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The case of “Molar City”, Mexico:
An ethical examination of medical tourism industry
practices
by
Krystyna Adams
Master of Public Health, Simon Fraser University, 2013
Bachelor of Arts, Simon Fraser University, 2010
Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in the
Faculty of Health Sciences
© Krystyna Adams 2018
SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY
Spring 2018
Copyright in this work rests with the author. Please ensure that any reproduction or re-use is done in accordance with the relevant national copyright legislation.
ii
Approval
Name: Krystyna Adams
Degree: Doctor of Philosophy
Title: The case of “Molar City”, Mexico: An ethical examination of medical tourism industry practices
Examining Committee: Chair: Denise Zabkiewicz Associate Professor
Jeremy Snyder Senior Supervisor Associate Professor
Valorie Crooks Supervisor Professor
Nicole Berry Supervisor Associate Professor
Ruth Lavergne Internal Examiner Assistant Professor
Mary Ellen MacDonald External Examiner Associate Professor Faculty of Dentistry McGill University
Date Defended/Approved: December 6th, 2017
iii
Ethics Statement
iv
Abstract
“Molar city” or Los Algodones, Mexico is characteristic of other medical border
towns whose proximity to the Mexico-United States border enables American and
Canadian patients to access desired health care. Patients can take advantage of
economic asymmetries on either side of the border to purchase desired health care in an
easily accessible location. Los Algodones is an exceptional industry site in northern
Mexico, however, due to its focus on the provision of dental care and claims by local
residents that it has the highest concentration of dentists per capita in the world. In this
dissertation, I use a case study of Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry to provide an
examination of ethical concerns for medical tourism industry practices. Drawing on
findings from qualitative research exploring the perspectives and experiences of diverse
industry stakeholders, this study contributes insight into ethical examinations for medical
tourism informed by structural exploitation and structural injustice frameworks. By
employing these ethical frameworks to examine one particular industry site, this
research outlines how structural factors such as competition in the global industry and
economic asymmetries between the global north and global south inform unfair localized
industry practices. I highlight in this dissertation how industry practices are taken up by
various industry stakeholders to maintain the flow of dental tourists to Los Algodones;
however, efforts to promote and protect the success of the industry according to the
interests of elite industry stakeholders inform practices characterized by the
irresponsible use of health resources and degrading interactions. Overall, this research
suggests that medical tourism industry development raises health equity concerns for
the industry if exploitative practices in different industry sites produce poor labour
conditions and access to care barriers for marginalized populations. Further research is
needed to explore the utility of these ethical frameworks when examining other industry
sites and possible policy implications for mitigating exploitative practices within different
contexts of industry development.
Keywords: medical tourism; dental tourism; health equity; structural exploitation;
global health
v
Dedication
To Karina and your family.
I hope you can be reunited on the same side of the border once again.
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Acknowledgements
I owe a great deal of gratitude to the friends, family, and colleagues whose
support, mentorship, and encouragement made this dissertation possible. I would first
like to thank my participants in the town of Los Algodones for their insight and
encouragement. Gracias a todos y hasta luego. I would particularly like to thank Karina
and Linda for their hospitality. This project would not have been possible without their
support.
I would also like to thank the community of friends and colleagues at Simon
Fraser University (SFU), the University of Arizona, and my island home of Barbados. I
learned a great deal about the research process from many of the professors and
classmates at SFU. I would particularly like to thank Dr. Kathleen Millar and Dr. Diego
Silva for their insight and words of encouragement. Thank you to Kathleen Inglis, Tara
Walton, Melissa Geisbrecht, Carly Jackson, Sarah Mitchell, and Alex Collins for our time
together. You all inspired me to keep working and your words of wisdom have certainly
informed much of this dissertation. I am also grateful to Dr. Linda Green and the
students at the University of Arizona for their support in the field. Jill Parlee, Shervon
DeLeon, Paul Wilson, Gabrielle DeWillers, and Martin Clarke, you have made me feel at
home whenever I am in Barbados. I owe a special thanks to Marty for his words of
encouragement (and always just when I wanted to give up).
I would also like to thank my fellow students in the health geography lab. Thank
you, Leon Hoffman and Rebecca Whitmore, for all the chats in the office, on the squash
courts, and around East Van. I am so grateful I was able to learn from you both. I am
infinitely grateful and inspired by the support of my colleague and good friend, Rory
Johnston. From sitting next to each other in the office to walking along beaches in
Barbados, I absolutely loved our time working together and learned so much from you. I
hope we can be desk neighbours again in the near future!
I am extraordinarily grateful for the mentorship and support I have received from
my supervisory committee. Thank you, Dr. Nicole Berry, Dr. Valorie Crooks, and Dr.
Jeremy Snyder for your mentorship. This mentorship has only been surpassed by your
support as friends. Thank you, Valorie and Jeremy, for making the research process
vii
inspiring and fun over the past 7(!) years. It is hard to put into words how grateful I am
for all of your support and guidance during this time.
Thank you so much to my friends and family, near and far. Mom, dad, and
Briana, you certainly played a huge part in this dissertation. From traveling with me to
conferences and field sites to sharing in my excitement over successful publications,
thank you over and over again for your constant love and inspiration. Thanks also goes
to my Toronto family, the Gittos, for their endless encouragement and hospitality. I owe a
special thank you to my dear friend, Diana Matheson, for her words of encouragement,
incredible insight, and unwavering support. From helping me with gardening to long
chats while painting, our time together was so rewarding and integral to the success of
this project and I am truly grateful for our friendship. Finally, Alex, there’s just too much
to say to write it here. So for now, thank you.
Funding for this research project was provided by the Canadian Institutes for
Health Research and the Michael Smith Foundation. This research would not have been
possible without the support from these two organizations.
