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Client–Consultant Interaction

The Client-Consultant Interaction in Professional Business Service Firms:

Outline of the Interpretive Model and Implications for Consulting

Timothy Devinney*

Natalia Nikolova**

*Professor Centre for Corporate Change, AGSM

** PhD Student, University of Cologne and Researcher Centre for Corporate Change,

AGSM

The University of New South Wales,

Gate 11, Botany Street, Randwick NSW 2031

Australia

May 2004, Draft version

Abstract

In this paper, we analyse and seek to understand the complex relations that occur between

clients and consultants during consulting projects. The paper uses ideas from Schön’s model

of the “reflective practitioner” to propose a new model conceptualising the client-consultant

team as a community of interpretive communities. We show that client and consultant be-

long to different interpretive communities, and have, thus, difficulties to understand each

other and share knowledge. An effective knowledge transfer and creation between client and

consultant presupposes that the involved actors reflect on their own interpretations and per-

spectives on topics and share them with others. This is a process of translation between dif-

ferent interpretive communities that often enables new worldviews and simultaneously cre-

ates power positions within the client-consultant team. Thus, we extend Schön’s model and

embed it into a broader theoretical framework, proposing a more sophisticated picture of the

client-consultant interaction.

Keywords: management consulting, client-consultant interaction, interpretive communities,

knowledge transfer and creation.

The authors would like to thank Stewart Clegg, Markus Reihlen, John Stuckey and Ivo

Zander for their valuable comments on this paper. The financial support by the German

Ministry of Education and Research (research grant 01HW0168) is also acknowledged.

Client-Consultant Interaction

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I. Introduction

Professional business service firms are one of the most dynamic and advanced industries in

the modern economy. Throughout the last several decades most professional business ser-

vices, such as those provided by management and engineering consultants, lawyers, ac-

countants, advertising agencies and market research firms, have gained increased economic

significance in all advanced economies. But the post-dot.com economic slowdown hit them

hard: they experienced a significant decrease in their growth and an increase in the number

of potential clients expressing doubts about the value of their services (Prakash and Sam-

wick, 2003). As Ashford (1998: xvi) suggests, increasingly “clients are concerned that con-

sultants are pushing standardised solutions rather than really listening to the issues and being

guided accordingly”. Some authors predict that, due to the gap between actual consulting

solutions and increasing and “unserviceable” client’s demands for innovative solutions, cli-

ent’s dissatisfaction will continue to rise (e.g., Czarniawska, 1999), making the client-

consultant relationship more difficult to sustain. As the client-consultant relationship is es-

sential to professional service firms (Schön, 1983), it is important to discern the real nature

of the client-consultant interaction, what makes the interaction successful, and how should it

be designed.

Prior research has focused on the client-consultant relationship as a client-expert interac-

tion (Schein, 1987, 1988; Abbott, 1988; Kubr, 1996) and as a symbolic interaction (Clark,

1995; Clark and Salaman 1998a,b; Alvesson, 1993, 2001). We argue that both views stress

single features of the client-consultant interaction without recognising its multidimensional

and complex character. Reviewing contemporary research on consultancy projects, Engwall

and Kipping (2002) conclude that the interaction process between consultants and their cli-

ents is still poorly understood, perhaps because, as Hislop (2002: 657) claims, “the nature of

the client-consultant relationship and the role of the client firm shaping this relationship has

tended to remain neglected and unexplored.” Fosstenlokken et al. (2003: 868) call for further

investigation into the nature of client relationships and the role clients play in the knowledge

creation process in professional service firms — a suggestion that is all the more relevant as

learning through project work becomes considered as “the most important source of knowl-

edge development” in consulting firms.

Recently, researchers have directed their attention to the interpretive and multi-layered

character of consulting work. Fincham and Clark (2002) argue that interpretation—about

whether knowledge is needed (whether the client has a problem), what kind of problem the

client has, how to apply and create knowledge with this particular client and how to make


3

sure that change occurred—is the basis of consulting expertise. Kipping and Armbrüster

(2002) stress that the “otherness” of consultants—the fact that consultants are outsiders to

the client organization and therefore their knowledge, their work methods, and language

differs from the client’s—can be a considerable burden for a successful interaction with the

client and may prevent consultants from being involved more intimately in the client’s busi-

ness.

Early on Schön (1983) recognised that the “otherness” of professionals and the nature of

their expertise required an analytic view on the client-consultant interaction as a “reflective

conversation” with the client. Drawing upon Schön’s model and using ideas from organisa-

tional learning approaches, actor-network theory, and Foucault, this paper addresses the cli-

ent-consultant interaction in a new theoretical framework. It is argued that client’s and con-

sultant’s knowledge are embedded in communities of interpretation, and knowledge creation

and transfer takes place within such communities (Brown and Duguid, 1991). Because there

has been little discussion in the literature about the interaction between separate communi-

ties and the difficulties of sharing knowledge across boundaries and reaching synthesis (Be-

chky, 2003), the concept of interpretive communities has to be expanded to allow for a bet-

ter understanding of the interaction process between consultant and client.

By applying the concept of interpretive communities, we show that clients and consult-

ants may have problems in understanding each other’s language (Carter et al., 2004). Con-

sequently, within their interaction there is a problem of translation: knowledge transfer and

creation will only occur if the individuals involved in the interaction process learn to share

their understandings and to develop new meanings to familiar topics. Whose perspective

will build the basis of the problem solution when there are several interpretations is depend-

ent on the power or “interpretive dominance” of each community, which is constructed

through discourse (Callon, 1986; Meindl et al., 1994). Thus, we argue that the translation of

different interpretations is simultaneously always also a mechanism of power (Foucault,

1972; Clegg, 1989, 2001).

We will focus on critical success factors and provide a more realistic portrait of the cli-

ent-consultant interaction than current accounts. In addition, we will outline some practical

implications for managing the interaction process and the customer-service provider inter-

face, providing assistance to both consultants and managers to their attempt to improve co-

operation. In section II, after a short remark to the two traditional models of client-

consultant interaction in the literature, Schön’s model is introduced as a more promising

foundation for a new understanding of the client-consultant relationship and main implica-


4

tions are shown. In section III, a new theoretical framework is introduced and its main char-

acteristics and general implications will be discussed. Section IV draws the themes of the

paper together and reiterates the main points.

II. The Client-Consultant Interaction: Basic models

Two basic models dominate the existing literature on the client-consultant interaction. Fig-

ure 1 summarises the main propositions of these models and presents Schön’s model, which

is the basis for the new framework that will be discussed later in Section III (see for a more

comprehensive discussion of the existing models on client-consultant interaction Devinney

and Nikolova, 2004).

Insert Figure 1 Here

Earlier research on the consulting industry regards the client-consultant relationship as a

client-expert interaction. The consultant as an expert identifies a client’s problem and trans-

fers knowledge in the form of a problem solution while “remaining an objective and neutral

advocate of best practice” (Alvesson and Johansson, 2002: 235). This literature is primarily

concerned with the role of consultants as a vehicle for increasing the effectiveness of the

client organization in a planned collaborative intervention process (Fincham and Clark,

2002; Kubr, 1996). However, there has been growing critic on this model from both re-

searcher and practice. It is been agued, that the model presents consulting as a unidirectional

gathering and processing of information rather than as a real interaction (McGivern and

Fineman, 1983; Daft and Huber, 1987). The client-consultant communication is seen as an

error-free process of message sending and message receiving through transmission channels

(Boland and Tenkasi, 1995; Daft and Huber, 1987). Empirical research shows that especially

in unfamiliar situations this model does not enable learning between clients and consultants

(McGivern and Fineman, 1983; Kitay and Wright, 2003) because of the absence of under-

standing and reflection between the involved individuals (Schön, 1983). Thus, the generated

solutions are often standardised and do not account sufficiently for the needs of the particu-

lar client (Ashford, 1988). Client’s dissatisfaction with this kind of consulting is the reason

why a growing number of researchers have doubts that the traditional research stream deals

with the right problem. In the more critical literature on management consulting, it is argued

that the real contribution of consultants is not in creating and transferring knowledge to the

client but rather in making managers, who often are overstretched to respond to increasing


5

external pressures and demands, feel more secure in their role as a modern manager (Clark

and Salaman, 1998a). It is argued that the nature of consulting knowledge is inherently am-

biguous and slippery (e.g. Alvesson, 1993, 2001; Clark, 1995) and is subject to fashions

(Jackson, 2002; Kieser, 1997) and that clients are sometimes left with the impression that

they have paid for stories and images rather than real solutions (e.g. Clark and Salaman,

1996a, 1998a). Although the model pays attention to one important task of a successful con-

sulting, the creation of image and positive client expectations, which is ignored in the expert

model, it concentrates to much on the symbolic character of consulting work and results and

ignores the fact that the cooperation of both parties generates tangible, valuable and rational

outputs. It does not take much effort to question why, if there were no direct benefits for

companies and management from engaging management consultants other than what

amounted to mere rhetoric, how managers could justify the huge sums invest in contracting

with consultants. Similarly, how is the large growth of consulting companies to be explained

in a world with strong governance and demands for cost control? A recent empirical study

on the long-term effects of hiring management consultants contradicts the critical model by

showing that, over the long term, the investment in consulting projects yields positive finan-

cial and organizational returns to companies (Prakash and Samwick, 2003).

