieve.Wearehardlyordered,e.g.,tobelieveintheexistenceofGod.Isayhardly,butIdonotaltogetherdenytheexistenceofsuchacommand.Itistruethatwe[p.152]donotfindintheScripturesuchwordsas:"YouarecommandedtobelieveintheexistenceofGod."Norisanypunishmentassignedasawaitinghimwhodeniesit.Notwithstandingthesefacts,manyJewishauthorities--amongthemsuchimportantmenasMaimonides,R.JudahHallevi,Nachmanides--perceive,inthefirstwordsoftheTenCommandments,"IamtheLordthyGod,"thecommandtobelieveinHisexistence.[n.2]
Bethisasitmay,therecannotbetheshadowofadoubtthattheBible,inwhicheverycommandisdictatedbyGod,andinwhichallitsheroesaretheservants,thefriends,ortheambassadorsofGod,presumessuchabeliefineveryonetowhomthoselawsaredictated,andtheseheroesaddressthemselves.Nay,Ithinkthattheword"belief"isnotevenadequate.Inaworldwithsomanyvisiblefactsandinvisiblecauses,aslifeanddeath,growthanddecay,lightanddarkness;inaworldwherethesunrisesandsets;wherethestarsappearregularly;whereheavyrainspourdownfromthesky,oftenaccompaniedbysuchgrandphenomenaasthunderandlightning;inaworldfullofsuchmarvels,butintowhichnonotionhasenteredofallourmoderntrueorfalseexplanations--whobutGodisbehindallthesethings?"Havethegates,"asksGod,"havethegatesofdeathbeenopentothee?orhastthouseenthedoorsoftheshadowofdeath?...Whereisthewaywherelightdwelleth?andasfordarkness,whereistheplacethereof?...Haththerainafather?orwhohathbegottenthedropsofdew?...CanstthoubindthesweetinfluencesofPleiades,orloosethebandsofOrion?...Canstthousendlightnings,thattheymaygo,andsayuntothee,Hereweare?"(Jobxxxviii.).Ofallthesewonders,God,[p.153]wasnotmerelytheprimacausa;theyweretheresultofHisdirectaction,withoutanyintermediarycauses.AnditisasabsurdtosaythattheancientworldbelievedinGod,asforafuturehistoriantoassertofthenineteenthcenturythatitbelievedintheeffectsofelectricity.Weseethem,andsoantiquitysawGod.Iftherewasanydanger,itlaynotinthedenialoftheexistenceofaGod,butinhavingawrongbelief.Beliefinasmanygodsastherearemanifestationsinnature,theinvestingofthemwithfalseattributes,themisunderstandingofGod'srelationtomen,leadtoimmorality.ThusthegreaterpartofthelawsandteachingsoftheBibleareeitherdirectedagainstpolytheism,withallitslowideasofGod,orratherofgods;ortheyaredirectedtowardsregulatingGod'srelationtomen.ManisaservantofGod,orHisprophet,orevenHisfriend.Butthisrelationshipmanobtainsonlybyhisconduct.Nay,allman'sactionsarecarefullyregulatedbyGod,andconnectedwithHisholiness.The19thchapterofLeviticus,whichisconsideredbytheRabbisastheportionoftheLawinwhichthemostimportantarticlesoftheTorahareembodied,isheaded,"Yeshallbeholy,forItheLordyourownGodamholy."Andeachlawthereinoccurring,eventhosewhichconcernourrelationstoeachother,isnotfoundedonutilitarianreasons,butisordainedbecausetheoppositeofitisanoffencetotheholinessofGod,andprofanesHiscreatures,whomHedesiredtobeasholyasHeis.[n.3]
ThusthewholestructureoftheBibleisbuiltuponthevisiblefactoftheexistenceofaGod,anduponthebeliefintherelationofGodtomen,especiallytoIsrael.Inspiteofallthathasbeensaidtothecontrary,theBibledoeslaystressuponbelief,wherebeliefisrequired.The[p.154]unbelieversarerebukedagainandagain."Forallthistheysinnedstill,andbelievednotforHiswondrouswork,"complainsAsaph(Ps.lxxviii.32).Andbeliefispraisedinsuchexaltedwordsas,"ThussaiththeLord,Irememberthee,thekindnessofthyyouth,theloveofthineespousals,whenthouwentestaftermeinthewilderness,inalandthatwasnotsown"(Jer.ii.2).TheBible,especiallythebooksoftheprophets,consists,ingreatpart,ofpromisesforthefuture,whichtheRabbisjustlytermedthe"Consolations."[n.4]Forourpurpose,itisofnogreatconsequencetoexaminewhatfuturetheprophetshadinview,whetheranimmediatefutureoronemoreremote,attheendofdays.Atanyrate,theyinculcatedhopeandconfidencethatGodwouldbringtopassabettertime.IthinkthateventhemostadvancedBiblecritic--providedheisnotguidedbysomemodernAryanreasons--mustperceiveinsuchpassagesas,"TheLordshallreignforeverandever,""TheLordshallrejoicenhisworks,"andmanyothers,ahopeformorethantheestablishmentofthe"nationalDeityamonghisvotariesinPalestine."
Wehavenowtopassoveranintervalofmanycenturies,thelengthofwhichdependsupontheviewsheldistothedateofthecloseofthecanon,andexaminewhattheRabbis,therepresentativesoftheprophets,thoughtonthissubject.NotthattheviewsoftheauthoroftheWisdomofSolomon,ofPhiloandAristobulus,andmanyothersoftheJudaeo-Alexandrianschoolwouldbeuninterestingforus.ButsomehowtheirinfluenceonJudaismwasonlyapassingone,andtheirdoctrinesneverbecameauthoritativeintheSynagogue.Wemusthereconfineourselvesto
thosewho,evenbythe[p.155]testimonyoftheirbitterestenemies,occupiedtheseatofMoses.