viii
Table of Contents
Approval .......................................................................................................................... ii
Ethics Statement ............................................................................................................ iii
Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ vi
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures................................................................................................................. xi
Chapter 1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1
1.1. Situating my research: Global health as a field of study ......................................... 3
1.2. Medical Tourism .................................................................................................... 6
1.2.1. What is medical tourism? ............................................................................... 6
1.2.2. Ethical Concerns for Medical Tourism ........................................................... 9
1.2.3. Structural exploitation and medical tourism .................................................. 12
1.2.4. Medical tourism industry development in Mexico ......................................... 15
1.2.5. Medical Tourism in Northern Mexico ............................................................ 17
1.3. Dental tourism in Los Algodones, Mexico ............................................................ 19
1.4. Dissertation rationale and structure ..................................................................... 25
1.4.1. Research Objectives.................................................................................... 25
1.4.2. Chapter Overviews ...................................................................................... 26
1.5. References .......................................................................................................... 32
Chapter 2. The Perfect Storm: What’s Pushing Canadians Abroad for Dental Care? ……………………………………………………………………………………40
2.1. Methods .............................................................................................................. 41
2.2. Results ................................................................................................................ 42
2.2.1. Financing and Delivery ................................................................................ 42
2.2.2. Cost of Care ................................................................................................ 44
2.2.3. Consumerism in Dental Care ....................................................................... 46
2.3. Discussion ........................................................................................................... 47
2.4. References .......................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 3. From push to pull factors ...................................................................... 52
Chapter 4. Narratives of a “dental oasis”: Examining media portrayals of dental tourism in the border town of Los Algodones, Mexico ................................... 53
4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 53
4.2. Background ......................................................................................................... 54
4.2.1. Dental tourism in the media ......................................................................... 54
4.2.2. The borderlands .......................................................................................... 55
4.2.3. Los Algodones ............................................................................................. 56
4.3. Methods .............................................................................................................. 58
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4.4. Findings: Media Narratives of Dental Tourism in Los Algodones ......................... 60
4.5. Discussion ........................................................................................................... 64
4.5.1. Dental care in the borderlands ..................................................................... 64
4.5.2. Journeys to the borderlands ........................................................................ 67
4.6. Conclusion........................................................................................................... 70
4.7. References .......................................................................................................... 71
Chapter 5. Drawing insights from the lived experiences of local residents and industry employees ........................................................................................... 76
Chapter 6. “Stay cool, sell stuff cheap, and smile”: Examining how reputational management of dental tourism reinforces structural oppression in Los Algodones, Mexico ............................................................................................ 78
6.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 78
6.2. Medical Tourism in Mexico .................................................................................. 79
6.3. Los Algodones’ Dental Tourism Sector ................................................................ 81
6.4. Methods .............................................................................................................. 83
6.5. Findings ............................................................................................................... 84
6.5.1. Los Algodones as a modern and safe tourist destination ............................. 85
6.5.2. Provider of high quality dental care .............................................................. 88
6.5.3. Site to find fast, lower cost care ................................................................... 89
6.6. Discussion ........................................................................................................... 91
6.6.1. Protecting the industry, reproducing structural injustices ............................. 92
6.6.2. Structural exploitation in medical tourism ..................................................... 95
6.7. Conclusion........................................................................................................... 96
6.8. References .......................................................................................................... 97
Chapter 7. A critical examination of empowerment discourse in medical tourism: The case of Los Algodones ............................................................................ 101
7.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 101
7.2. Medical tourism in Los Algodones, Mexico ........................................................ 103
7.3. Methods ............................................................................................................ 105
7.4. Findings ............................................................................................................. 106
7.4.1. Provider (dis)empowerment ....................................................................... 106
7.4.2. Patient (dis)empowerment ......................................................................... 109
7.5. Discussion ......................................................................................................... 112
7.6. Conclusion......................................................................................................... 115
7.7. References ........................................................................................................ 116
Chapter 8. Conclusion ........................................................................................... 120
8.1. Chapter Overview .............................................................................................. 120
8.2. Review of dissertation objectives and key findings ............................................ 120
8.3. Limitations ......................................................................................................... 131
8.4. Policy implications and future research directions .............................................. 134
8.5. Concluding thoughts .......................................................................................... 137
8.6. References ........................................................................................................ 138
x
List of Tables
Table 1. Participants’ views on financing and delivery of dental services. ............ 44
Table 2. Participants' views on cost of dental care ............................................... 46
Table 3. Participants' views on the consumerist model of dental care .................. 47
Table 4. Reviewed news articles .......................................................................... 59
xi
List of Figures
Figure 1. American and Canadian tourists enjoying a party to welcome tourists to Los Algodones ......................................................................................... 2
Figure 2 Dental clinics clustered on one of the main streets in Los Algodones ..... 22
Figure 3 Economic activities in front of dental clinics lining the streets of Los Algodones .............................................................................................. 23
1
Chapter 1. Introduction
“Red solo cup, I’ll fill you up, let’s have a party, let’s have a party”... These lyrics
blared through the speakers of one of many restaurants I passed throughout the day
during my three months of fieldwork in the small town of Los Algodones, Mexico. I had
conducted research in Los Algodones to learn more about the dental tourism industry
operating in this small town. While other border towns in northern Mexico similarly sell
dental care and other types of medical care to foreign tourists as part of a thriving
medical tourism industry in in this region, industry stakeholders boast that Los
Algodones is unique in its concentration of dental clinics catering to foreign tourists,
making it the dental tourism capital of the world according to many local residents. Many
residents I interviewed during my research hoped for the continued growth of the
industry and suggested that the dental tourism industry is the most important economic
sector in the region as numerous businesses rely on the daily flow of dental tourists into
the town. However, as I sat at restaurants catering to recovering dental patients and
accompanying friends and family members passing the time drinking margaritas and
singing along to familiar tunes, I questioned whether everyone is truly enjoying the
“party”. This questioning was informed by the perspectives of individuals living and
working in Los Algodones and, over time, these perspectives began to shape the way I
understood the industry in this site. Drawing on my experiences in Los Algodones, this
dissertation provides an ethical examination of the medical tourism industry through a
case study of industry practices in Los Algodones.
2
Figure 1. American and Canadian tourists enjoying a party to welcome tourists to Los Algodones
Photo credit: Krystyna Adams, 2015.
As I discuss further in this dissertation, my research highlights how, even though
the medical tourism industry in this site provides important economic benefits to local
residents and more affordable health care for many patients, these benefits are not
necessarily sufficient to ensure the wellbeing of everyone in the population, and, in fact,
the realization of these benefits might rely on the perpetuation of structural injustices.
This research demonstrates how medical tourism practices follow closely the contours of
global relations of power, exacerbating social determinants of ill health such as poverty,
poor working conditions, and poor access to health care for vulnerable and marginalized
populations globally. By tracing how structural factors are shaping localized industry
practices, this case study highlights particular social conditions, institutional processes,
and other structural factors which might produce similar injustices in other medical
tourism industry sites, nuancing ethical examinations of the industry.
In the remainder of this introductory chapter, I situate my research within the field
of global health and explain how this field of study informs my dissertation research and
why I chose to examine industry practices within the industry site of Los Algodones,
Mexico. After describing current discussions in the medical tourism literature related to
3
ethical concerns around medical tourism activities, I outline my research objectives as
they relate to these theoretical discussions and provide an overview of the individual
analyses that make up this dissertation.