To sum up, although the traditional research stream regards knowledge transfer as crucial

for the success of the client-consultant interaction, the more heretical approach suppresses

the question of knowledge creation and transfer and argues that the active management of

client’s expectations is more important. Both views stress single features of the client-

consultant relationship without recognizing its multidimensional and complex character.

Thus, it can be concluded that both models do not ultimately explain the real nature of the

client-consultant interaction. They both suggest a consulting centric view on the client-

consultant relationship rather that an interactive one. As every managerial decision requires

some interaction between the involved individuals, these models do not tell us what makes

the client-consultant cooperation successful.

Table 1 summarises the main conclusions of the models regarding the nature of consult-

ing knowledge and knowledge asymmetry between client and consultant, as well as the

knowledge transfer process and power aspects in the client-consultant team. It further high-

lights major differences to the models we present in what follows.

Insert Table 1 Here


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The ‘Reflective Practitioner’ Model

The problems with the previous two models and their failing to give a satisfactory picture of

the client-consultant cooperation implies that a different concept of the client-consultant

interaction is required if we are to understand this industry adequately. Schön (1983, 1987),

provide such a portrait, conceptualising the client-consultant interaction as a reflective con-

versation between clients and consultants.

Schön’s model of consulting practice is centred on the nature of consulting knowledge.

He claims that there are two types of consulting expertise—knowing-in-action and reflec-

tion-in-action—and that both of them are “embedded in the socially and institutionally struc-

tured context shared by a community of practitioners” (1987: 33). This context includes the

body of professional knowledge, the appreciative system, and frames of a particular com-

munity of practice, which serve as the source of rules and procedures routinely applicable

when solving familiar problems. However, in unfamiliar situations, where there is no obvi-

ous fit between the characteristics of the situation and the available body of theories and

techniques, new rules and new knowledge are created through reflection-in-action (Schön

1983, 1987).1 During this process, based on a “repertoire of story types, interpretive expla-

nations, examples, images and actions”, consultants focus on certain details of the problem

while leaving others in the background, thus framing the problem in a particular way (Schön

1983: 125). Through the framing of the problem they produce unintended changes, which

give the situation new meanings. In this way, consultants yield new discoveries, which re-

quire new reflection-in-action. “The process spirals through stages of appreciation, action,

and reappreciation.” (Schön 1983: 132). Consultants build gradually from their perception of

the client’s problem toward an interpretive synthesis congruent with their fundamental val-

ues and theories.

Because both knowing-in-action and reflection-in-action are tied to the body of profes-

sional knowledge, as well as to the appreciative system and role frames of a particular com-

munity of practitioners, it follows, that consulting and professional knowledge in general

represents just one way of looking at topics, one possible interpretation of problems. Fur-

thermore, Schön (1987: 36) emphasizes that consulting knowledge is “constructed” as a re-

sult of individual actions embedded in a social context: through “countless acts of attention

and inattention, naming, sensemaking, boundary setting, and control” community members

make and maintain the world matched to their professional knowledge, appreciative systems

1 Reflection is the ability to reflect on the own intuitive knowing (knowing-in-action) in the midst of action and is con-cerned with double-loop and triple-loop forms of learning (Argyris and Schön 1996; Raelin 2001).


7

and role frames. “They have, in short, a particular, professional way of seeing their world

and a way of constructing and maintaining the world as they see it” (Schön 1987: 36).

Because “both client and professional bring to their encounter a body of understandings

which they can only very partially communicate to one another and much of which they

cannot describe to themselves” (Schön 1983: 296), the communication between parties to a

consulting project is very difficult and requires intensive interaction. Schön sees the solution

as open and minimally defensive interaction where both client and consultant commit to

having their positions and interpretations confronted and tested and both are open to the re-

ciprocal exploration of risky ideas. Thus, the reflective practitioner model emphasizes that

clients need to function as reflective practitioners as well; they should “develop a new kind

of skill in asking questions” and “cultivate competence in reflective conversation with the

professional” (Schön, 1983: 301-302). Without the exchange of perspectives, consultant’s

expertise will remain a black box for the client.

Consequently, the relationship between client and consultant is more balanced and is

based on the demystification of expertise and on mutual exploration. Schön views both con-

sultants and clients as powerful and interdependent. Their power arises from the fact that

both parties make valuable contributions to the problem solving process. Consultants are

now expected to reflect, in the presence of clients, on their expertise, thus making them-

selves confrontable by their clients rather than keeping their expertise private and mysteri-

ous, which is the case in the expert model (Schön, 1983). By abdicating their unquestioned

authority and the comfort of relative invulnerability they gain access to a new type of inter-

action, one of discovery and self-reflection. On the other side of the relationship, clients

agree to join the consultant in the problem solving process and to work to make their knowl-

edge and experience clear to themselves and to the consultants. The relationship becomes

equilibrated as both parties give and receive help (Schön, 1983).

The reflective practitioner model is a first attempt at creating a more realistic and thor-

ough picture of consulting and professional practice in general. Compared to the expert and

the critical models, it is a broader elaboration of knowledge creation in a professional prac-

tice taking into account that different individuals “frame problematic situations in different

ways” (Schön, 1987: 4). People will see problems in the same way if they share the same

appreciative system and body of explicit knowledge; e.g. if they belong to the same commu-

nity. Thus, Schön realises that there are different communities with different views on topics

and different interpretations on problematic situations. Hence, there are “multiple ways of

framing the practice role, each of which entrains a distinctive approach to problem setting


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and solving” (Schön, 1983: 41). This has several implications for the reflective concept of a

professional practice: First, problems are not “given” as in the case of the expert model, but

rather constructed in a process of reflection-in-action. Second, professional knowledge can-

not be reduced to an objective commodity; it is rather a way of looking at topics, which was

once constructed and can be reconstructed. Thus, this view of knowledge is contradictory

both to the expert model, where knowledge is regarded as an objective reality, and to the

critical model, where the existence of a professional body of knowledge is denied. Third,

because clients belong to different communities, they will have a different view on the prob-

lem setting and solving than consultants. Hence, there is knowledge pluralism in the consult-

ing company as well as in the client-consultant relationship, which requires both clients and

consultants to reflect on their interpretations and frames and share them with the other if

there are to work effectively together. Furthermore, only through reflection-in-action con-

sultants can handle unfamiliar situations and create new knowledge.

The reflective practitioner model is a first step to a more sophisticated view of the cli-

ent-consultant interaction but one that is limited. For example, perhaps the most compre-

hensive limitation is that even Schön himself sees serious constraints in its application

across the broad spectrum of client-consultant interactions. Because of the “different de-

mands on competence, and the different sources of satisfaction that are presented both to the

professional and to the client” (Schön, 1983: 298), he argues that it should be applied only in

cases when the client’s problem is of sufficient importance. In emergent or routine situations

a consulting type as proposed in the expert model would be more appropriate.