Thesuccessorsoftheprophetshadtodealwithnewcircumstances,andaccordinglytheirteachingswereadaptedtothewantsoftheirtimes.Astheresultofmanifoldforeigninfluences,thevisiblefactoftheexistenceofGodasmanifestedintheBiblehadbeensomewhatobscured.Prophecyceased,andtheHolySpiritwhichinspiredafewchosenonestookitsplace.AfterwardsthisinfluencewasreducedtothehearingofaVoicefromHeaven,whichwasaudibletostillfewer.OntheotherhandtheRabbishadthisadvantagethattheywerenotcalledupontofightagainstidolatryastheirpredecessorstheprophetshadbeen.Theevilinclinationtoworshipidolswas,astheTalmudexpressesitallegorically,killedbytheMenoftheGreatSynagogue,or,asweshouldputit,itwassuppressedbythesufferingsofthecaptivityinBabylon.Thischangeofcircumstancesismarkedbythefollowingfact:--Whilsttheprophetsmostlyconsideredidolatryasthecauseofallsin,theRabbisshowastrongtendencytoascribesintoadefectin,orawantof,beliefonthepartofthesinner.TheyteachthatAdamwouldnothavesinnedunlesshehadfirstdeniedthe"Rootofall"(orthemainprinciple),namely,thebeliefintheOmnipresenceofGod.OfCaintheysaythatbeforemurderinghisbrotherhedeclared:"Thereisnojudgment,thereisnojudge,thereisnoworldtocome,andthereisnorewardforthejust,andnopunishmentforthewicked."[n.5]
InanotherplacewereadthatthecommissionofasininsecretisanimpertinentattemptbythedoertooustGodfromtheworld.Butifunbeliefisconsideredas[p.156]therootofallevil,wemayexpectthatthereverseofit,aperfectfaith,wouldbepraisedinthemostexalted,terms.Soweread:FaithissogreatthatthemanwhopossessesitmayhopetobecomeaworthyvesseloftheHolySpirit,or,asweshouldexpressit,thathemayhopetoobtainbythispowerthehighestdegreeofcommunionwithhisMaker.ThePatriarchAbraham,notwithstandingallhisothervirtues,onlybecame"thepossessorofbothworlds"bythemeritofhisstrongfaith.Nay,eventhefulfilmentofasinglelawwhenaccompaniedbytruefaithis,accordingtotheRabbis,sufficienttobringmannightoGod.AndthefutureredemptionisalsoconditionalonthedegreeoffaithshownbyIsrael.[n.6]
IthasoftenbeenaskedwhattheRabbiswouldhavethoughtofamanwhofulfilseverycommandmentoftheTorah,butdoesnotbelievethatthisTorahwasgivenbyGod,orthatthereexistsaGodatall.Itisindeedverydifficulttoanswerthisquestionwithanydegreeofcertainty.InthetimeoftheRabbispeoplewerestilltoosimpleforsuchadiplomaticreligion,andconformityinthemodernsensewasquiteanunknownthing.ButfromtheforegoingremarksitwouldseemthattheRabbiscouldnotconceivesuchamonstrosityasatheisticorthodoxy.For,aswehaveseen,theRabbisthoughtthatunbeliefmustneedsendinsin,forfaithistheoriginofallgood.Accordingly,inthecasejustsupposedtheywouldhaveeithersuspectedtheman'sorthodoxy,orwouldhavedeniedthathisviewswerereallywhatheprofessedthemtobe.
[TheMishnah]
StillmoreimportantthantheabovecitedAgadicpassagesisonewhichweareabouttoquotefromthetractateSanhedrin.Thistractatedealswiththeconstitutionofthesupremelaw-court,theexaminationofthewitnesses,thefunctionsofthejudges,andthedifferentpunishmenttobeinflictedonthetransgressorsofthelaw.Afterhavingenumeratedvariouskindsofcapitalpunishment,theMishnahaddsthefollowingwords:
"Theseare(themen)whoareexcludedfromthelifetocome:Hewhosaysthereisnoresurrectionfromdeath;hewhosaysthereisnoTorahgivenfromheaven,andtheEpikurus.[n.7]
ThispassagewasconsideredbytheRabbisoftheMiddleAges,aswellasbymodernscholars,thelocusclassicusforthedogmaquestion.TherearemanypassagesintheRabbinicliteraturewhichexcludemanfromtheworldtocomeforthisorthatsin.ButthesearemoreorlessofanAgadic(legendary)character,andthuslendthemselvestoexaggerationandhyperboliclanguage.Theycannot,therefore,beconsideredasseriouslegaldicta,orasthegeneralopinionoftheRabbis.
TheMishnahinSanhedrin,however,has,ifonlybyitspositioninalegaltractate,acertainHalachic(obligatory)character.AndthefactthatsoearlyanauthorityasR.Akibamadeadditionstoitguaranteesitshighantiquity.The
firsttwosentencesofthisMishnahareclearenough.Inmodernlanguage,andpositivelyspeaking,theywouldrepresentarticlesofbeliefinResurrectionandRevelation.GreatdifficultyisfoundindefiningwhatwasmeantbythewordEpicurus.TheauthoritiesoftheMiddleAges,towhomIshallagainhavetorefer,explaintheEpikurustobeamanwhodeniesthebeliefinrewardandpunishment;othersidentifyhimwithonewhodeniesthebeliefinProvidence;whileothersagainconsidertheEpikurustobeonewhodeniesTradition.Buttheparal-[p.158]lelpassagesinwhichitoccursinclineonerathertothinkthatthiswordcannotbedefinedbyonekindofheresy.ItimpliesratherafrivoloustreatmentofthewordsofScriptureorofTradition.Inthecaseofthelatter(Tradition)itiscertainlynothonestdifferenceofopinionthatiscondemned;fortheRabbisthemselvesdifferedveryoftenfromeachother,andevenMediaevalauthorities,didnotfeelanycompunctionaboutexplainingScriptureinvariancewiththeRabbinicinterpretation,andsometimestheyevenwentsofarastodeclarethattheviewofthisorthatgreatauthoritywasonlytobeconsideredasanisolatedopinionnotdeservingparticularattention.Whattheydidblamewas,asalreadysaid,scoffingandimpiety.WemaythussafelyassertthatreverencefortheteachersofIsraelformedthethirdessentialprincipleofJudaism.[n.8]
IhavestilltoremarkthatthereoccurintheTalmudsuchpassagesas"theJew,evenifhehassinned,isstillaJew,"or"HewhodeniesidolatryiscalledaJew."TheseandsimilarpassageshavebeenusedtoprovethatJudaismwasnotapositivereligion,butonlyinvolvedthenegationofidolatry.Butithasbeenoverlookedthatthestatementsquotedhavemorealegalthanatheologicalcharacter.TheJewbelongedtohisnationalityevenafterhavingcommittedthegreatestsin,justastheEnglishmandoesnotceasetobeanEnglishman--inregardtotreasonandthelike--byhavingcommittedaheinouscrime.Buthehascertainlyactedinaveryun-Englishway,andhavingoutragedthefeelingsofthewholenationwillhavetosufferforhismisconduct.TheRabbisinasimilarmannerdidnotmaintainthathewhogaveupthebeliefinRevelationandResurrection,andtreatedirreverentlytheteach-[p.159]ersofIsrael,severedhisconnectionwiththeJewishnation,butthat,forhiscrime,hewasgoingtosuffertheheaviestpunishment.Hewastobeexcludedfromtheworldtocome.