1.1. Situating my research: Global health as a field of study
Broadly, global health research aims to inform global health practices. These
practices work to improve the health of the global population while reducing health
inequities between different countries, defined here as differences in health outcomes
that are deemed unfair (Kang et al., 2015; Koplan et al., 2009; Smith, 2012). This aim
distinguishes global health from public health research with the latter focusing more so
on the health of the population of a specific country or community. Global health
research instead examines threats to the health of populations which are global in nature
(Beaglehole & Bonita, 2010). With this in mind, global health researchers often examine
the role of global macrostructures such as global economic and social policies in
shaping the health of localized populations and disparities in health between populations
(Schrecker, 2016). Furthermore, this field of study has provided important insight into
key concerns for global health practices informed by differing interests and values of
global health actors, constraints to global health governance structures, and challenges
to effective cooperation between states to promote more equitable health outcomes in
the global population (Mackey & Liang, 2013).
While increasingly recognized as a disciplinary field in its own right, global health
as a topic of inquiry suggests a critical departure from past efforts to address health
issues through cooperative activities between international actors (Beaglehole & Bonita,
2010). Historians have traced the evolution of global health research by highlighting
specific eras of this field with each era informed by the involvement of different actors
with different interests and ideas of what counts as “good” global health practice. A key
distinction is typically made in the literature between the era of international health
characterized by efforts to improve the health of colonies to promote profitable activities
for imperial powers and the era of global health. The global health era is typically
characterized by cooperative efforts to address global health threats including efforts
from actors beyond just governmental or intergovernmental organizations (Birn, 2009;
Labonté et al., 2011). Most scholars agree that the field of international health was born
out of activities and events in the mid-1800’s that established an institutional framework
4
for ongoing cooperation between nation states to address international health issues.
These activities included the international sanitary conferences and the establishment of
a commitment from participating countries to continue meeting and sharing scientific
information (Birn, 2009). Some scholars argue that the field of international health
originated as early as the 14th century when nation states first cooperated to deal with
an emergent health issue, namely the bubonic plague (Banta, 2001); however, this early
cooperation does not align with international health activities beginning in the 19th
century which focused on improving health as a means of enhancing capitalist
accumulation and not as an end in and of itself (Birn, 2009; Brown et al., 2006).
Activities conducted as part of the era of international health have garnered
significant criticism from interdisciplinary academics for their role in extending and even
exacerbating global health inequities where these activities supported or enabled
structural injustices via imperialism (Labonté et al., 2011). In the post-colonial and post-
World War Two era of international cooperation, new governance structures emerged,
particularly the World Health Organization (WHO), significantly shifting the actors and
ideas involved in global health practice away from the dark history of international health.
However, criticisms of international health activities remain relevant to current global
health practices and the failures of these practices to effectively address large disparities
in health outcomes between the global north and global south (Birn, 2009; Brown et al.,
2006). Here, I define the global south as the region of the world with a shared history of
colonialism and neo imperialism and experiencing ongoing political and cultural
marginalization through which inequalities in access to resources are maintained. I use
the global north-south distinction throughout this dissertation to discuss structural factors
informing global health inequities as this distinction emphasizes the geopolitical relations
of power informing vastly different health outcomes between these two regions (Dados &
Connell, 2012). The global north-south divide is a useful concept to explain various
macro structural social determinants of health, including differential participation and
power to affect global governance structures, whereas terms such as
developed/underdeveloped distinguish between countries primarily based on income
(Rubei et al., 2016).
With this definition in mind, critical examinations of global health practices have
raised concerns about how activities and research agendas in global health are often
developed by actors in the global north to address health issues “over there” resulting in
5
practices which do not necessarily address the most key factors informing ill-health,
particularly when these factors necessitate restructuring of global governance structures
and global relations of power (Banta, 2001; Koplan et al., 2009). These concerns
emphasize the limited participation and representation from the most vulnerable and
marginalized populations in global institutions and governance structures informing
many global health practices. Without this participation, global health practices do not
necessarily take into consideration the macro structures largely responsible for social
determinants of ill-health in the global south including poverty, poorly resourced health
care systems, and exploitative industry development, particularly as these activities
serve the interests of elite actors throughout the global north and global south (Horton &
Barker, 2010).
Global health scholars have demonstrated how globalization serves both to
enhance cooperation towards addressing global health threats while also informing
global relations of power in ways that challenge effective efforts to promote improved
and more equitable health in the global population. This challenge is particularly relevant
where the inclusion of new actors (i.e., corporate philanthropists) shift the values of
global health practice away from a focus on promoting global health equity. For example,
values oriented around measurable outcomes to appease donors financing global health
activities might emphasize interventions with large health gains even if these gains are
not experienced by populations with the most pressing health needs. Additionally, these
interventions are often oriented around programs with quantifiable benefits that can be
easily tracked instead of changes to large structural factors informing the social
determinants of health (Brown et al., 2006; Ormond, 2013).
Good access to quality health care is considered one of the most direct social
determinants of health (Beaglehole & Bonita, 2010). Health services research within the
field of global health examines how global or macro structures such as global economic
systems, global governance structures, and global geopolitical relations inform localized
health care provision (Cohen, 2013). This research has emphasized how the movement
of resources, people, and ideas across borders has challenged our understanding of the
of the nation state in providing health care necessary to uphold the right to health for its
citizens (Labonté et al., 2011). In response to this challenge, global health services
practice has been characterized by cooperative efforts to meet the health care needs of
populations regardless of nationality (i.e., humanitarian aid) (Koplan et al., 2009).
6
However, researchers have also raised social justice concerns for global health services
if these services fail to conform to the values of health equity and health as a human
right (Schrecker, 2016). Research on global health practice has emphasized how,
according to global relations of power, this practice might actually exacerbate global
health inequities. For example, these practices might follow closely the contours of
global relations of power as donor stipulations encourage care practices which primarily
serve their interests instead of the needs of the most marginalized populations.
Furthermore, the provision of health care by international organizations with particular
interests and values might result in the exclusion of certain populations from accessing
needed care while disrupting national health system planning and equity-enhancing
efforts (Berry, 2014; Labonté et al., 2011).
Finally, global health researchers have increasingly examined how neoliberalism
informs health inequities. The circulation of neoliberal ideology exacerbates global health
inequities by extending and entrenching social determinants of ill-health via reduced
social welfare programs, the privatization and commodification of health care, and
inequitable distribution of resources needed for wellbeing (Schrecker, 2016). Research
on global health services practice critiques the implementation of neoliberal policies and
programs (i.e. Structural Adjustment Programs) as they have informed and enabled the
provision of health care according to profitability instead of need (Labonté et al., 2011).