In addition, the model is underspecified. Schön mentions the existence of different com-

munities of practitioners but does not discuss their nature and the process of their emer-

gence, which is why he still regards the expert model as the appropriate consulting model in

situations where clients’ problems are familiar. What is problematic is that both Schön’s,

and the expert model, are based on different assumptions about the nature of knowledge and

knowledge transfer and creation. Further, the reflective practitioner model recognises that

because consultants participate in different communities, as do clients, there are differences

in their framing and naming of problems, which, because both perspectives are legitimate,

“may not be objectively resolvable”. Schön does not offer a solution for how these differ-

ences can be overcome: the “resolution of such differences depends on the little-understood

ability of inquirers to enter into one another’s appreciative systems and to make reciprocal

translations from one to the other” (Schön, 1983: 273). Thus, the model fails to explain the

process of translation and to show exactly how the communication between client and con-


9

sultant can be improved. Furthermore, although Schön provides a very promising view of

knowledge creation, he still describes it as a consulting centric process where clients play no

role. He views consultants and clients as interdependent, and their roles as interchangeable,

so that mutual learning takes place, but does so without an accounting of the role that power

aspects play in the client-consultant relationship.

To summarize, the reflective practitioner model presents a different view of the client-

consultant interaction, stressing the need for a reflective interaction between clients and con-

sultants. It provides a promising starting point for a more sophisticated discussion of the

client-consultant cooperation. However, his model remains too broad and unspecific and his

suggestions do not pay sufficient attention to the interactive character of knowledge transfer

and creation in consulting. Schön’s model needs a further development, which we will pro-

vide in the following model.

III. The ‘Interpretive’ Model

The ‘interpretive’ model puts the client-consultant interaction in a new theoretical frame-

work. Drawing on Schön’s ideas it is argued that the origins of the different understandings

of client and consultant and the difficulties with knowledge transfer can be found in the exis-

tence of different interpretive communities. Here we view the consultant as a reflective prac-

titioner with a body of knowledge based on abstract concepts, theories (a technological body

of knowledge) and experiences, and conceptualise knowledge transfer as a learning or re-

flective process within, and between, interpretive communities. The idea of interpretive

communities is related to the concepts of communities of practice (Brown and Duguid,

1991; Wenger, 1998) and communities of knowing (Boland and Tenkasi, 1995). The inter-

pretive model emphasises that stories and rhetoric, both as instruments for knowledge trans-

fer and creation and as means of altering one’s power position in the relationship, have an

important role to play in the success of any client-consultant interaction. This model pays

special attention to the power questions in the client-consultant relationship and shows that

knowledge and power are eng related and enforce each other.

Nature of knowledge and interpretive communities

Similarly to Schön’s notion that “a professional knowing-in-action is embedded in the so-

cially and institutionally structured context shared by a community of practitioners” (1987:

33), our model is based on the assumption that knowledge resides in people’s minds and is

the result of individual’s cognitive processes, which are embedded in a social context. As

Tsoukas and Vladimirou (2003: 979) define it—“knowledge is the individual ability to draw


10

distinctions within a collective domain of action, based on an appreciation of context or the-

ory, or both”, where the context can be interpreted as “a collectively generated and sustained

domain of action” (2003: 977) or “a language-mediated domain of sustained interactions

(2003: 978), and “to engage in collective work is to engage in a discursive practice” (2003:

978). It follows that knowledge is created and transferred within socio-culturally constituted

interpretive communities or discursive practices through an ongoing process of interaction

between individuals (Empson, 2001; Bechky, 2003; Reihlen, 2003). It is neither aggregated

from individual cognitive processes nor does it originates entirely within social processes as

argued in the critical model. In the following we discuss the nature of interpretive communi-

ties and the process of their emergence.

Interpretive communities

The starting point for the concept of interpretive communities is the view of organisations as

dispersed or distributed knowledge systems. A firm’s knowledge is distributed between dif-

ferent individuals; no single mind owns the totality of relevant knowledge (Boland and

Tenkasi, 1995; Tsoukas, 1996). Moreover, “…all articulated knowledge is based on an unar-

ticulated background, a set of subsidiary particulars which are tacitly integrated by individu-

als” (Tsoukas, 1996: 17; see also Boland and Tenkasi, 1995).

People construct their understanding2 out of a range of aspects like ambient social and

physical circumstances, as well as histories and social relations to other people (Schön,

1983, 1987). In a process of interaction individuals with similar interpretive positions build

a specific worldview or perspective. This is a learning process through which conceptual

frameworks are aligned and shared meaning and understanding is formed. It is a spontane-

ous process emerging from the usually informal networking between individuals (Swan et

al., 2002). Thus, an interpretive community reproduces itself through shaping individuals,

yet individuals transform it as well (Hanks, 2002; Reihlen and Ringberg, 2003). As indi-

viduals become aware of how their thoughts are guided by such frameworks they can start to

choose between them (Reihlen and Ringberg, 2003). In this way different interpretive com-

munities evolve. Organizations are a plurality of intersecting and competing communities or

communities-of-communities (Brown and Duguid, 1991; Fox, 2000).

Interpretive communities are not stable; they are not a “fixed system of positions” (Clegg,

2001: 135). At any point in time, individuals access a number of different interpretive posi-

tions through which they make sense of an incidence or topic (Reihlen and Ringberg, 2003).

2 The terms “perspective”, “meaning” and “understanding” are used interchangeably throughout this paper.


11

Thus, when persons or groups switch from one interpretive position to another, their per-

spectives, preferences and dispositions will change (DiMaggio, 1997). Also, when newcom-

ers access the community or the environment conditions within which it is embedded

change, the shared meanings of the community can, and generally will, be transformed

(Brown and Duguid, 1991). It follows that large-scale, more-or-less simultaneous frame

switches by many independent actors may cause large-scale changes in interpretive commu-

nities (DiMaggio, 1997) and whole organisations. Thus, organizations should be seen “in

terms of the infinite play of differences that discourse constitutes” (Clegg, 2001: 135).

Accordingly, client’s and consultant’s organisation as well as the client-consultant team

are communities of interpretive communities, which means that there will be always differ-

ent perspectives and frames in regard to any particular situation. As Schön (1983) points out,

only if client’s and consultant’s learn to reflect on their own understanding and to share it

with other, will they be able to work effectively on problem solution. In the following, the

process of sharing each other’s interpretations is discussed.

Knowledge transfer

Because people participate in multiple interpretive communities they will have problems in

understanding one another fully. For example, when looking at the same phenomenon mem-

bers of different communities will not only see different solutions to the same problem but

may see quite different problems from what appear to be similar conditions. In this sense,

problems do not have an objective existence; they are defined and constructed in the interac-

tion process (McGivern and Fineman, 1983; Behrens and Delfmann, 2002). Arguments that

persuade their own community convincingly may have little or no weight in other communi-

ties (Boland and Tenkasi, 1995). Thus, communities may have problems in understanding

each other’s language, much of which “might be perceived as pure noise” (Clegg et al.,

2004: 38). Schön (1983: 271) argues that members of interpretive communities develop a

“feel for the media and languages of their practices”, which is why they “cannot convey the

art of [their] practice to a novice merely by describing […] or even demonstrating [their]

ways of thinking”. Similarly, Tushman (1977: 591) points out, the “inherent conceptual and

linguistic differences [between specialized communities] act as communication impedance

or as a communication boundary hindering the free flow of information.” Schein (1996: 18)

concludes that organizations will not learn effectively until they “recognize and confront the

implications” of the existence of different interpretive communities. Weick (1979) notes that

managers will be more effective when they are able to generate several interpretations and

understandings of organisational events so that the variety in their understanding is equiva-


12

lent to the variety in the situation. Thus, for knowledge transfer to take place between differ-

ent interpretive communities, it is not sufficient to enable an open and minimally defensive

interaction between members of different communities, as Schön (1983) suggests. Rather, it

is necessary to span the boundary between interpretive communities and to establish and

sustain connections amongst these communities to enable knowledge transfer (Wenger,

1998).