Still,importantasisthepassagequotedfromSanhedrin,itwouldbeerroneoustothinkthatitexhaustedthecreedoftheRabbis.TheliturgyandinnumerablepassagesintheMidrashimshowthattheyardentlyclungtothebeliefintheadventoftheMessiah.AlltheirhopewasturnedtothefutureredemptionandthefinalestablishmentoftheKingdomofHeavenonearth.Judaism,strippedofthisbelief,wouldhavebeenforthemdevoidofmeaning.ThebeliefinrewardandpunishmentisalsorepeatedagainandagainintheoldRabbinicliterature.AmoreemphaticdeclarationofthebeliefinProvidencethanisconveyedbythefollowingpassagesishardlyconceivable."Everythingisforeseen,andfreewillisgiven.Andtheworldisjudgedbygrace."Or,"thebornaretodie,andthedeadtorevive,andthelivingtobejudged.Fortoknowandtonotify,andthatitmaybeknownthatHe(God)istheFramerandHetheCreator,andHetheDiscerner,andHethejudge,andHetheWitness,"etc.[n.9]
ButitmustnotbeforgottenthatitwasnotthehabitoftheRabbistolaydown,eitherforconductorfordoctrine,ruleswhichwerecommonlyknown.Whentheyurgedthethreepointsstatedabovetheremusthavebeensomehistoricalreasonforit.Probablytheseprincipleswerecontrovertedbysomeheretics.Indeed,thewholetoneofthepassagecitedfromSanhedrinisaprotestagainstcertainunbelieverswhoarethreatenedwithpunishment.Otherbeliefs,notlessessential,butlessdisputed,remain[p.160]unmentioned,becausetherewasnonecessitytoassertthem.
[TheCaraites]
Itwasnottillamuchlatertime,whentheJewscameintoclosercontactwithnewphilosophicalschools,andalsonewcreedswhichweremoreliablethanheathenismwastobeconfusedwithJudaism,thatthisnecessitywasfelt.AndthusweareledatoncetotheperiodwhentheJewsbecameacquaintedwiththeteachingsoftheMohammedanschools.TheCaraitescameveryearlyintocontactwithnon-Jewishsystems.AndsowefindthattheywerealsothefirsttoformulateJewishdogmasinafixednumber,andinasystematicorder.ItisalsopossiblethattheirseparationfromtheTradition,andtheirearlydivisionintolittlesectsamongthemselves,compelledthemtotakethisstep,inordertoavoidfurthersectarianism.
Thenumberoftheirdogmasamountstoten.AccordingtoJudahHadasi(150),whowouldappeartohavederivedthemfromhispredecessors,theirdogmasincludethefollowingarticles:
1. Creatioexnihilo;2. TheexistenceofaCreator,God;3. ThisGodisanabsoluteunityaswellasincorporeal;4. MosesandtheotherprophetsweresentbyGod;5. GodhasgiventoustheTorah,whichistrueandcompleteineveryrespect,notwantingtheadditionoftheso-calledOralLaw;
6. TheTorahmustbestudiedbyeveryJewintheoriginal(Hebrew)language;7. TheHolyTemplewasaplaceelectedbyGodforHismanifestation;8. Resurrectionofthedead;9. Punishmentandrewardafterdeath;10. TheComingoftheMessiah,thesonofDavid.
HowfarthepredecessorsofHadasiwereinfluencedbyacertainJosephAlbashir(about950),ofwhomthereexistsamanuscriptwork,"RudimentsofFaith,"Iamunableto[p.161]say.ThelittleweknowofhimrevealsmoreofhisintimacywithArabicthoughtsthanofhisimportanceforhissectinparticularandforJudaismingeneral.AfterHadasiIshallmentionhereElijahBashazi,aCaraitewriteroftheendofthefifteenthcentury.Thisauthor,whowasmuchinfluencedbyMaimonides,omitsthesecondandtheseventharticles.InordertomakeupthetenhenumbersthebeliefintheeternityofGodasanarticle,anddividesthefourtharticleintotwo.InthefiftharticleBashazidoesnotemphasizesostronglythecompletenessoftheTorahasHadasi,andomitstheportionwhichisdirectedagainstTradition.ItisinterestingtoseethedistinctionwhichBashazidrawsbetweenthePentateuchandtheProphets.WhilehethinksthatthefivebooksofMosescanneverbealtered,heregardsthewordsoftheProphetsasonlyrelatingtotheircontemporaries,andthussubjecttochanges.AsIdonotwanttoanticipateMaimonides'system,ImustrefrainfromgivingherethearticleslaiddownbySolomonTrokiinthebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury.ForthearticlesofMaimonidesarecopiedbythiswriterwithafewslightalterationssoastodresstheminaCaraitegarb.
ImustdismisstheCaraiteswiththesefewremarks,myobjectbeingchieflytodiscussthedogmasoftheSynagoguefromwhichtheyhadseparatedthemselves.Besides,asineverythingCaraitic,thereisnofurtherdevelopmentofthequestion.AsBashazilaidthemdown,theyarestilltaughtbytheCaraitesofto-day.IreturntotheRabbanites.[n.10]
[Saadiah]
Asiswellknown,Maimonides(1130-1205),wasthefirstRabbanitewhoformulatedthedogmasoftheSynagogue.Butthereareindicationsofearlierattempts.R.Saadiah[p.162]Gaon's(892-942)work,CreedsandOpinions,showssuchtraces.Hesaysinhispreface,"Myheartsickenstoseethatthebeliefofmyco-religionistsisimpureandthattheirtheologicalviewsareconfused."Thesubjectshetreatsinthisbook,suchas
creation,unityofGod,resurrectionofthedead,thefutureredemptionofIsrael,rewardandpunishment,
andotherkindredtheologicalsubjectsmightthus,perhaps,beconsideredastheessentialsofthecreedthattheGaondesiredtopresentinapureandrationalform.R.Hannaneel,ofKairowan,[n.11]inthefirsthalfoftheeleventhcentury,saysinoneofhiscommentariesthattodeserveeternallifeonemustbelieveinfourthings:
1. inGod,
2. intheprophets,3. inafutureworldwherethejustwillberewarded,4. andintheadventoftheRedeemer.
FromR.JudahHallevi'sCusari,writteninthebeginningofthetwelfthcentury,wemightarguethatthebeliefintheelectionofIsraelbyGodwasthecardinaldogmaoftheauthor.[n.12]AbrahamIbnDaud,acontemporaryofMaimonides,inhisbookTheHighBelief,[n.13]speaksofrudiments,amongwhich,besidessuchmetaphysicalprinciplesasunity,rationalconceptionofGod'sattributes,etc.,thebeliefintheimmutabilityoftheLaw,etc.,isincluded.Still,alltheseworksareintendedtofurnishevidencefromphilosophyorhistoryforthetruthofreligionratherthantogiveadefinitionofthistruth.ThelattertaskwasundertakenbyMaimonides.
[Maimonides]
Irefertothethirteenarticlesembodiedinhisfirstwork,TheCommentarytotheMishnah.TheyareappendedtotheMishnahinSanhedrin,withwhichIdealtabove.Butthoughtheydonotformanindependenttreatise,Maimonidesremarksmustnotbeconsideredasmerelyincidental.[p.163]ThatMaimonideswasquiteconsciousoftheimportanceofthisexpositioncanbegatheredfromtheconcludingwordsaddressedtothereader:
"Knowthese(words)andrepeatthemmanytimes,andthinkthemoverintheproperway.Godknowsthatthouwouldstbedeceivingthyselfifthouthinkestthouhastunderstoodthembyhavingreadthemonceorevententimes.Benot,therefore,hastyinperusingthem.Ihavenotcomposedthemwithoutdeepstudyandearnestreflection."