My dissertation directly contributes to this stream of global health research by examining
how care provided within the medical tourism industry interacts with the social
determinants of ill-health experienced by vulnerable and marginalized populations. I
believe the research presented in this dissertation contributes new considerations to
theoretical discussions regarding ideas, interests, and ideologies shaping global health
services practice and responsibilities for promoting and securing equitable and just
health care provision beyond national borders (Cohen, 2013; Collins-Drogul, 2006;
Meghani, 2011)
1.2. Medical Tourism
1.2.1. What is medical tourism?
Global health researchers have increasingly examined mobilities such as medical
tourism (Whittaker & Heng Leng, 2016), health worker migration (Hennebry et al., 2016),
7
and medical voluntourism (the movement of care providers across national borders to
provide voluntary medical care) (Berry, 2014) to gain insight into the ways in which flows
of patients and providers impact efforts to enhance health equity, both via the health
care system and other social processes (i.e., the political economic and social-ecological
systems) (Krieger, 2001). The term medical tourism is commonly used to refer to
practices of individuals intentionally pursuing medical care outside their home country
and paying out-of-pocket for this care (Lunt & Carrera, 2010). This term does not refer
to medical services provided to foreign patients as a result of cross-border care
arrangements or emergency medical treatment provided to individuals when traveling
(Johnston et al., 2010). While historical reports of individuals traveling for medical care
suggest this is not a new practice, increasing discussion in media reports and academic
literature about medical tourism are driven by the growth of the global medical tourism
industry (Crush & Chikanda, 2015; Ormond, 2011). This industry is characterized by the
provision of private medical care to foreign patients (here referred to as medical tourists)
(Smith, 2012). Patients might be motivated to travel to access more affordable care than
typically available back home (especially for patients traveling from the global north to
global south due to global economic asymmetries); for care that is more readily available
without wait lists; and for care that might not be available at all in medical tourists’ home
countries due to health system regulations and standards of care (Johnston et al., 2010).
Research indicates that medical tourists travel to purchase various types of treatment
with common procedures cited in the literature including dental care (Miller-Thayer,
2010); cosmetic treatment (Turner, 2012); bariatric surgery (Snyder et al., 2016b);
cardiovascular procedures and experimental care (Cohen, 2013).
Researchers have increasingly examined the topic of medical tourism due to
expanding medical tourism infrastructure, increasing government interest in pursuing
medical tourism activities, and increasing accounts of medical tourists’ experiences
accessing care abroad, all of which raise considerations for the health system impacts of
medical tourism (Glinos et al., 2010). The majority of academic and media attention on
medical tourism has focused on the flow of medical tourists from the global north to
global south, as I explain in further detail below. However, academics have pointed out
that there is also a significant south-south flow of patients informing the development of
this global industry (Crush & Chikanda, 2015; Ormond, 2011). In certain contexts, this
south-south flow of patients has prompted academics to argue in favour of more specific
8
terminology which better captures the realities of patients’ decision-making (i.e., medical
refugees in contexts of patients traveling out of low-resource health care systems)
(Kangas, 2010). Furthermore, some academics prefer to employ the term “international
medical travel” to avoid using the word “tourism” and equating this practice with other
leisure activities (Kangas, 2007; Ormond, 2011; Turner, 2013). While the use of distinct
terminology provides valuable insight into the different contexts in which individuals
travel abroad for care, in this dissertation I employ the term medical tourism as I engage
with critiques regarding the development of the global medical tourism industry,
described in further detail below.
Medical tourism industry development has garnered significant academic
attention to examine if and how this industry informs the privatization of health care
globally, and the resulting health equity implications (Chen & Flood, 2013; Mainil et al.,
2012). These discussions have raised concerns about the inclusion of new actors with
divergent values and interests in the medical tourism industry. For example, industry
development has implicated subsidiary companies and private businesses such as
medical tourism facilitators who arrange the travel details for medical tourists,
certification companies like the Joint Commission International (JCI), and the Medical
Tourism Association (MTA), a non-profit trade association providing brand-development
programs to a variety of industry stakeholders, all of whom might support industry
development to enhance their businesses (http://www.medicaltourismassociation.com).
Much of the academic attention has focused on the growth of the medical tourism
industry in the global south where this development has proved particularly contentious:
industry development has been described in the media and industry sources of
information as driving economic development, particularly for developing countries
reliant on foreign investment and tourism activities for this development (Sobo et al.,
2010); however, research indicates that this development might negatively impact health
care systems in destination countries while predominantly enhancing access to health
care for patients from the global north (Chen & Flood, 2013; Martínez Álvarez & Chanda,
2011; Ormond, 2011; Smith, 2012). I expand on the ethical concerns specific to the
north-south flow of medical tourism in the next section after introducing ethical concerns
for medical tourism broadly.
9
1.2.2. Ethical Concerns for Medical Tourism
A large number of researchers across multiple disciplinary backgrounds have
developed critical analyses of medical tourism activities (Cohen, 2012; Lunt & Carrera,
2010; Turner, 2007). Discussions of ethical concerns around medical tourism in the
global health literature primarily focus on the potential negative impacts of these
practices on efforts to promote health equity both in destination and departure countries
(Martínez Álvarez & Chanda, 2011; Smith, 2012). For example, medical tourism might
disrupt equitable access to health care if the development of new medical facilities
catering to medical tourists shift health resources from the public to private sector
(Connell, 2011). This shift is particularly concerning if finite health resources are used to
provide more specialized or curative care, disrupting preventive care efforts that address
health issues for the population, including patients unable to pay for specialized care
(Snyder et al., 2013). Furthermore, research has demonstrated that public funds might
be diverted away from care provision to facilitate industry development when paying for
JCI certification of facilities catering to medical tourists and marketing and promoting the
industry to potential customers (Pocock & Hong Phua, 2011).
Researchers have also highlighted how increased participation in medical
tourism might also impact on the health care systems of sending countries, or countries
from which medical tourists travel. Researchers have demonstrated how competition for
patients in the global medical tourism industry has discouraged regulatory oversight of
industry practices to reduce costs and attract patients based on lower prices than are
available in other industry sites (Crooks et al., 2013). Operating within reduced
regulatory frameworks, medical tourism activities might also exacerbate health inequities
in medical tourists’ home countries if health resources are used to treat harms caused by
medical tourism procedures, potentially diverting finite health resources away from other
patients in need of care and unable to travel as medical tourists (Turner, 2007). Potential
harms commonly cited in the literature result from poorly regulated care provision and/or
inadequate follow-up care if medical tourists travel home too quickly after their care and
without sufficient medical records (Johnston et al., 2011; Turner, 2010). Care providers
in medical tourists’ home countries might also refuse to provide follow-up care or treat
complications if they do not have the necessary records or information about previous
treatment, potentially complicating treatment in ways that exacerbate patient safety risks
(Adams et al., 2017).
10
While these concerns warrant careful ethical examination, here I focus on
examining global health equity issues arising in the context of medical tourism industry
development in the global south and catering to medical tourists from the global north.