Knowledge transfer is possible only between interpretive communities where some con-

ceptual frameworks are shared. Sociologists talk in this case about “aligning actions” (e.g.,

Stokes and Hewitt, 1976), which occurs in situations where some minimal degree of shared

understanding about the nature of the exchange and the rules governing it among different

communities is necessary (Donnellon et al., 1986). Members of different communities will

take organised action despite holding different interpretations of common experience if they

share “a repertoire of behavioural options that members of a given society recognize, re-

spond to, and use to interact with one other” (Donnellon et al., 1986: 44). The shared reper-

toire of communication behaviours leads to a development of so-called “equifinal” mean-

ings—dissimilar interpretations with similar behavioural implications. To create alignment

amongst different communities is not “a case of deciding which one has the right viewpoint,

but of creating enough mutual understanding among them to evolve solutions that will be

understood and implemented” (Schein, 1996: 17). Fiol (1994) argues that meaning is not a

one-dimensional construct. She discusses two meaning dimensions: content and frame.

While content defines what is expressed, framing is reflected in how something is expressed.

Thus meaning resides not only in the content of communications, but in the framing or lan-

guage of communications as well. “‘Framing’ refers to the way people construct their argu-

ment or viewpoint, regardless of its content” (Fiol, 1994: 405). The way communications are

framed (e.g., broad, flexibly-framed or narrow, rigidly-framed arguments) carries important

meanings in collective decision processes. Fiol argues that learning can occur also in the

absence of shared meaning (regarding the content) when people converge around a frame

that is broad enough to encompass the differences in their interpretations.

Figure 2 illustrates schematically the discussion about knowledge transfer between

matching interpretive communities. We are presenting some concrete mechanisms for un-

derstanding and sharing of meanings later.



13

According to these arguments, the following hypothesis [H1] is proposed:

H1: The emergence of shared meanings, shared conceptual frameworks and a shared

repertoire of communications behaviors will be positively associated with the transfer of

knowledge within the client-consultant team.

At the same time it is clear that if there is a high variety of perspectives in the client-

consultant team, and the members of the team are not able or not willing to find ways to

share and make clear to each other their different interpretations, knowledge transfer will be

inhibited.

Malefyt (2003) emphasises another important aspects of a shared language: the way in-

sights are communicated and presented to the client is vital for creating connections. For the

case of advertising agencies he argues “by presenting proprietary models that engage social

interaction and by expressing ideas in a language that evokes shared emotion, the agency

hopes to draw the client deeper into long-term relations of affinity” (Malefyt, 2003: 144).

Therefore, “shared language” is important not only for knowledge transfer between clients

and consultants but it is also the precondition for the creation of long-term relationships with

the client. He further argues that activities such as model-building and figurative stories en-

sure the right impression of competency while creating a closer affinity between service

provider and client.

Knowledge creation

Existing knowledge structures the way people use information (DiMaggio, 1997). Thus, to

create new knowledge, people need to critically reflect on their knowledge and reframe it, or

as to use Schön’s words, to engage in a “reflective conversation” (1983: 130). Psychologists

note that such critically and reflexively thinking, called deliberative cognition, takes place

when: (1) people face a problem, (2) they are motivated to search for new solutions because

they are dissatisfied with the status quo, and (3) the existing schemata (or knowledge) fail to

account adequately for the new problem (DiMaggio, 1997). Tsoukas (2003) argues as well

that knowledge is created through stimulating the capability of individuals to draw new dis-

tinctions and to develop new meanings to familiar topics. Furthermore, “the individual will

re-arrange his/her knowledge while being located somewhere—certain standpoint or tradi-

tion. Accordingly, the capacity to exercise judgement involves two things. First the ability of

an individual to draw distinctions and, secondly, the location of an individual within a col-

lectively generated and sustained domain of action” (Tsoukas and Vladimirou, 2001: 977). It

follows that knowledge creation takes place in a context of different discursive practices or


14

interpretive communities. Thus, we emphasise that the knowledge creation process in client-

consultant teams does not happen independent of the client. Rather, exactly through a dy-

namic interaction and an intensive sharing of perspectives between different interpretive

communities it is possible for both client and consultant to reflect on their own knowledge

and to reframe their perspectives. In this way new knowledge is created and established

practices can be disrupted and transformed (Boland and Tenkasi, 1995). Malefyt (2003: 159)

argues that the interaction process between clients and advertisers, for example in the form

of a workshop, including making models and metaphors, and finding facts and figures is

“more of a process of invention than one of any actual representation of consumer culture”.

Innovation-related research shows as well that communication across boundaries supports

innovations (e.g., Tushman, 1977). Thus, we share Clegg et al.’s (2004) viewpoint that con-

sultants serve as a source of “noise” in clients’ organizations that disrupt established ways of

doing and being. “Consulting practice produces and, then introduces, new language, decon-

structing and disturbing established orders of discourse, translating and mediating between

new and old languages and metaphors” (Clegg et al., 2004: 36). Because of its very nature as

a mix of interpretive communities, consulting companies can be effective by increasing the

variety and complexity of interpretations within the client organization. Also, through the

introduction of new “language” and perspectives, consultants can change the way thinking is

conventionally organized (Otzel and Hinz, 2001). We argue here that clients can play a simi-

lar role in changing the way consultants work. Thus, the relationship becomes a process of

mutual disruption and transformation. Consulting companies are aware that they need the

exchange of perspectives with external partners if they want to remain successful. As John

Stuckey, a director in McKinsey’s Sydney office puts it into words “We have to be beware

of the trap that many large successful companies have fallen into by becoming too intro-

verted, too satisfied with their own view of the world” (cited in Bartlett, 2000: 9). Thus,

consultancies actively search for innovative clients to work with in the hope that they will

get insights into different and novel, emerging perspectives and share new knowledge. In

this way they function as interpretive or knowledge brokers (Hargadon and Sutton, 1997;

Hargadon, 1998) or “cultural intermediary” (Carter et al., 2004). Therefore, the client-

consultant interaction becomes a source for knowledge creation for both clients and consult-

ants. This is how one consultant from the Boston Consulting Group expresses it: “We have

enormous opportunity to innovate in the consulting business because our clients represent an

almost limitless laboratory” (George Stalk Jr, BCG, cited in Biswas and Twitchell, 1999:

70).


15

To sum up, the dynamic interaction and an intensive sharing of perspectives between dif-

ferent interpretive communities will enhance their ability to reflect on their own knowledge

and to reframe their perspectives. As a result, new knowledge is created. Hence, based on

these arguments, the following hypothesis [H2] is proposed:

H2: A variety of perspectives and interpretations within the client-consultant team will be

positively associated with the creation of new knowledge and innovative problem solu-

tions.

It is clear that to be able to use this variety of perspectives in the problem solving process,

clients and consultants need first to make sure that they share their interpretations. Joint

knowledge creation without knowledge transfer is not possible. Furthermore, sharing of

meaning involves translation, and translation always combines difference and repetition at

the same time, and as such, it is a productive and creative process (Clegg, et al., 2004) ena-

bling knowledge creation. If, however, in the process of sharing of perspectives and inter-

pretations the differences between members of the client-consultant team start to blur, and

the conformity of interpretations increases, the effect of such wide sharing and internalizing

of others perspectives on knowledge creation could turn negative. This is usually the case

when clients and consultants work for a longer time together. This question, however, is

beyond the scope of this paper.

The knowledge transfer and creation process

Before some mechanisms for sharing of interpretations are discussed, the process of

knowledge transfer and creation within the client-consultant team is illustrated in the follow-

ing figure 3. The following steps are suggested.

1. Beginning with a discussion of the problem in a familiar way for the client’s members

shows them the legitimacy of their own perspective;

2. Using different visualization methods (or boundary objects) to point out different as-

pects/decompositions of the problem; and

3. Stimulating the client’s members to generate their own solution paths. This makes them

conscious, creative members of the problem-solving process and offers more information to

the consultant. This enables the consultant team to offer different insights into the problem,

and through this activity, both parties start to share meanings, reflect upon, evaluate, and

validate community procedures in a collaborative process.



16

Malefyt (2003) confirms studying the service delivery process in advertising agencies

that the sequence of the knowledge creation process is anything but smooth and continuous.

He found out that the process is one that progresses in jumps and starts, from inspirational

meetings to setbacks. “Brilliant strategies are created only to be altered later to accommo-

date the wishes of contentious clients, rushed deadlines or legal restrictions” (Malefyt, 2003:

139). Not infrequently strategies are dropped altogether in mid development and new ones

taken up.

Mechanisms for understanding and sharing perspectives

Schein (1996: 19) claims that in order to enable “cross-cultural dialogues” it is important to

establish some communications that stimulates “mutual understanding rather mutual blame”.