TheresultofthisdeepstudywasthatthefollowingThirteenArticlesconstitutethecreedofJudaism.Theyare:--
1. ThebeliefintheexistenceofaCreator;2. ThebeliefinHisUnity;3. ThebeliefinHisIncorporeality;4. ThebeliefinHisEternity;5. ThebeliefthatallworshipandadorationareduetoHimalone;6. ThebeliefinProphecy;7. ThebeliefthatMoseswasthegreatestofallProphets,bothbeforeandafterhim;8. ThebeliefthattheTorahwasrevealedtoMosesonMountSinai;9. ThebeliefintheImmutabilityofthisrevealedTorah;10. ThebeliefthatGodknowstheactionsofmen;11. ThebeliefinRewardandPunishment;12. ThebeliefinthecomingoftheMessiah;13. ThebeliefintheResurrectionofthedead.
Theimpulsegivenbythegreatphilosopherandstill,greaterJewwaseagerlyfollowedbysucceedinggenerations,andJudaismthuscameintopossessionofadogmaticliteraturesuchasitneverknewbeforeMaimonides.Maimonidesisthecentreofthisliterature,andIshallaccordinglyspeakintheremainderofthisessayofMaimonistsandAnti-Maimonists.ThesetermsreallyapplytothegreatcontroversythatragedroundMaimonidesGuideof[p.164]thePerplexed,butIshall,chieflyforbrevity'ssake,employtheminthesepagesinarestrictedsensetorefertothedisputeconcerningtheThirteenArticles.
AmongtheMaimonistswemayprobablyincludethegreatmajorityofJews,whoacceptedtheThirteenArticleswithoutfurtherquestion.MaimonidesmustindeedhavefilledupagreatgapinJewishtheology,agap,moreover,theexistenceofwhichwasverygenerallyperceived.AcenturyhadhardlyelapsedbeforetheThirteenArticleshadbecomeathemeforthepoetsoftheSynagogue.AndalmosteverycountrywhereJewslivedcanshowapoemoraprayerfoundedontheseArticles.R.JacobMolin(1420)ofGermanyspeaksofmetricalandrhymedsongsintheGermanlanguage,theburdenofwhichwastheThirteenArticles,andwhichwerereadbythecommonpeoplewith
greatdevotion.Thenumerouscommentariesandhomilieswrittenonthesametopicwouldformasmalllibraryinthemselves.[n.14]ButontheotherhanditmustnotbedeniedthattheAnti-Maimonists,thatistosaythoseJewishwriterswhodidnotagreewiththecreedformulatedbyMaimonides,oragreedonlyinpartwithhim,formalsoaverystrongandrespectableminority.Theydeserveourattentionthemoreasitistheirworkswhichbroughtlifeintothesubjectanddeepenedit.ItisnotbyaperpetualAmentoeveryutteranceofagreatauthoritythattruthorliteraturegainsanything.
[TheAnti-Maimonists]
TheAnti-Maimonistscanbedividedintotwoclasses.TheoneclasscategoricallydeniesthatJudaismhasdogmas.IshallhaveoccasiontotouchonthisviewwhenIcometospeakofAbarbanel.HereIpassatoncetothesecondclassofAnti-Maimonists.ThisconsistsofthosewhoagreewithMaimonidesastotheexistenceofdogmas[p.165]inJudaism,butwhodifferfromhimastowhatthesedogmasare,orwhogiveadifferentenumerationofthem.
AsthefirstoftheseAnti-MaimonistswemayregardNachmanides,who,inhisfamousSermoninthePresenceoftheKing,speaksofthreefundamentalprinciples:
Creation(thatis,non-eternityofmatter),OmniscienceofGod,andProvidence.
NextcomesR.AbbaMaribenMoses,ofMontpellier.Hewroteatthebeginningofthefourteenthcentury,andisfamousinJewishhistoryforhiszealagainstthestudyofphilosophy.Wepossessasmallpamphletbyhimdealingwithoursubject,anditformsakindofprologuetohiscollectionofcontroversiallettersagainsttherationalistsofhistime.[n.15]HelaysdownthreearticlesasthefundamentalteachingsofReligion:
1. Metaphysical:TheexistenceofGod,includingHisUnityandIncorporeality;2. Mosaic:CreatioexnihilobyGod--aconsequenceofthisprincipleisthebeliefthatGodiscapableofalteringthelawsofnatureatHispleasure;
3. Ethical:SpecialProvidence--i.e.,Godknowsallouractionsinalltheirdetails.
AbbaMaridoesnotmentionMaimonides'ThirteenArticles.ButitwouldbefalsetoconcludethatherejectedthebeliefinthecomingoftheMessiah,oranyotherarticleofMaimonides.Thewholetoneandtendencyofthispamphletispolemical,anditisthereforeprobablethatheonlyurgedthosepointswhichwereeitherdoubtedorexplainedinanunorthodoxwaybythescepticsofhistime.
Anotherscholar,ofProvence,whowrotebuttwentyyearslaterthanAbbaMari--R.DavidbenSamueld'Estella(1320)--speaksofthesevenpillarsofreligion.Theyare:
Revelation,Providence,RewardandPunishment,[p.166]theComingoftheMessiah,ResurrectionoftheDead,Creatioexnihilo,andFreeWill.[n.16]
Ofauthorsliving,inothercountries,IhavetomentionhereR.Shemariah,ofCrete,whoflourishedataboutthesametimeasR.Davidd'Estella,andisknownfromhiseffortstoreconciletheCaraiteswiththeRabbanites.ThisauthorwroteabookforthepurposeoffurnishingJewishstudentswithevidenceforwhatheconsideredthefivefundamentalteachingsofJudaism,viz.:
1. TheExistenceofGod;
2. TheIncorporealityofGod;3. HisAbsoluteUnity;4. ThatGodcreatedheavenandearth;5. ThatGodcreatedtheworldafterHiswill5106yearsago--5106(1346A.C.),beingtheyearinwhichShemariahwrotethesewords.[n.17]
InPortugal,ataboutthesametime,wefindR.DavidbenYom-TobBiliaaddingtothearticlesofMaimonidesthirteenofhisown,whichhecallsthe"FundamentalsoftheThinkingMan."Fiveofthesearticlesrelatetothefunctionsofthehumansoul,that,accordingtohim,emanatedfromGod,andtothewayinwhichthisdivinesoulreceivesitspunishmentandreward.Theothereightarticlesareasfollows:
1. Thebeliefintheexistenceofspiritualbeings--angels;2. Creatioexnihilo;3. Thebeliefintheexistenceofanotherworld,andthatthisotherworldisonlyaspiritualone;4. TheTorahisabovephilosophy;5. TheTorahhasanoutward(literal)meaningandaninward(allegorical)meaning;6. ThetextoftheTorahisnotsubjecttoanyemendation;7. Therewardofagoodactionisthegoodworkitself,andthedoermustnotexpectanyotherreward;8. Itisonlybythe"commandsrelatingtotheheart,"forinstance,thebeliefinoneeternalGod,thelovingandfearingHim,and[p.167]notthroughgoodactions,thatmanattainsthehighestdegreeofperfection.[n.18]
Perhapsitwouldbesuitabletomentionhereanothercontemporaneouswriter,whoalsoenumeratestwenty-sixarticles.Thenameofthiswriterisunknown,andhisarticlesareonlygatheredfromquotationsbylaterauthors.ItwouldseemfromthesequotationsthatthearticlesofthisunknownauthorconsistedmostlyofstatementsemphasisingthebeliefintheattributesofGod:as,HisEternity,HisWisdomandOmnipotence,andthelike.[n.19]
Moreimportantforoursubjectaretheproductionsofthefifteenthcentury,especiallythoseofSpanishauthors.ThefifteenarticlesofR.LipmanMuhlhausen,intheprefacetohiswell-knownBookofVictory[n.20](1410),differbutslightlyfromthoseofMaimonides.Inaccordancewiththeanti-Christiantendencyofhispolemicalbook,helaysmorestressonthetwoarticlesofUnityandIncorporeality,andmakesofthemfour.Wecanthereforedismisshimwiththisshortremark,andpassatoncetotheSpanishRabbis.