Academic discussions have suggested that industry development in this context
provides “foreign safety nets” or “escape valves” for patients who can pay out-of-pocket
for care in the medical tourism industry as a result of economic asymmetries between
sending and destination countries (Cortez, 2013; Horton & Cole, 2011). In particular,
academic discussions have raised global health equity concerns about industry
development in this context if public funds in countries with high levels of unmet health
care needs (i.e., India; Mexico) are used to subsidize care provision to foreign patients
from more highly resourced countries (Sengupta, 2011). Research has demonstrated
how, in certain contexts, public funds have been invested in medical tourism industry
development as a form of tourism diversification with limited oversight or attention from
government officials as to how many local patients will be treated as a result of this
investment (Johnston et al., 2016; Ormond, 2013).
Medical tourism industry stakeholders have responded to health equity concerns
around industry practices by highlighting the economic opportunities generated by the
industry, suggesting the economic gains from the industry can be invested back into the
public health care system and offset any negative impacts (Ormond, 2013; Snyder et al.,
2015). Academics have questioned whether these economic gains are actually realized
in various industry sites and whether substantial industry profits are invested into the
public health care system to serve the populations most in need of health care (Imison &
Schweinsberg, 2013; Sengupta, 2011). Research conducted by Johnston et al. (2016)
indicates that governments in the Caribbean have dedicated time and resources to
attract foreign investors while some governments in the region have paid for policy
recommendations from the MTA. These efforts have raised concerns about the role of
the MTA and other actors with a vested interest in the profitability of the industry if they
promote industry development to financially support their organization with limited
consideration for the on-the-ground realities for industry stakeholders in this competitive
global industry. These concerns are particularly relevant in contexts where the MTA
promotes industry development to countries in the global south whose economies are
highly dependent on tourism as these countries are likely competing for the same pool of
prospective medical tourists. This competition might not only limit the number of medical
11
tourists who actually travel to each of these countries, despite public investment in
industry development, but it might also produce a race-to-the-bottom effect if industry
sites try to attract customers with lower prices, limiting the profitability of the industry for
local stakeholders (Snyder et al., 2016). Furthermore, researchers have indicated that
industry profits do not necessarily flow into the public sector in countries providing care
to medical tourists as significant quantities of industry profits are likely diverted out of
medical tourism industry sites to foreign investors, medical tourism facilitation
companies, and other stakeholders operating in the global north (Chen & Flood, 2013).
This diversion of profits contributes to concerns that the industry is being oversold by the
media and industry sources of information to promote industry development which is
beneficial to elite industry stakeholders but provides limited economic and health
benefits to communities in destination countries (Imison & Schweinsberg, 2013; Snyder
et al., 2016).
Overall, global health equity concerns for the industry are multifaceted and
complicated by differing measures or indicators of health equity. Health care systems
are nationally bounded and thus health equity measures primarily focus on the
distribution of resources within countries and compare these distribution mechanisms
between countries. However, researchers contend that health equity assessments must
also consider global mechanisms as the local distribution of health resources is highly
impacted by complex structural processes operating at a global scale and producing
vast differences in access to health resources between countries (Peter & Evans, 2001).
In the case of medical tourism, health equity measures might also fail to consider how
different forms and structures of medical tourism industry development differentially
interact with national health care systems. For example, public health sector
representatives have indicated that the growth of medical tourism practices in Barbados
might actually enhance access to otherwise unavailable health care domestically if
industry investment attracts medical professionals to stay when they might otherwise
have emigrated for employment opportunities (Johnston et al., 2015). Meghani (2011)
also demonstrates that in some health system contexts where there is an extensive
private health sector (i.e., India and Mexico), resources would likely not flow back into
the public sector if medical tourism practices were shut down, complicating health equity
concerns for the industry based on measurable changes to the public health care
system.
12
This dissertation takes up and nuances theoretical discussions regarding
concerns for global health equity impacts of medical tourism practices by considering
how structural factors inform localized medical tourism industry practices and the
experiences of local populations interacting with this industry. This research builds on
theoretical discussions by Smith (2012) who suggests that health equity frameworks,
when narrowly interpreted, might neglect to consider how medical tourism activities
inform health care provision and health outcomes via multiple social mechanisms,
including global relations of power. Furthermore, academic discussions of global health
equity concerns for medical tourism industry development in the global south might
assume the medical tourism industry is imposed by foreign private health care facilities
and industry stakeholders on communities passively accepting this development,
ignoring the various ways in which this industry might also enhance access to care and
other resources needed for health and well-being in destination sites (Nagla, 2012;
Whittaker et al., 2010). Research suggests that elite industry stakeholders, defined here
as individuals and organizations substantially benefitting from industry activities and able
to adjust to industry fluctuations, live and work throughout the global north and global
south, highlighting the significant role of in-country elite stakeholders in shaping industry
practices in medical tourism industry sites (Ormond, 2011). The role of in-country elite
stakeholders in shaping industry practices suggests that health equity impacts of
medical tourism are informed by complex social phenomena informing particular
practices interacting with particular social determinants of health in specific localized
industry sites (Nagla, 2012). I discuss possible ways of capturing this complexity when
examining health equity impacts of medical tourism in the next section.
1.2.3. Structural exploitation and medical tourism
Given the challenge of identifying health equity impacts of medical tourism
activities across different health care systems, ethical examinations of industry practices
warrant in-depth analyses of how different individuals occupying various social positions
interact with and experience the industry to draw attention to the various ways in which
industry practices might inform social determinants of ill-health (Meghani, 2011). These
ethical evaluations of medical tourism will benefit from employing social justice
frameworks that specifically address unfair interactions stemming from and reproducing
large structural injustices such as poor access to care (Mitra & Biller-Andorno, 2013).
13
With this in mind, this dissertation draws on ethical frameworks including structural
injustice and structural exploitation to examine the social conditions informing health
inequities and mediated by the medical tourism industry. This section will provide an
extensive discussion of the terms structural injustice and structural exploitation, drawing
on various theories of exploitation to indicate how I use these terms throughout my
dissertation.
The term exploitation is broadly defined as taking advantage of another’s
vulnerability to derive benefit for oneself (Snyder, 2013). The wrongful nature of
structural exploitation is a contentious issue in the literature, with various descriptions of
what constitutes exploitation and why this type of interaction is morally impermissible
(Sample, 2003; Snyder, 2013; Wertheimer, 1999). Zwolinski (2011) asserts that the
wrongful nature of structural exploitation lies in the unfair benefitting of certain parties
from interactions that perpetuate future unfair transactions, informing a system of unfair
interactions. The unfairness of the interaction is judged on the basis of the distribution of
benefits and burdens, informed by the resulting welfare and utility of those involved in
the interaction. Zwolinski (2011) argues that agents are blameworthy of structural
exploitation when reinforcing and maintaining interactions that have negative impacts on
the welfare of individuals.