Furthermore “the understanding of what it takes to create effective dialogues is itself coming

to be better understood” (Schein, 1996: 19). As we showed, Schön’s suggestions to enable

an open and minimally defensive interaction are not sufficient to explain, how is mutual

understanding achieved. In the following, we seek to overcome this shortcoming by intro-

ducing some important mechanisms for enhancing sharing of perspectives and reciprocal

translations.

Thus, before introducing the different mechanisms, the following hypothesis [H3] is pro-

posed:

H3: The intensive use of different mechanisms for understanding and sharing of perspec-

tives within the client-consultant team will be positively associated with the development

of shared meanings and a common language, and thus with knowledge transfer.

Construction of boundary objects. The ability to share a perspective with others pre-

supposes that one’s interpretation—either in the case of an individual or as that of an inter-

pretative community—is made visible for self-reflection. Such a visible representation can

become a boundary object and provides a basis for sharing knowledge with others. Star

(quoted in Wenger, 1998: 106) defines a boundary object as one that serves to coordinate the

perspectives of various communities for some purpose. Such objects could be artefacts (such

as cause and narrative maps, labels, physical models, or diagrams), concepts, and encoded

information and other forms of reification (Wenger, 1998; see also Raelin, 1997). Because a

boundary object belongs, to some degree, to multiple communities, it is a nexus of perspec-

tives. Thus, each community has only partial control over the interpretation of the object

(Wenger, 1998). Moreover, boundary objects possess a kind of symbolic adequacy that en-

ables conversation without recourse to commonly shared meanings (Boland and Tenkasi,


17

1995). Bechky (2003) shows that in a high technology manufacturing company tangible

definitions, such as machine parts, were often necessary to overcome misunderstandings and

enable knowledge transfer. In larger management consultancies there is specific training for

the consultants where they learn different techniques to visualise and structure their argu-

ments and thoughts according to prescribed models and frameworks. This facilitates their

work during consulting projects but also serves to enforce a desired conformity, something

viewed as particularly valuable when dealing with global clients. The main contribution of

such broad methods and tools (different templates, process phases, general descriptions of a

sequence of activities) used in consulting firms is their “ability to provide a common frame-

work and terminology for the consultant’s work process” (Werr and Stjernberg, 2003: 896).

The authors state further that these tools are an “important facilitator of interaction between

consultants, which in turn was referred to by individual consultants as the most important

vehicle for learning” (p. 896). Creplet et al. (2001: 1527) argue as well that such tools that

enable codification of knowledge allow, “the spanning across cultural and managerial

boundaries through the setting of a sort of meta-language or meta-code”. Indeed, all large

consultancies have instituted structured IT-based knowledge management systems that seek

to provide standard toolkits and sharing of project experience (see, e.g., Weeks and Galunic,

2001; Barlett, 2000) aimed specifically at creating a standard look and feel even to the most

exclusive firms.

Computer-mediated knowledge transfer within consulting companies is effective, how-

ever, only in transferring more general knowledge (i.e. broad concepts, methods and tools).

As Reihlen and Ringberg (2004) show, it cannot effectively capture and diffuse more spe-

cific expertise. The main reason for this failure is that consulting companies are communi-

ties of interpretive communities, and tools, designed during specific client’s projects, en-

hance learning only within the interpretive community where they are created (Reihlen and

Ringberg, 2004). Project groups working on specific client problems develop site-specific,

local knowledge, and not involved individuals have difficulties in recognizing and applying

such situated knowledge (Sole and Edmondson, 2002). Bechky (2003) points out as well

that boundary objects are not effective in every situation and tangible definitions will not

always be sufficient to create a common ground for understanding. For example, when cli-

ents do not have an access to the general methods and tools available to the consultants, the

use of general consulting definitions and tools can make the client-consulting interaction

more difficult. Thus, the difficulty associated with many consultancies in third world coun-

tries is sometimes related to the client’s failure to understand rudimentary managerial


18

knowledge. Wong (2001) argues that this is the main reason for the serious problems of

McKinsey with a client in China.3 Therefore, members of different interpretive communities

can assess each other’s interpretations or to understand specific artefacts created through

others only through direct communication because it enables the sharing of mental models

(Reihlen and Ringberg, 2004).

Another negative is that prescribed methods and tools may have a standardizing effect on

the consultant’s interpretations “by dictating the range and interpretation of experiences

made” (Werr and Stjernberg, 2003: 900). For example, many consultants feel that structured

knowledge management systems have the impact of potentially creating “homogenized foot

solders” as consultants fail to span newer and different interpretative communities. Both of

these points highlight the importance of sharing and explaining of techniques and methods

to members of other interpretive communities. Furthermore, it is important to reflect on ex-

isting methods and tools and to adapt them. Often, differences between interpretive commu-

nities can be overcome only through the involvement of individuals as broker of meanings.

The role of brokering. Not all connections between interpretative communities evolve

through boundary objects. People who transfer between different communities can under-

stand differences in the interpretations and make them clear to the other members of these

groups. Wenger calls this transfer of some elements of one practice into another “brokering”

(Wenger, 1998). A common feature of the relationship of a community with the outside,

brokering creates an indirect relation between people or communities where no direct rela-

tions exists.4 People who act as brokers or gatekeepers (e.g. Tushman, 1977) possess social

capital (Burt, 1992, 1997) and social capital predicts that the return to an individual’s human

capital depends on that individual’s location within, and between, communities.

Burt sees the main value of brokering in connecting people who possess different infor-

mation and in the entrepreneurial value that this bridging creates (Burt, 1997). Wenger

(1998) emphasises the complex nature of brokering—the new connections across communi-

ties that enable understanding and open new possibilities of meaning. This is not simply

transfer of information but involves processes of translation, coordination and alignment

between perspectives. Brokers also cause learning by introducing into a community ele-

ments of another. Tushman (1997: 591) sees in the development of special boundary roles

3 Start Computer Group executives, in a nationwide TV interview, linked the company’s losses in two years in a row to advice from McKinsey (Wong, 2001).

4 Burt (1992) calls such disconnected social clusters “structural holes” and Granovetter (1973) “weak ties”.


19

“one way to deal with the difficulties of communication across…boundaries” and empha-

sizes the need of specialized gatekeepers, as generally there will be several communities that

have to be connected. Werr and Stjernberg (2003) argue that in consulting companies bro-

kering is the most important way of transferring knowledge.

Thus, brokering requires “enough legitimacy to influence the development of a [commu-

nity], mobilize attention, and address conflicting interests” (Wenger, 1998: 109). It is espe-

cially difficult because brokering involves multi membership in communities while, at the

same time, some isolation from the rest of the community, which Wenger calls “uprooted-

ness” (Wenger, 1998: 110).

The extensive literature on boundary spanners (e.g., Tushman, 1981) implies that certain

individuals seem to be more able and successful as brokers than others. Tushman (1981)

found out that brokers have more work-related competence and experience and higher for-

mal status than non-brokers. Bartunek, et al. (1983) argue that people who have developed

greater cognitive complexity are more capable than others of applying several different per-

spectives, thus acting as brokers. Cognitive complexity is characterised through differentia-

tion—“the ability to perceive several dimensions in a stimulus array”—and integration—

“the development of complex connections among the differentiated characteristics” (Bar-

tunek et al, 1983). Other important characteristics, Bartunek et al. (1983) discuss, are the

capacity for understanding others, capacity of introspection and self-awareness, ability to

build interpersonal relationships and increasingly broad views of society and social issues.

All facets of cognitive complexity increase the ability to gain “interpretive dominance” over

others, which can lead to advantages for the person in a broker position.

The following table presents some important mechanisms for sharing of interpretations

and their function.

Insert Table 2 Here

Power relations

Acknowledging the existence of different interpretive communities and the importance of

both consultant’s and client’s interpretations for the problem solving process, the interpre-

tive model does not imply that consultants are more powerful than clients. Rather it advo-

cates mutually dependency, which leads to natural questions about the balancing of the rela-

tionship. In this section, we will discuss the following questions: How is it decided whose

interpretation is better regarding a specific problem? How do involved individuals win ac-


20

ceptance for their definition and representation of a problem and for particular solutions?