[Chasdai]
ThefirstoftheseisR.ChasdaiIbnCrescas,whocomposedhisfamoustreatise,TheLightofGod,about1405.Chasdai'sbookiswellknownforitsattacksonAristotle,andalsoforitsinfluenceonSpinoza.ButChasdaidealsalsowithMaimonides'ThirteenArticles,towhichhewasverystronglyopposed.AlreadyinhisprefaceheattacksMaimonidesforspeaking,inhisBookoftheCommandments,ofthebeliefintheexistenceofGodasan"affirmativeprecept."Chasdaithinksitabsurd;foreverycommandmentmustbedictatedbysomeauthority,butonwhoseauthoritycanwedictatetheacceptanceofthisauthority?HisgeneralobjectiontotheThirteenArticles[p.168]isthatMaimonidesconfoundeddogmasorfundamentalbeliefsofJudaism,withoutwhichJudaismisinconceivable,withbeliefsordoctrineswhichJudaisminculcates,butthedenialofwhich,thoughinvolvingastrongheresy,doesnotmakeJudaismimpossible.HemaintainsthatifMaimonidesmeantonlytocountfundamentalteachings,therearenotmorethanseven;butthatifheintendedalsotoincludedoctrines,heoughttohaveenumeratedsixteen.Asbeliefsofthefirstclass--namely,fundamentalbeliefs--heconsidersthefollowingarticles:
1. God'sknowledgeofouractions;2. Providence;3. God'somnipotence--eventoactagainstthelawsofnature;4. Prophecy;5. Freewill;6. TheaimoftheTorahistomakemanlongaftertheclosestcommunionwithGod.
ThebeliefintheexistenceofGod,Chasdaithinks,isanaxiomwithwhicheveryreligionmustbegin,andheisthereforeuncertainwhethertoincludeitasadogmaornot.AstothedoctrineswhicheveryJewisboundtobelieve,butwithoutwhichJudaismisnotimpossible,Chasdaidividesthemintotwosections:(a)
1. Creatioexnihilo;2. Immortalityofthesoul;3. RewardandPunishment;4. Resurrectionofthedead;5. ImmutabilityoftheTorah;6. SuperiorityoftheprophecyofMoses;7. ThattheHighPriestreceivedfromGodtheinstructionssoughtfor,whenheputhisquestionsthroughthemediumoftheUrimandThummim;
8. ThecomingoftheMessiah.
(b)Doctrineswhichareexpressedbycertainreligiousceremonies,andonbeliefinwhichtheseceremoniesareconditioned:
1. ThebeliefintheefficacyofprayeraswellasinthepowerofthebenedictionoftheprieststoconveytoustheblessingofGod;
2. Godismercifultothepenitent;3. Certaindaysintheyear--forinstance,[p.169]theDayofAtonement--areespeciallyqualifiedtobringusneartoGod,ifwekeeptheminthewaywearecommanded.
ThatChasdaiisalittlearbitraryinthechoiceofhis"doctrines,"Ineedhardlysay.Indeed,Chasdai'simportanceforthedogma-questionconsistsmoreinhiscriticalsuggestionsthaninhispositiveresults.Hewas,aswehaveseen,thefirsttomakethedistinctionbetweenfundamentalteachingswhichformthebasisofJudaism,andthoseothersimpleJewishdoctrineswithoutwhichJudaismisnotimpossible.Verydaringishisremark,whenprovingthatRewardandPunishment,Immortalityofthesoul,andResurrectionofthedeadmustnotbeconsideredasthebasisofJudaism,sincethehighestidealofreligionistoserveGodwithoutanyhopeofreward.EvenmoredaringarehiswordsconcerningtheImmutabilityoftheLaw.Hesays:"Somehavearguedthat,sinceGodisperfection,somustalsoHislawbeperfect,andthusunsusceptibleofimprovement."Buthedoesnotthinkthisargumentconclusive,thoughthefactinitself(theImmutabilityoftheLaw)istrue.ForonemightanswerthatthisperfectionoftheTorahcouldonlybeinaccordancewiththeintelligenceofthoseforwhomitwasmeant;butassoonastherecipientsoftheTorahhaveadvancedtoahigherstateofperfection,theTorahmustalsobealteredtosuittheiradvancedintelligence.ApupilofChasdaiillustratesthewordsofhismasterbyamedicalparallel.Thephysicianhastoadapthismedicamentstothevariousstagesthroughwhichhispatienthastopass.Thathechangeshisprescriptiondoesnot,however,implythathismedicalknowledgeisimperfect,orthathisearlierremedieswereignorantlychosen;thevaryingconditionoftheinvalidwasthecauseofthevariation[p.170]inthedoctor'streatment.Similarly,werenottheImmutabilityoftheToraha"doctrine,"onemightmaintainthattheperfectionoftheTorahwouldnotbeinconsistentwiththeassumptionthatitwassusceptibleofmodification,inaccordancewithourchangingandprogressivecircumstances.Butalltheseargumentsarepurelyofatheoreticcharacter;for,practically,everyJew,accordingtoChasdai,hastoacceptallthesebeliefs)whetherhetermsthemfundamentalteachingsoronlyJewishdoctrines.[n.21]
Someyearslater,thoughhefinishedhisworkinthesameyearasChasdai,R.SimeonDuran(1366-1444,)ayoungercontemporaryoftheformer,madehisresearchesondogmas.HisstudiesonthissubjectformakindofintroductiontohiscommentaryonJob,whichhefinishedintheyearI405.DuranisnotsostronglyopposedtotheThirteenArticlesasChasdai,orasanother"thinkerofourpeople,"whothoughtthemanarbitraryimitationofthethirteenattributesofGod.DurantriestojustifyMaimonides;butneverthelessheagreeswith"earlierauthorities,"whoformulatedtheJewishcreedinThreeArticles--TheExistenceofGod,Revelation,andRewardandPunishment--underwhichDuranthinkstheThirteenArticlesofMaimonidesmaybeeasilyclassed.Mostinterestingarehisremarksconcerningthevalidityofdogmas.Hetellsusthatonlythosearetobeconsideredas
hereticswhoabidebytheirownopinions,thoughtheyknowthattheyarecontradictorytotheviewsoftheTorah.ThosewhoacceptthefundamentalteachingsofJudaism,butareledbytheirdeepstudiesandearnestreflectiontodifferindetailsfromtheopinionscurrentamongtheirco-religionists,andexplaincertainpassages[p.171]intheScriptureintheirownway,mustbynomeansbeconsideredasheretics.Wemust,therefore,Duranproceedstosay,notblamesuchmenasMaimonides,whogaveanallegoricalinterpretationtocertainpassagesintheBibleaboutmiracles,orR.LevibenGershom,whofollowedcertainun-JewishviewsinrelationtothebeliefinCreatioexnihilo.Onlytheviewsarecondemnable,notthosewhocherishthem.Godforbid,saysDuran,thatsuchathingshouldhappeninIsraelastocondemnhonestinquirersonaccountoftheirdifferingopinions.ItwouldbeinterestingtoknowofhowmanydivinesastolerantasthispersecutedJewthefifteenthcenturycanboast.[n.21]