In this dissertation, I agree with theorists such as Sample (2003) and Snyder
(2013) who argue that the wrongful nature of structural exploitation lies in the
degradation that occurs in these interactions. Sample (2003) asserts that structural
exploitation occurs when interactions within a system or institution ignore the needs for
human flourishing of the individuals in the interaction. As a result, this system enables
interactions that do not respect the dignity of individuals, neglecting their needs for
human flourishing as a means of maintaining and reinforcing the existing system
(Sample, 2003). Snyder’s argument aligns with this interpretation of structural
exploitation as degradation by suggesting that the wrongfulness of structural exploitation
is due to the failure of these interactions to respect the dignity of the parties whose
needs for flourishing are not being met (Kissiah, 2014). This interpretation of structural
exploitation differs from the conceptualization offered by Zwolinski (2011) as it focuses
on the degradation resulting from the failure of parties to address structural injustices
instead of evaluating the distribution of benefits and burdens. I believe Zwolinski’s (2011)
interpretation fails to provide adequate guidance on how to measure the supposed
14
benefits and burdens that are realized from different transactions as well as how to
assess the fairness of their distribution.
With this understanding of the wrongful nature of structural exploitation, I
consider structural exploitation to occur in cases where interactions or practices take
advantage of structural injustices to maintain and reinforce certain systems or
institutions, perpetuating the existence of structural injustices by failing to address the
needs of interacting parties despite opportunities to do so within these interactions.
Various structural injustices prevent these capabilities from being held by individuals and
populations, such as economic disparities, gender inequality, and institutional racism
(Young, 2003). Structural exploitation is closely related to structural injustice but uniquely
wrong as degrading systemic practices produce interactions that may be unjust but not
exploitative. In cases where degrading interactions perpetuate structural injustices to
reinforce certain systems and institutions, these cases are both unjust and structurally
exploitative (Sample, 2003).
Ethical considerations for medical tourism have suggested that practices involved
in the industry may serve a degrading or repressive function when drawing resources
away from the public health care sector and limiting access to health care for those
unable to pay as a means of increasing profits for private health care operations
(Meghani, 2011). According to the definition of structural exploitation provided above,
even if overall access to health resources is not made worse compared to a baseline of
no interaction, these practices may still be structurally exploitative if the parties
controlling these modes of production fail to provide individuals involved in these
interactions with the capabilities for human flourishing. Despite various claims in the
literature about the exploitative nature of medical tourism (Judkins, 2007), there has
been limited empirical research demonstrating how and why medical tourism practices
are exploitative, under what conditions, and with what players serving as exploiter and
exploited parties. Research examining structural exploitation in medical tourism can look
for the following conditions that are likely to be found in structural exploitation according
to the definition provided above: 1) existing structural injustice; 2) reliance of industry
practices on the structural injustice; 3) benefit of a subset of society from these
injustices; 4) failure of these beneficiaries to address the injustice. Institutions and
practices that operate under these conditions can most likely be deemed as structurally
exploitative.
15
1.2.4. Medical tourism industry development in Mexico
This dissertation focuses on examining one medical tourism industry in Mexico, a
global south nation highly dependent on tourism for economic development (Berger &
Wood, 2010). The medical tourism industry in Mexico has garnered significant attention
both in the media and academic resources given the extensive industry development in
various regions of the country (Nuñez et al., 2014). Research has indicated that
government officials have promoted medical tourism industry development. The federal
government has officially supported industry development as a form of tourism
diversification, resulting in financial support to municipalities pursuing industry
development and efforts to market and promote the industry to foreign tourists (Ormond,
2013). While this development has garnered some critical attention in the academic
literature, particularly if industry competition perpetuates structural injustices via low
wages (Judkins, 2007), there remains limited examination of the lived experiences and
perspectives of local residents and industry employees working in particular industry
sites and the conditions and contexts in which industry practices might be perceived as
unjust.
Tourism is the third largest industry in Mexico (Gamez & Angeles, 2010) and
government support for the tourism industry can be traced back to the 1950’s (Berger &
Wood, 2010). This support has included financial resources, land for industry
development, and policy changes to support new tourism ventures (Mowforth et al.,
2008). Critiques of tourism development as an economic development strategy highlight
concerns related to the vulnerability of the industry, particularly in contexts of high
competition for tourists keen to participate in lower-cost tourism activities (Gamez &
Angeles, 2010). This vulnerability is particularly relevant to marginalized populations
dependent on the tourism industry and who have limited alternative economic
opportunities (Wilson et al. 2012). For example, in Baja California Sur, Mexico, foreign
property-owners can easily move back and forth between their place of origin and Baja
California Sur. At the same time, a large marginalized population is excluded from using
certain areas of land along the coast and cannot access the same resources and
economic gains as elite industry stakeholders such as tourist operators and tourists with
higher purchasing power than marginalized local populations (Gamez & Angeles, 2010).
16
Additionally, natural disasters or changes to the multinational tourism industry
can be devastating to populations who cannot as easily pick up and move back to other
regions of Mexico or return to the global north to take up new economic opportunities in
unaffected areas (Gamez & Angeles, 2010; Mowforth et al., 2008). As these examples
demonstrate, even where tourism is a large contributor, if not the largest contributor, to
national economies in Latin America, academics have documented how these economic
gains do not necessarily translate into improved standards of living for large portions of
the population, raising concern that tourism activities in many destinations might
exacerbate inequalities by producing “islands of development” (Mize & Swords, 2008,
p.28) within a sea of poverty (Mowforth et al., 2008). This is particularly true where
tourism industry development has resulted in inequitable land use and labour practices
by corporatizing property and increasing dependence on informal low-wage labour to
maintain the reputations of lower-cost travel destinations (Mize & Swords, 2008).
Concerns for tourism development in many regions of Mexico are relevant to the
medical tourism industry. Medical tourism industry development in Mexico seemingly
occurs in areas with existing tourism infrastructure, development which has garnered
significant concerns for how this might extend structural injustices to enhance profitability
of tourism ventures (Mowforth et al., 2008). Researchers suggest that medical tourism
industry development might develop similarly to other tourism industries in Mexico if
economic benefits from the industry are concentrated in the hands of elite industry
stakeholders while many industry employees and local residents have limited input into
this development and remain highly vulnerable to industry fluctuations (Nuñez et al.,
2014). For example, research conducted by Dalstrom (2010; 2013) emphasizes how
prejudiced assumptions from American and Canadian medical tourists about medical
care provision in Mexico encourages Mexican industry stakeholders to develop care
which is acceptable to foreign patients by “shadowing” care provision in the United
States. This “shadowing” necessitates concerted efforts to develop acceptable facilities
and treatment options from different stakeholders with a vested interest in the profitability
of medical tourism industry sites in Mexico (Dalstrom, 2010; 2013). The investment of
public funds in medical tourism industry development in Mexico raises concerns about
how this investment might divert resources necessary to promote the health and
wellbeing of the public if the industry caters primarily to foreign patients purchasing
services within the private health care sector (Sengupta, 2011).