Thus, we expand the reflective practitioner model to include some implications of power for

the client-consultant interaction.

Unlike the critical and expert models, where power is conceptualized as a possession of

one person (or a group of persons) who dominate and constrain others, the interpretive

model views power as a social construct that is both a product of collective activity and the

medium by which it is developed and enhanced (Clegg, 1989; Blackler, 2000; Contu and

Willmott, 2003b). “Power is expressed in and through disciplinary practices and in and

through struggles against or in resistance to such practices” (Clegg, 1989: 109). Thus, fol-

lowing a Foucauldian view on power we argue that power relations and interests amongst

groups and actors are dependent on knowledge, or in Clegg and Palmer’s terms (1996: 4) on

the “recipes” in use. These authors regard the formation and accumulation of knowledge that

makes the translation of different interpretations possible as simultaneous mechanisms of

power—“power makes knowledge as knowledge makes power” (Clegg and Palmer, 1996:

5). Malefyt (2003: 153) shows that for the case of advertising agencies power resides not in

the possession of raw information about consumers and brands, but in “the way in which the

meaning of that information is presented, understood and interpreted for the client”. Thus,

interpretive communities or “discursive practices” (Foucault, 1972; Clegg, 1989, 2001) ef-

fectively constitute power. Some of these practices will have greater power than other: “If

we treat organizations as communities of practice, we will find that some communities at-

tempt to enrol, or betray, the others” (Fox, 2000: 863). When partially fixed meanings or

interpretations occur power is at work. Historically, power is “the apparent order of taken

for granted categories of existence fixed and represented in myriad discursive forms and

practices” (Clegg, 2001: 138; see also Foucault, 1972).

So how do people sharing a specific interpretation achieve a “partial fix” of their view?

Whereas “the notion of interpretive dominance conceptualises a belief system as an active

arena, where interest groups…compete to impose their preferred psychological order onto

nonbelievers” (Meindl et al., 1994: 291), how do they gain “interpretive dominance” over

others? How does the process of enforcing one’s own perspective in a discourse with others

evolve? Callon’s (1986) four steps or “moments of translation”5 are a useful concept to ex-

plain the mechanism of power emergence between interpretive communities. First, in the

stage of problem formulation members of an interpretive community define a problem in a

5 Here we are not going to discuss actor network theory (ANT); rather we use some of its basic concepts to illustrate our model. See Callon and Latour (1981) and Callon (1986) for a more extensive discussion.


21

way that other can recognize it as their problem as well, and these set of actors indicate that

they have a solution for the shared problem. For example, Bloomfield and Best (1992) show

how IT consultants use managerial discourse to establish themselves as an “obligatory pas-

sage point” (Bloomfield and Best, 1992: 544; see, also, Callon, 1986: 204) in the eyes of

clients and reinforce their perspective on a situation or a problem as the “right one”.

Through discursive moves consultants challenge client’s definition of a problem and trans-

late it by appealing on their knowledge and experience of similar situations. In a second

step, consultants lock members of the client team into the role or identity they defined for

them (Callon talks about “interessement”) by building an interpretation or a story that at-

tempts to interrupt all potential competing interpretations. Thus, a successful “interesse-

ment” confirms the validity of the problem formulation and the proposed role for the client.

In the third phase, which Callon calls “enrolment”, a process of multilateral negotiations

between consultants and members‘ of the client team takes place during which the identity

of the actors is determined and tested. This is the phase in which the proposed course of ac-

tion is carried out (Fox, 2000). The fourth phase, the “mobilisation of allies” (Callon, 1986),

can be interpreted as the phase after finishing a specific consulting project, when consultants

promote ideas and concepts gained during the project and try to win future projects with

other clients. Thus, consultants translate the problem and the problem solution for a specific

client as their expertise to handle similar situations with other clients. Then through other

projects and discourses they achieve a partial fixing of their interpretation or problem solu-

tion; a new management “fad” is born.

Such a “translation” model is useful for understanding how consultants gain power

through discourse in the client-consultant interaction. But this process is not always success-

ful (Callon, 1986). Clients can decide not to follow the role proposed by consultants, thus

choosing a different interpretation and rejecting their involvement in the problem solution

process. Then a new phase of problem formulation and negotiation starts. There are also

situations when the client leads the process enforcing her/his own perspective on the situa-

tion and defining the roles consultants have to play. For example, if potential clients have

familiar and thus clearly defined problems for which they require a solution it will be more

difficult for consultants to enforce their own interpretation and solution (Legge, 2002). It is

further important to point out the role of time for the client-consultant relationship. Empiri-

cal material suggests that when clients face novel problems and new managerial discourses

emerge consultants usually have an interpretive dominance over clients and their main role

is as intermediaries and translators. However, with the duration of the interaction clients


22

adopt the new discourse and thus at the end of the learning process consultants no longer

possess interpretive dominance (Carter et al., 2004). Their role rather changes to carrying

out tasks that are more tightly defined by the client. Thus, “consultants are influenced as

well as influence during the course of an intervention, subtly being drawn into the webs of

meaning and co-opted into prevailing discourses” (Pellegrinelli, 2002: 352). Having more

former consultants in clients’ companies and more managers with education from the lead-

ing business schools also can effect the relative power positions and the interpretive right of

clients and consultants. Callon (1986: 223) makes it clear that in the process of translation,

displacements and transformations occur continually—“to translate is to express in one’s

own language what others say and want, why they act in the way they do and how the asso-

ciate with each other”. The result is a situation where certain communities control others.

Therefore, symbolic resources and maneuvers (as strong stories) are important instruments

by which power is exercised; the result of which may mean that clients are unwittingly

locked into new management procedures or management fads (Newton, 1996). Malefyt

(2003) found as well that communicative styles—based on proprietary models and figurative

language—are powerful tools advertising agencies use to demonstrate their competence and

win support from a client. Through persuasive stories consultants attempt to force their in-

terpretations on clients and thus achieve partial fixings of meaning that make them to an

“obligatory passage point” and gives them power. Furthermore, in this way they enforce a

decision on the problem solution to be made when there are several possible interpretations

and solution paths. It is clear, that this process is a discourse between different communities

of interpretation based on different perspectives or knowledge. Thus, the interpretive model

proposes that power in the client-consultant relationship arises out of a discourse over which

perspective should be taken as a basis for a problem solution. Moreover, often it is necessary

one party to achieve interpretive dominance when there are differences in the interpretive

positions of client and consultant that cannot be overcome. Otherwise it will be difficult to

find a problem solution.

According to the previous discussion, the following hypothesis [H4] is suggested:

H4: Power or interpretive dominance within the client-consultant team emerges during

the interaction between members of the team. It is the result of a discourse about the best

problem solution.

It is an interesting question for further investigation to find under what circumstances

such power will have a positive or a negative impact on the creation of innovative problem

solutions.


23

Ihe insights from the previous discussion on the client-consultant interaction are inte-

grated in the following formal model. The unit of analysis is the client-consultant project.

The “outputs” of the model are problem solutions developed by the client-consultant team.

The factors that are hypothesized to affect knowledge transfer and creation during the pro-

ject and the hypothesized relationships are indicated.6


IV. Conclusion

In this paper, we showed that consulting could be understood as an interaction between in-

terpretive communities or discursive practices. Because client and consultant belong to dif-

ferent communities, to be able to work together effectively they have to find ways of sharing

their interpretations, and we presented few mechanisms that enhance this process. Through

the interaction between perspectives and discourses new meanings can evolve and thus new

knowledge can emerge. At the same time, through previous discourses interpretations can be

fixed and thus dominant positions can evolve. Power does not necessary have a negative

effect as the existence of fixed meanings and interpretive positions can enhance the solution

of problems within the domain of knowledge positions. Such familiar, routine problems can

be defined and solved based on the existent dominant interpretation or “management fads”,

as we argued earlier. Because of the existence of a dominant interpretation and solution,

clients will desire to delegate some problem solving activities to consultants who serve as an

“obligatory passage point” for such problems in order to hasten the problem solving process

in an efficient way (Clegg, 1989). Their expectation is that they will receive a proven and

efficient solution, without themselves investing a lot of time and effort. Therefore, consult-

ants will provide the direction without having to discuss their interpretation extensively.