[Albo]
Wecannowpasstoamorepopularbutlessoriginalwriteronourtheme.IrefertoR.JosephAlbo,theauthoroftheRoots,[n.23]whowasthepupilofChasdai,ayoungercontemporaryofDuran,andwroteatamuchlaterperiodthantheseauthors.Graetzhasjustlydeniedhimmuchoriginality.ThechiefmeritofAlboconsistsinpopularisingotherpeople'sthoughts,thoughhedoesnotalwaystakecaretomentiontheirnames.AndthestudentwhoisalittlefamiliarwiththecontentsoftheRootswilleasilyfindthatAlbohastakenhisbestideaseitherfromChasdaiorfromDuran.Asitisoflittleconsequencetouswhetheranarticleoffaithiscalled"stem,"or"root,"or"branch,"thereisscarcelyanythingfreshlefttoquoteinthenameofAlbo.ThelateDr.Low,ofSzegedin,wasindeedright,whenheansweredanadversarywhochallengedhim--"WhowoulddaretodeclaremeahereticaslongasIconfesstheThreeArticleslaiddownbyAlbo?"withthewords"Albohimself."For,afterallthesubtledistinctionsAlbomakesbetween[p.172]differentclassesofdogmas,hedeclaresthateveryonewhodenieseventheimmutabilityoftheLaworthecomingoftheMessiah,whichare,accordingtohim,articlesofminorimportance,isahereticwhowillbeexcludedfromtheworldtocome.Butthereisonepointinhisbookwhichisworthnoticing.ItwassuggestedtohimbyMaimonides,indeed;stillAlbohasthemeritofhavingemphasiseditasitdeserves.Amongthearticleswhichhecalls"branches"Albocountsthebeliefthattheperfectionofman,whichleadstoeternallife,canbeobtainedbythefulfillingofonecommandment.Butthiscommandmust,asMaimonidespointsout,bedonewithoutanyworldlyregard,andonlyfortheloveofGod.WhenoneconsidershowmanyplatitudesarerepeatedyearbyyearbycertaintheologiansonthesubjectofJewishlegalism,wecannotlayenoughstressonthisarticleofAlbo,andweoughttomakeitbetterknownthanithashithertobeen.[n.24]
ThoughIcannotenterhereintotheenumerationoftheMaimonists,ImustnotleaveunmentionedthenameofR.NissimbenMosesofMarseilles,thefirstgreatMaimonist,whoflourishedabouttheendofthethirteenthcentury,andwasconsideredasoneofthemostenlightenedthinkersofhisage.[n.25]AnothergreatMaimonistdeservingspecialattentionisR.AbrahambenShem-TobBibago,whomayperhapsberegardedasthemostprominentamongthosewhoundertooktodefendMaimonidesagainsttheattacksofChasdaiandothers.BibagowroteThePathofBelief[n.26]inthesecondhalfofthefifteenthcentury,andwas,asDr.Steinschneideraptlydescribeshim,aDenkglaubiger.But,aboveall,hewasabelievingJew.Whenhewasonceasked,atthetableofKing[p.173]JohnII.,ofAragon,byaChristianscholar,"AreyoutheJewishphilosopher?"heanswered,"IamaJewwhobelievesintheLawgiventousbyourteacherMoses,thoughIhavestudiedphilosophy."BibagowassuchadevotedadmirerofMaimonidesthathecouldnottolerateanyoppositiontohim.Hespeaksinonepassageoftheprudentpeopleofhistimewho,indesiringtobelookeduponasorthodoxbythegreatmob,calumniatedtheTeacher(Maimonides),anddepreciatedhismerits.Bibago'sbookisveryinteresting,especiallyinitscontroversialparts;butinrespecttodogmasheis,asalreadysaid,aMaimonist,anddoesnotcontributeanynewpointonoursubject.
ToreturntotheAnti-Maimonistsofthesecondhalfofthefifteenthcentury.AssuchmaybeconsideredR.IsaacAramah,whospeaksofthreefoundationsofreligion:
Creatioexnihilo,Revelation(?),andthebeliefinaworldtocome.[n.27]
NexttobementionedisR.JosephJabez,whoalsoacceptsonlythreearticles:
Creatioexnihilo,IndividualProvidence,andtheUnityofGod.[n.22]
UnderthesethreeheadshetriestoclassifytheThirteenArticlesofMaimonides.
[Abarbanel]
ThelastSpanishwriteronoursubjectisR.IsaacAbarbanel.HistreatiseonthesubjectisknownunderthetitleTopofAmanah[n.29]andwasfinishedintheyear1495.ThegreatestpartofthistreatiseformsadefenceofMaimonides,manypointsinwhicharetakenfromBibago.But,inspiteofthisfact,AbarbanelmustnotbeconsideredaMaimonist.ItisonlyafeelingofpietytowardsMaimonides,orperhapsratherafondnessforargument,thatmadehimdefendMaimonidesagainstChasdaiandothers.Hisownviewisthatitisamistake[p.174]toformulatedogmasofJudaism,sinceeverywordintheTorahhastobeconsideredasadogmaforitself.Itwasonly,saysAbarbanel,byfollowingtheexampleofnon-JewishscholarsthatMaimonidesandotherswereinducedtolaydowndogmas.Thenon-Jewishphilosophersareinthehabitofacceptingineverysciencecertainindisputableaxiomsfromwhichtheydeducethepropositionswhicharelessevident.TheJewishphilosophersinasimilarwaysoughtforfirstprinciplesinreligionfromwhichthewholeoftheTorahoughttobeconsideredasadeduction.But,thinksAbarbanel,theTorahasarevealedcodeisundernonecessityofdeducingthingsfromeachother,forallthecommandmentscamefromthesamedivineauthority,and,therefore,arealikeevident,andhavethesamecertainty.OnthisandsimilargroundsAbarbanelrefusedtoaccceptdogmaticarticlesforJudaism,andhethisbecametheheadoftheschoolthatformsaclassbyitselfamongtheanti-MaimoniststowhichmanyofthegreatCabbalistsbelong.ButitisidletalktocitethisschoolinaidofthemoderntheorythatJudaismhasnodogmas.Aswehaveseen,itwasratheranembarrasderichesthatpreventedAbarbanelfromacceptingtheThirteenArticlesofMaimonides.TohimandtotheCabbaliststheTorahconsistsofatleast613Articles.