17
Finally, ethical examination of medical tourism industry development in Mexico
provides useful insight into concerns for the privatization of health care services to
enhance medical tourism infrastructure (Johnston et al., 2016). After nearly 30 years
since their implementation via Structural Adjustment Policies, neoliberal principles have
failed to bring the millions of impoverished Mexicans out of poverty. The privatization of
services such as health care have enabled economic gains to concentrate in the private
sector, limiting the provision of public services. This privatization has primarily occurred
through tax cuts and government subsidies for private businesses (Ruiz, 2010). The
extensive provision of privately financed health services in Mexico also raises concerns
about the introduction of financial barriers to health care for services not available in the
public sector and the resulting health equity impacts of these barriers. For example, only
48% of dental care provision in Mexico was covered by public insurance in 2002 while
dentists suggested that the public sector poorly addresses oral health problems, leaving
millions of Mexicans with poor access to needed dental care (Perez-Nunez et al., 2007;
Maupome et al., 1998; Perez-Nunez et al., 2006). As the majority of health services in
Mexico are delivered through the private sector, medical tourism activities can easily
build on existing private care infrastructure. While medical tourism activities in this
context might promote economic development, as discussed above, the reliance of the
industry on the private health care sector raises concerns for how industry development
might extend or legitimize government support for the privatization of health care,
exacerbating financial barriers to adequate care for the large number of Mexican
residents living in poverty (Nuñez et al., 2014).
1.2.5. Medical Tourism in Northern Mexico
In northern Mexico, tourism industry development has been informed by
proximity to the Mexico-US border, encouraging a form of tourism based traditionally on
“vices” (i.e., alcohol during American prohibition) and, increasingly, on medical care at
lower costs than is typically available in the global north (Dalstrom, 2013; Schantz,
2010;). Literature on the Mexico-US border region emphasizes that the region itself is
not well-defined given that there are no politico-legal boundaries identifying where the
region starts and stops (Fernandez, 1989). According to the La Paz Agreement signed in
1983, the Mexico-Us border area includes all territory within 100 km on either side of the
boundary line (Kearney, 2004). With this rather arbitrary boundary, this region has
18
become a site of inquiry due to its socioeconomic phenomena, whereby economic
activities occurring on either side of the border are heavily reliant on the regular
movement of goods and people across the border (Fernandez, 1989). Drawing on this
description, I consider the northern Mexican border region to consist of all Mexican
towns and cities situated within close proximity of the Mexico-US border for whom the
majority of their economic activities are reliant on foreign consumption. This definition
enables a coherent identification of cities and towns in this region that share similar
contexts of economic development based on globalization and integration with the US
economy, thus providing a foundation for analyzing this form of economic development.
Many of the industrial activities occurring in northern Mexican border towns have
raised red flags about the structurally exploitative nature of their practices, suggesting
that the extensive medical tourism industry development in this region might be
characterized by similar unjust labour conditions to enhance profitability for elite industry
stakeholders (McCrossen, 2009). The maquiladora industry has raised numerous social
justice concerns based on poor labour conditions in the manufacturing factories
employing Mexican residents with limited alternative economic opportunities (Huesca,
2004). The perpetuation of unjust labour conditions in the maquiladoras, including health
and safety risks in hazardous occupations, low wages, and poor job protection, to
enhance industry profitability is just one example of exploitation occurring in the
borderlands (Arnold & Hartman, 2006; Frey, 2002). Foreign agricultural businesses have
also chosen to operate in Mexico because the land is relatively inexpensive and, with
over half the population of Mexico living in poverty, companies are assured access to
cheap labour within flexible regulatory environments. Furthermore, proximity to the
Mexico-US border facilitates the movement of goods and services for customers in the
global north (Ruiz, 2010).
The conditions in which maquiladora activities are occurring raise concerns about
a race-to-the-bottom effect producing unjust practices, such as those listed above, to
maximize their profits. This race-to-the-bottom effect might occur within transnational or
global industries as elite industry stakeholders seek out the right industry site to
maximize profits. Sites in the global south keen to enhance their economic activities
might adjust their labour standards and regulatory frameworks to entice foreign
investment and industry development. By lowering standards and adjusting regulation to
fit the profit-demands of transnational corporations, stakeholders for different industry
19
sites might encourage unjust practices to compete for investment and customers (Mize
& Swords, 2010; Ong, 1999).
While medical tourism industry development in the borderlands has not received
the same critical attention as the maquiladora industry, there are arguments suggesting
this development similarly exploits asymmetries in the politico-economic contexts of the
Mexico-US border to benefit industry development. This concern aligns particularly well
with ethical critiques of the maquiladora industry as medical tourism practices in northern
Mexico are often characterized in the media as providing lower cost care then other sites
in the global medical tourism industry, raising concerns about practices used to compete
for customers and negatively affecting labour conditions such as wages (Judkins, 2007).
Media reports suggest that both Mexican and foreign-owned hospital corporations have
established facilities in this region while various facilitator companies have a vested
interest in the profitability of the medical tourism industry through their work connecting
foreign patients to clinics (Zimmerman, 2010). Although medical tourism is a relatively
new industry in border towns (Miller-Thayer, 2010), the rapid growth of the industry
suggests that research on the actual experiences of people working in and interacting
with the industry on a daily basis is needed to better understand the impacts of this
industry on the lives of Mexicans and their access to health care, both within this region
and throughout the country (Judkins, 2007).
1.3. Dental tourism in Los Algodones, Mexico
Medical tourism industry development in the Mexican borderlands region has
been characterized by sites providing dental care (Miller-Thayer, 2010), bariatric surgery
(Snyder et al., 2016b), and facilities to purchase pharmaceuticals and/or experimental or
unproven medical interventions (Judkins, 2007; Dalstrom, 2013). This dissertation
focuses on examining one case of medical tourism industry development in northern
Mexico, namely Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry, to develop a better
understanding of how the socio-political context of this industry development and its
current operation informs industry practices and the experiences of different industry
stakeholders with these practices. Dental tourism is defined as the provision of dental
care to foreign patients traveling out-of-country with the intention to privately purchase
dental services (Judkins, 2007). Dental services are important preventative health
interventions for various acute and chronic diseases. Regular visits to the dentist ensure
20
topical fluorides and dental sealants are appropriately applied to dental surfaces and
education is provided to dental patients regarding tooth brushing and flossing habits.