Thus, in this case, less interaction and less intensive sharing of understandings between cli-

ent and consultants will be required. Possibly, only few interpretive communities will be

involved in the interaction. We will call this sub-form of consulting “the dominant inter-

preter”.

Today, few management problems are so simple that they can be handled effectively in a

standardised way. Thus, even if the problem looks familiar, it is important to recognize that

structuring the relationship based on the known problem definition and solution is only one

6 This model does not explain all factors that influence the problem solving in client-consultant teams. For example, it does not discuss the role of trust or that of long-term social relationships for the success of problem solutions.


24

possible way to approach it. More often, it is not clear at the start of a project what type of

problem is facing the client so it remains necessary for client and consultant to undertake

conversations and sharing of perspectives during the interaction. As Creplet et al. (2001:

1517) note, “firms encounter problems the pattern of which is not recognized at first glance

by specialists. In other words, consultants may fail to identify relevant sets of problems and

solutions”. Blackler (2000: 838) speaks about situations of “fluctuating communities around

familiar activities” and argues that it is important not to rely on the known, standard solu-

tions, but to promote a dialogue for new understanding of the situation. The high number of

unsuccessful consulting projects, e.g. in the IT area (e.g. Quelin and Duhamel, 2003) is evi-

dence that clients and consultants need to engage in interaction also when the problem defi-

nition and solution seems to be known. Thus, contrary to Schön (1983), we suggest that the

interpretive model offers a better understanding of the client-consultant interaction also in

the case of rather familiar type of problems and should be applied in such situations if the

client-consultant relationship has to be successful. Furthermore, this model explains the ori-

gin of fixed problem solutions, which are a result of previous discourses, when the problem

situation was not familiar yet.

On the other hand, in situations when it is clear that clients and consultants face novel,

unfamiliar problems there will not be an established dominant interpretation of the problem

and a “fixed” solution. Through the use of analogy, consultants can try to find out if these

situations relating on previously known problems and existing fixed interpretations and then

propose matching solutions (Creplet et al., 1983). However, frequently these new problems

will need new solutions. In those situation that Creplet, et al. refer to “contexts of action and

reflection” (1983: 1518), where only an intensive interaction between the involved interpre-

tive communities, a demanding problem-generating process, will ensure that established

interpretations will be disrupted and new knowledge created (see also McGivern and Fine-

man, 19837). As a result, several different interpretations of the problem will arise, and

power enhancement and more persuasive strategies will be necessary to promote the own

perspective for a solution to be generated. Powerful and persuasive stories and rhetoric will

be of fare greater importance. In this situation, we will speak of the “disturbing interpreter”

or, in Clegg et al.’s (2004) terms, of “parasitic consulting”, where the main role of the con-

sultant is to translate between different interpretive communities and thus to enact new

worldviews.

7 The authors talk about not clearly defined problems, which is the case when the problem is complex and novel. See also Reihlen (1997). Ackoff (1974) has termed this kind of problems “messes”.


25

It is important to point out that frequent, long-term social interaction between clients and

consultants will affect the process of knowledge transfer and creation. As we showed,

through intensive interaction common language and understandings between clients and

consultants evolve and knowledge transfer and creation takes place. Such kind of interaction

leads often to the emergence of tighter socially embedded relationships between the in-

volved actors (Granovetter, 1985; Uzzi, 1996, 1997). Uzzi and Lancaster (2003) argue that

only when such strong ties exist, more fundamental learning between clients and consultants

or what March (1991) calls “exploration” will occur. Where there is a lower level of em-

beddedness of the client-consultant interaction only public available knowledge will be

transferred (management fads are one example for this kind of knowledge) and predomi-

nately incremental improvements will be realised in the client firm. The role of consultants

will be reduced to “dominant interpreters”. At the same time, it is clear that an intensive,

long-term social interaction may blur the distinction between members of different interpre-

tive communities and thus reduces the possibility of creating “noise” into each other’s com-

munity or organisation. Thus, the question of the exact effect of long-term and tight relation-

ships between clients and consultants on the knowledge transfer and creation process is an

interesting area for further research.

Another important question to investigate is the impact of internal power conflicts on the

learning process between different interpretive communities. Contu and Willmott (2003a)

argue that learning practices are enabled and constrained by their embeddedness in relations

of power or historically fixed meanings (Clegg, 2001). Newton (1996: 10) sees the location

in an organizational hierarchy as an important source of power; power that is “not some

fixed entity, independent from other networks or from management and social science dis-

courses”. Consequently, members of the same community can possess different degrees of

power, and it is dangerous to assume a consensus in interpretive communities as it is done

by many of the adherents of the communities-of-practice concept (Contu and Willmott,

2003a).

In this paper, we suggest a more promising alternative for interpretation of the client-

consultant interaction in professional business service firms, which provides a viewpoint

both more accurate and more consistent with the current insights on knowledge and power

in organizations than the existing models on client-consultant interaction. It is also a practi-

cal approach, as it stands opposite the existing models of consulting in accounting for the

complex and multifaceted character of the client-consultant relationship and thus can con-

tribute to more effective client-consultant collaboration. Although there are still consulting


26

companies acting more in a way as discussed in the expert and the critical model, it should

be clear that such consulting companies do not enable a real interaction with their clients and

thus, will be in the long-term unsuccessful. Clients should be also aware that the real nature

of problem solving is an interactive one and only through reflective interaction with the con-

sultant team they can achieve success from consulting projects. The proposed formal model

on problem solving in client-consultant teams is seen as a first step towards an enhanced

understanding on the interaction between members of different interpretive communities.


27

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Table 1: A Summary of Models on the Client-Consulting Relationship The Expert Model The Critical Model The Reflective Practitioner Model The Interpretive Model

Key

w

orks

Hall (1969), Sibson (1973), Gallessich, 1982, Schein (1988), Kubr (1996), Aharoni (1993a,b; 1997), Lowendahl (1997), Sadler (1998)

Alvesson (1993, 1995, 2001), Clark (1995), Clark/Salaman (1996a,b, 1998a, b), Kieser (1997), Jackson (2002)

Schön (1983, 1987) Bronw/Duguid (1991), Boland/Tenkasi (1995), Fox (2000), Reihlen (2003), Reihlen/Ringberg (2003), Devinney/Nikolova (2004)

Met

apho

rs The consultant as: “helper” (Schein, 1987, 2002;

Bell/Nadler, 1979); “seller of expertise” (Aharoni, 1997); “doctor” (Gallessich, 1982; Rassam, 1998; Schein, 1988).

The consultant as: provider of institutionalised myths and rhetorician (Alvesson, 1993, 1995); “impression manager” / “storyteller” (Clark, 1995; Clark/Salaman, 1996b); creator of management fads (Jackson, 2002; Kieser, 1997, 2002).

The consultant as: “reflective practitioner” (Schön, 1983).

The consultant as: reflective practitioner, inter-preter, storyteller, broker between interpretive communities and translator.

Sub

form

s

The “expert consultant” applies predetermined solutions to problems, almost irrespective of the contexts in which he finds them. The main task of this kind of consulting is the solution of practical problems and its value lies in its functionality and usefulness. The “pure researcher” studies social issues and problems, independent of a particular problem and client. This is the case when for example university professors work as consultants. The goal of the researcher-consultant is to bring scientific expertise into the companies. Examples are Fayoul, Taylor, Hammer and Champy, Porter.

There are two sub forms: management gurus and management consultants. Management consultants rely less on charisma than management gurus. While management gurus create a universal appeal, consultants address individual client’s needs. These differences are however a “matter of emphasis rather than category distinctions” (Fincham, 2002). Also, some management gurus establish their own consultancies so that guru and consulting activities overlap.

The “reflective practitioner” solves only cases when the client’s problem is of sufficient impor-tance because the establishment of this relation-ship is difficult and time consuming. In emer-gent or routine situations when clients usually wish a fast and efficient solution rather than a long and risky conversation process the expert type of consultant is more appropriate.

There are consultants who support established or fixed positions of meaning or interpretations and engage themselves in solving of problems within the domain of dominant interpretations or man-agement fads (“the dominant interpreter”). On the other hand there are consultants who engage themselves in disturbing and bringing “noise” in fixed interpretations (“the disturbing interpreter” or “parasitic consulting”).