Abarbanelwrotehisbookwithwhichwehavejustdealt,atNaples.AnditisItalytowhich,aftertheexpulsionoftheJewsfromSpain,wehavetolookchieflyforreligiousspeculation.ButthephilosophersofItalyarestilllessindependentofMaimonidesthantheirpredecessorinSpain.ThuswefindthatR.DavidMesserLeon,R.DavidVital,andotherswereMaimonists.
[Delmedigo]
[p.175]Eventheotherwiserefinedandoriginalthinker,R.ElijahDelmedigo(whodiedabouttheendofthefifteenthcentury)becomesalmostimpolitewhenhespeaksoftheadversariesofMaimonidesinrespecttodogmas."Itwasonly,"hesays,"thewould-bephilosopherthatdaredtoquestionthearticlesofMaimonides.Ourpeoplehavealwaysthebadhabitofthinkingthemselvescompetenttoattackthegreatestauthoritiesassoonastheyhavegotsomeknowledgeofthesubject.Genuinethinkers,however,attachverylittleimportancetotheirobjections."[n.30]
Indeed,itseemsasiftheenergeticprotestsofDelmedigoscaredawaytheAnti-Maimonistsformorethanacentury.EveninthefollowingseventeenthcenturywehavetonoticeonlytwoAnti-Maimonists.TheoneisR.Tobijah,thePriest(1652),whowasofPolishdescent,studiedinItaly,andlivedasamedicalmaninFrance.HeseemstorefusetoacceptthebeliefintheImmutabilityoftheTorah,andinthecomingoftheMessiah,asfundamentalteachingsofJudaism.[n.31]Theother,attheendoftheseventeenthcentury(1695),isR.AbrahamChayimViterbo,ofItaly.Heacceptsonlysixarticles:
1. ExistenceofGod;2. Unity;3. Incorporeality;
4. ThatGodwasrevealedtoMosesonMountSinai,andthattheprophecyofMosesistrue;5. Revelation(includingthehistoricalpartsoftheTorah);6. RewardandPunishment.
AstotheotherarticlesofMaimonides,Viterbo,inoppositiontootherhalf-heartedAnti-Maimonists,declaresthatthemanwhodeniesthemisnottobeconsideredasaheretic;thoughheoughttobelievethem.[n.32]
IhavenowarrivedatthelimitIsettomyselfatthebeginningofthisessay.For,betweenthetimesof[p.176]ViterboandthoseofMendelssohn,thereishardlytobefoundanyseriousoppositiontoMaimonidesworthnoticinghere.StillImustmentionthenameofR.SaulBerlin(died1794);thereismuchinhisopinionsondogmaswhichwillhelpusthebettertounderstandtheThirteenArticlesofMaimonides.Asthereaderhasseen,IhaverefrainedsofarfromreproducingheretheapologieswhichweremadebymanyMaimonistsinbehalfoftheThirteenArticles.For,afteralltheirelaboratepleas,noneofthemwasabletoclearMaimonidesofthechargeofhavingconfoundeddogmasorfundamentalteachingswithdoctrines.ItisalsotruethattheFifthArticle--thatprayerandworshipmustonlybeofferedtoGod--cannotbeconsideredevenasadoctrine,butasasimpleprecept.AndthereareotherdifficultieswhichallthedistinctionsoftheMaimonistswillneverbeabletosolve.Theonlypossiblejustificationis,Ithink,thatsuggestedbyaremarkofR.Saul.Thisauthor,whowashimself--likehisfriendandoldercontemporaryMendelssohn--astrongAnti-Maimonist,amongotherremarks,maintainsthatdogmasmustneverbelaiddownbutwithregardtothenecessitiesofthetime.[n.33]
NowR.SaulcertainlydidnotdoubtthatJudaismisbasedoneternaltruthswhichcaninnowaybeshakenbynewmodesofthinkingorchangedcircumstances.Whathemeantwasthatthereareineveryagecertainbeliefswhichoughttobeassertedmoreemphaticallythanothers,withoutregardtotheirtheologicalorratherlogicalimportance.ItisbythismaximthatweshallbeabletoexplainthearticlesofMaimonides.Heassertedthem,becausetheywerenecessaryforhistime.
[p.177]Weknow,forinstance,fromaletterofhissonandfromothercontemporaries,thatitwasjustathistimethatthebeliefintheincorporealityofGodwas,intheopinionofMaimonides,alittlerelaxed.Maimonides,whothoughtsuchlownotionsoftheDeitydangeroustoJudaism,thereforelaiddownanarticleagainstthem.HetellsusinhisGuidethatitwasfarfromhimtocondemnanyonewhowasnotabletodemonstratetheIncorporealityofGod,buthestigmatisedasahereticonewhorefusedtobelieveit.Thispositionmightbeparalleledbythatofamodernastronomerwho,whileconsideringitunreasonabletoexpectamathematicaldemonstrationofthemovementsoftheearthfromanordinaryunscientificman,wouldyetregardthepersonwhorefusedtobelieveinsuchmovementsasanignorantfaddist.
Again,MaimonidesundoubtedlyknewthattheremaybefoundintheTalmud--thatbottomlessseawithitsinnumerableundercurrents--passagesthatarenotquiteinharmonywithhisarticles;forinstance,thewell-knowndictumofR.Hillel,whosaid,thereisnoMessiahforIsrael--apassagewhichhasalreadybeenquotedadnauseambyeveryopponentofMaimonidesfromtheearliesttimesdowntotheyearofgrace1896.Maimonideswaswellawareoftheexistenceofthisandsimilarpassages.But,beingdeeplyconvincedofthenecessityofthebeliefinafutureredemptionofIsrael--inoppositiontoothercreedswhichclaimthisredemptionexclusivelyfortheirownadherents--MaimonidessimplyignoredthesayingofR.Hillel,asanisolatedopinionwhichcontradictsalltheconsciousnessandtraditionsoftheJewasexpressedinthousandsofotherpassages,and[p.178]especiallyintheliturgy.MostinterestingisMaimonides'viewaboutsuchisolatedopinionsinalettertothewisemenofMarseilles.Hedealstherewiththequestionoffreewillandothertheologicalsubjects.Afterhavingstatedhisownviewhegoesontosay:
"IknowthatitispossibletofindintheTalmudorintheMidrashthisorthatsayingincontradictiontotheviewsyouhaveheardfromme.Butyoumustnotbetroubledbythem.Onemustnotrefusetoacceptadoctrine,thetruthofwhichhasbeenproved,onaccountofitsbeinginoppositiontosomeisolatedopinionheldbythisorthatgreatauthority.Isitnotpossiblethatheoverlookedsomeimportantconsiderationswhenheutteredthisstrangeopinion?Itisalsopossiblethathiswordsmustnotbetakenliterally,andhavetobeexplainedinanallegoricalway.Wecanalsothinkthathiswords
wereonlytobeappliedwithregardtocertaincircumstancesofhistime,butneverintendedaspermanenttruths....Nomanmustsurrenderhisprivatejudgment.Theeyesarenotdirectedbackwardsbutforwards."