Nat

ure

of k

now

l-ed

ge

Knowledge is a decontextualised, objectively definable asset or a resource; it is independent of its carriers and their interpretations. Consulting knowledge is based partly on an abstract body of knowledge and partly on consult-ing methods.

Knowledge is a social product. Consulting knowl-edge is developed in interaction with the client and is ambiguous and symbolic. Images, stories and symbols serve as “rationality-surrogates” and constitute consultant’s real expertise.

Knowledge is embedded in a context of meaning and can have different meanings for different people. Consulting knowledge is only partly based on technical expertise (abstract body of knowledge). An important part of it is embedded in a skilful practice and is constructed in a process of “reflection-in-action”.

Knowledge resides in people’s minds and is created and shared within socio-culturally consti-tuted discursive practices. Consulting knowledge is based on abstract concepts and experience developed, transmitted and maintained in shared interpretive communities.

Kno

wle

dge

asym

met

ry

Consultants as experts have the capacity to solve clients’ problems; the client is a lay persona and is more or less excluded from the problem solving process. There is a unidirectional knowledge asymmetry.

Because of the intangible and interactive character of the consulting service clients have difficulties in evaluating consultant’s knowledge and the provided service prior and after it has been delivered. There is a unidirectional “knowledge” asymmetry.

Client and consultant both possess knowledge important for the problem solution; there is a mutual knowledge asymmetry.

Because client and consultant belong to different interpretive communities they have different perspectives on topics. There is a mutual knowl-edge asymmetry.

Com

mun

icat

ion

and

know

ledg

e tra

nsfe

r

Communication is a process of information transfer between client and consultant. Important aspects of the communication process are the communications channels, the characteristics of messages and the motivation and absorptive capacity of the involved individuals.

Communication is a process of creating impres-sions, images and stories. In this way consultants try to impress the clients and convince them, that they have something valuable to offer. Rhetorical skills and acts are important aspects of the commu-nication process.

Communication is a process of reflecting on the own understanding and sharing it with other. This requires intensive interaction between the involved individuals.

Communication is a process of translation and of creating alignment between interpretive commu-nities. Only when some conceptual frameworks are shared is knowledge transfer possible. Through the process of translation new meanings and thus new knowledge is created.

Pow

er

aspe

cts

Because consultants possess unique scientific body of knowledge, it is the right of the consultant to determine the problem solution on the basis of professional judge-ment. The client doesn’t participate in the problem solv-ing process and is dependent on the knowledge of the expert (consulting-centric view).

Consultants are powerful and persuasive figures; they use rhetoric, stories and symbols to impress clients and sell them management fads. The client is passive and dependent on consultants and the management fads they create (consulting-centric view).

Both consultant and client are powerful and interdependent because both parties possess relevant knowledge and make important contri-butions to the problem solving process.

Client and consultant are mutually dependent. Power is constructed through discourse; it is dependent on knowledge and vice versa. Power is an “interpretive dominance” over other inter-pretive communities.


Figure 1: The Client-Consultant Relationship: Basic Models

The expert model: Consultant as an expert, knowledge transfer as a resource transfer

Client‘s problem Messages, transmittal channels

Client implementsproblem solution A

Consultant generates solution A on the basis of expertise/experience

Client deliversinformation

Client-consultant team

The critical model: Consultant as an impressionmanager, knowledge transfer as a symbolic interaction

Consultant creates images, manipulates the symbols of knowledge:

(„back stage“)

Stories, Impressions, Symbols, Images

Consultant tells stories, performs, manages meanes,

creates realities: “front stage“

Client is audience and actor


The reflective practitioner model: Consultant as a reflective practitioner, knowledge transfer as a reflection

Consultant reflective practitioner

Client reflective practitioner

Interaction

Reflection



Client‘s problem Messages, transmittal channels






Client‘s problemClient‘s problem Messages, transmittal channels









(„back stage“)








(„back stage“)


(„back stage“)












Interaction

Reflection





Interaction

Reflection



36

Figure 2: Knowledge Transfer Between Matching Interpretive Communities

Interpr. Comm. B (e.g. Managers)

Interpret. Comm. E (e.g. Researcher, R&D)

Interpret. Comm. C (e.g. Physicians)

Consulting company Client

company

Interpret. Comm. G (e.g. Internal consultants)

Interpret. Comm. H (e.g. Assemblers)

Interpret. Comm. F (e.g. Technicans)


boundary objects (stories, metaphors, physical objects), brokering, aligning actions

Reflecting on the own perspective

Knowledge transfer possible between communities with some shared frameworks

Interpret. Comm. D (e.g. Engineers)

Sharing perspectives, frameworks

Interpr. Comm. B (e.g. Managers)Interpr. Comm. B (e.g. Managers)





Consulting company Client

company








boundary objects (stories, metaphors, physical objects), brokering, aligning actions

Reflecting on the own perspective

Knowledge transfer possible between communities with some shared frameworks

Interpret. Comm. D (e.g. Engineers)

Sharing perspectives, frameworks


37

Figure 3: The process of knowledge transfer and creation between interpretive communities

1 Discussion of the problem in a familiar way

2 Reflection: Creating boundary objects to

visualise the own framing of the problem

3 Knowledge creation: Deconstructing, drawing

new distinctions, reframing the problem

5 New reframing: Deconstructing,

Reflection on the reframed problem

>5 Problem solution

Knowledge transfer, sharing of perspectives through boundary

objects and brokering

Knowledge transfer,

sharing of perspectives

through boundary




Knowledge transfer,


through boundary


Different meanings through the interaction

with a different interpret. community

Different meanings through

the interaction with a different

interpret. communityClient-consultant team

4 Reflection on the reframed problem,

appreciation of context and theory

1 Discussion of the problem in a familiar way1 Discussion of the problem in a familiar way













>5 Problem solution>5 Problem solution





Knowledge transfer,


through boundary


Knowledge transfer,


through boundary






Knowledge transfer,


through boundary


Knowledge transfer,


through boundary


Different meanings through the interaction

with a different interpret. community

Different meanings through

the interaction with a different

interpret. communityClient-consultant team






38

Table 2: Some mechanisms for sharing perspectives

Mechanism Definition Function

Narrative/Story An oral or written performance or ex-

change between two or more people dur-

ing which a past or anticipated experience

was being referenced, recounted, inter-

preted, or challenged (Boje, 1991, 1995)

Helps to build new meanings of a

problem and acts as a repository of

accumulated experience (Brown

and Duguid, 1991; Werr and

Stjernberg, 2003)

Brokering When people transfer some elements of

one community into another and thus

create indirect relation between commu-

nities where no direct relations (e.g.

shared frameworks) exist (Burt, 1992,

1997)

Connects unconnected communities

and enables sharing of perspectives

and new possibilities of meaning

Metaphors “Signification by similarity or analogy”

(Barley, 1983)

Creates novel interpretations of

experience by asking actors to see

one thing in terms of something

else (Donnellon et al., 1986)

Logical argument “a set of utterances that include a prem-

ise, an inference, and a conclusion”

(Donnellon et al., 1986)

Used in a context of disagreement

to move another person to agree-

ment through incremental steps

(Donnellon et al., 1986)

Linguistic indirec-

tion

“the purposeful use of behavioural forms

that are ambiguous and therefore create

equivocality” (Donnellon et al., 1986)

Achieves consensus or suppresses

dissent

Tangible defini-

tions

e.g. machine parts (Bechky, 2003) Create a common ground for under-

standing


39

Figure 4: A model of problem solving in client-consultants teams8

8 The dotted lines are relationships that we are not looking at extensively.

Shared meanings,

frameworks

Variety of perspectives

Mechanisms for sharing

perspectives

Knowledge transfer

Knowledge creation

Problem solution

+

+

++

+

-

-+

H1

H2

H3

Power

H4 +/-

Shared meanings,

frameworks

Shared meanings,

frameworks

Variety of perspectivesVariety of

perspectives


perspectives


perspectives

Knowledge transfer

Knowledge transfer

Knowledge creation

Knowledge creation

Problem solutionProblem solution

++

++

++++

++

--

--++

H1

H2

H3

PowerPower

H4 +/-+/-

The Client-Consultant Interaction in Professional Business ...€¦ · 1996a, 1998a). Although the...

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