InanotherplaceMaimonidescallsthesuppressionofone'sownopinionsforthereasonoftheirbeingirreconcilablewiththeisolatedviewsofsomegreatauthority--amoralsuicide.
BysuchmotivesMaimonideswasguidedwhenheleftcertainviewshazardedintheRabbinicliteratureunheeded,andfollowedwhatwemayperhapscallthereligiousinstinct,trustingtohisownconscience.WemayagainbecertainthatMaimonideswasclear-headedenoughtoseethatthewordsoftheTorah:"AndtherearosenoprophetsinceinIsraellikeuntoMoses"(Deut.xxxiv.10),wereaslittleintendedtoimplyadoctrineasthepassagerelatingtothekingJosiah,"Andlikeunto[p.179]himwastherenokingbeforehimthatturnedtotheLordwithallhisheart...neitherafterhimarosethereanylikehim"(2Kingsxxiii.25).AndnonewouldthinkofdeclaringthemanahereticwhoshouldbelieveanotherkingtobeaspiousasJosiah.Butlivingamongfollowersofthe"imitatingcreeds"(ashecallsChristianityandMohammedism),whoclaimedthattheirreligionhadsupersededthelawofMoses,Maimonides,consciouslyorunconsciously,felthimselfcompelledtoassertthesuperiorityoftheprophecyofMoses.AndsowemayguessthateveryarticleofMaimonideswhichseemstoofferdifficultiestouscontainsanassertionofsomerelaxedbelief,oraprotestagainstthepretensionsofothercreeds,thoughwearenotalwaysabletodiscovertheexactnecessityforthem.Ontheotherhand,Maimonidesdidnotassertthebeliefinfreewill,forwhichhearguedsoearnestlyinhisGuide.Thecommon"man,"withhissimpleunspeculativemind,forwhomtheseThirteenArticleswereintended,"neverdreamedthatthewillwasnotfree,"andtherewasnonecessityofimpressingonhismindthingswhichhehadneverdoubted.[n.34]
SomuchaboutMaimonides.AstotheAnti-Maimonists,itcouldhardlyescapethereaderthatinsomeofthequotedsystemsthedifferencefromtheviewofMaimonidesisonlyalogicalone,notatheological.Ofsomeauthorsagain,especiallythoseofthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,itisnotatallcertainwhethertheyintendedtoopposeMaimonides.Othersagain,asforinstanceR.AbbaMari,R.Lipman,andR.JosephJabez,actedonthesameprincipleasMaimonides,urgingonlythoseteachingsofJudaismwhichtheythoughtendangered.Onecouldnow,indeed,animatedbythepraiseworthyexam-[p.180]plesgiventousbyMaimonides,alsoproposesomearticlesoffaithwhicharesuggestedtousbythenecessitiesofourowntime.Onemight,forinstance,insertthearticle,"IbelievethatJudaismis,inthefirstinstance,adivinereligion,notamerecomplexofracialpeculiaritiesandtribalcustoms."OnemightagainproposeanarticletotheeffectthatJudaismisaproselytisingreligion,havingthemissiontobringaboutGod'skingdomonearth,andtoincludeinthatkingdomallmankind.Onemightalsosubmitforconsiderationwhether,itwouldnotbeadvisabletourgealittlemoretheprinciplethatreligionmeanschieflyaWeltanschauungandworshipofGodbymeansofholinessbothinthoughtandinaction.OnewouldevennotobjecttoacceptthearticlelaiddownbyR.Saul,thatwehavetolookuponourselvesassinners.Morbidassuchabeliefmaybe,itwould,ifproperlyimpressedonourmind,haveperhapsthewholesomeeffectofcoolingdownalittleourselfimportanceandourmutualadmirationthatmakesallprogressamongusalmostimpossible.
ButitwasnotmypurposetoventilateherethequestionwhetherMaimonides'articlesaresufficientforus,orwhetherweoughtnottoaddnewonestothem.NordoIattempttodecidewhatsystemweoughttopreferforrecitationintheSynagogue--thatofMaimonidesorthatofChasdai,orofanyotherwriter.Idonotthinkthatsucharecitalisofmuchuse.MyobjectinthissketchhasbeenrathertomakethereaderthinkaboutJudaism,byprovingthatitregulatesnotonlyouractions,butalsoourthoughts.WeusuallyurgethatinJudaismreligionmeanslife;butweforgetthatalifewithoutguidingprinciplesandthoughtsisaLifenotworthliving.At[p.181]leastitwassoconsideredbythegreatestJewishthinkers,andhencetheireffortstoformulatethecreedofJudaism,sothatmenshouldnotonlybeabletodotherightthing,butalsotothinktherightthing.WhethertheysucceededintheirattemptstowardsformulatingthecreedofJudaismornotwillalwaysremainaquestion.Thisconcernsthelogicianmorethanthetheologian.ButsurelyMaimonidesandhissuccessorsdidsucceedinhavingareligiondependingdirectlyonGod,withthemostidealandloftyaspirationsforthefuture;whilsttheJudaismofagreatpartofourmoderntheologiansremindsoneverymuchofthewordswithwhichtheauthorofMariusthe
EpicureancharacterisestheRomanreligioninthedaysofherdecline:areligionwhichhadbeenalwayssomethingtobedoneratherthansomethingtobethought,orbelieved,orloved.
Politicaleconomy,hygiene,statistics,areveryfinethings.ButnosanemanwouldforthemmakethosesacrificeswhichJudaismrequiresfromus.ItisonlyforGod'ssake,tofulfilHiscommandsandtoaccomplishHispurpose,thatreligionbecomesworthlivinganddyingfor.Andthiscanonlybepossiblewithareligionwhichpossessesdogmas.
Itistruethateverygreatreligionis"aconcentrationofmanyideasandideals,"whichmakethisreligionabletoadaptitselftovariousmodesofthinkingandliving.Buttheremustalwaysbeapointroundwhichalltheseideasconcentratethemselves.ThiscentreisDogma.