These interventions prevent tooth decay, periodontitis, and long term impacts of oral
disease including impacts on speech, nutrition, and quality of life (Mouradian, Wehr &
Crall, 2000). Furthermore, poor dental care leads to an increased risk of myocardial
infarction and atherosclerosis (Meyer & Fives-Taylor, 1998). Overall, research indicates
that regular visits to the dentist provide important preventative care, avoiding major oral
health problems requiring costly interventions later in life, potentially prompting dental
tourists to travel abroad for more affordable care (Grootendorst & Quinonez, 2011;
Turner, 2007).
There is a large body of literature examining issues with access to dental care in
Canada and the US. For example, in the US, children from families without dental
insurance are three times more likely to have dental-related health complications than
children with some form of insurance for dental care (Lave et al., 1998). In Canada,
where 95% of dental expenditures are financed privately, only 64% of Canadians visit a
dentist once per year, the frequency recommended by medical professionals to promote
good health. The probability of a Canadian resident visiting a dentist as recommended is
twice as high for Canadians from the highest income quartile compared to the lowest.
Overall, these statistics demonstrate limited access to dental care for many Canadians
and Americans without adequate insurance (Grignon et al., 2010). Given the inequitable
access to dental care in these two countries, various population groups have complex
dental needs resulting from years without appropriate dental interventions. These unmet
needs likely motivate Canadians and Americans to cross the border into Mexico to
access affordable dental care (Miller-Thayer, 2010).
In many Mexican towns close to the border, dental care is big business and
dental professionals and companies have capitalized on proximity to the border by
developing clinics in this region (Gaynor, 2009). Located on the Mexican side of the
border crossing near Yuma, Arizona, the small community of Los Algodones (current
population is approximately 6000 people) is a town whose economy increasingly relies
on the dental tourism industry. Originally settled in 1876 by farmers, Los Algodones
became a quick stopover after crossing the border and before continuing on to the larger
city of Mexicali, 40 miles west. Through the 1900’s, the town evolved into a small tourist
stop and a residential village for nearby farms in the Colorado River delta located south
21
of Los Algodones (Oberle & Arreola, 2004). In the 1980’s, a dentist by the name of Dr.
Bernardo Magana arrived in Los Algodones to practice as the sole dentist in a town of
about 750 people at that time (Henton, 2011; Stanton, 2017). According to Dr. Magana,
after living in the border town and witnessing the number of tourists already crossing the
border every day, he decided to expand his business by attracting tourists to use his
dental services (Corchado, 2013). After marketing his dental services to foreigners
already crossing the border to save money shopping in the pharmacies or grocery
stores, Dr. Magana began treating numerous foreign dental patients. He has since
grown his practice to include 50 dentists operating in dental clinics within Los Algodones.
Other dentists have also followed Dr. Magana’s lead, migrating to Los Algodones to
work in the dental tourism industry. In total, approximately 350 to 500 dentists currently
operate in Los Algodones (Ximénez de Sandoval, 2014) and media reports suggest that
anywhere from 6,000 to 12,000 Canadians access dental care in this town annually
along with thousands of American patients (Sinoski, 2011).
Along with dental tourism, other tourism-focused businesses operate within Los
Algodones. For example, pharmaceutical tourism, characterized by foreigners crossing
the border to purchase pharmaceuticals, is also a thriving industry in this town with
multiple pharmacies selling medications at much lower costs than in tourists’ home
countries. Restaurants and bars in this area cater to tourists while small souvenir shops
called curios line the narrow streets. Tourists typically spend the day in Los Algodones
accessing their dental care, buying medications, and perusing the curios stands (Oberle
& Arreola, 2004). Many tourists visiting Los Algodones cross the border by foot, parking
their cars in a large private parking lot on the US side (Jacobs, 2014). While tourists visit
Los Algodones for a variety of reasons, the dental tourism industry in Los Algodones has
been the focus of media attention in American and Canadian news sources with reports
suggesting that Los Algodones is “Molar City” with the most dentists per capita in the
world operating in this town (Jacobs, 2014; Kaufman, 2013). This media narrative
presents the industry as a win-win by emphasizing how the clustering of dental clinics
necessarily enhances patient access to care for patients shopping around within this
“dental oasis” while providing employment for local residents via tourism (Henton, 2011).
The extensive American and Canadian media coverage of Los Algodones’ dental
tourism industry largely informed my decision to focus my research on this particular
industry site as I was interested in examining industry practices within a site commonly
22
visited by Canadians and with a well-established medical tourism sector. When I walked
across the Mexico-US border and entered Los Algodones for the first time in May, 2015,
I was surprised by the sheer concentration of dental clinics clustered near the border
crossing. I was also quickly overwhelmed by information as various men, locally referred
to as street promoters, were vying for my attention, offering business cards and
directions to their employers’ dental clinics. As I walked throughout the town over the
months I lived in Los Algodones during 2015 and 2016, I came to learn more and more
about the various populations employed in the industry and their role in supporting the
success of different businesses operating in Los Algodones. While many (but not all) of
the dentists I interviewed suggested that they are originally from Los Algodones or
neighbouring municipalities or regions within the state of Baja California, most of the
street promoters I chatted with during my fieldwork are deported Mexican Americans
who speak fluent English and are employed by dental clinics keen to attract customers
with marketing provided in English. I was also informed that the majority of curios
vendors and employees in the local restaurants and bars are migrants from southern
Mexico who have migrated to Los Algodones permanently or as part of a circuitous
migration, following the tourist dollar during prime tourism season and returning home in
between. Figure 2 and 3 below highlight the concentration of dental clinics in Los
Algodones and affiliated employment opportunities.
Figure 2 Dental clinics clustered on one of the main streets in Los Algodones Photo credit: Krystyna Adams, 2015
23
Figure 3 Economic activities in front of dental clinics lining the streets of Los Algodones
Photo credit: Krystyna Adams, 2015
The images above illustrate how, despite being a small, rural town, Los
Algodones is also a meeting point for international populations from diverse
backgrounds and social positions as a result of numerous social factors shaping
individual desires to participate in the dental tourism industry. This confluence of
populations from such diverse backgrounds and geographic locations highlights how the
border region might be a particularly rich context in which to explore ethical concerns
around medical tourism. While medical tourism industry development in the global south
brings together patients and providers within the private sector (Lunt & Carrera, 2010),
the case of Los Algodones highlights how diverse populations from the global north and
global south are also implicated in this industry development. This case also
demonstrates how, despite media reports applauding the industry for expanding access
to needed health care for thousands of patients, this improved access might only be
available to patients from the global north despite oral health needs amongst vulnerable
and marginalized populations living and working in this “dental oasis” (Henton, 2011).
Most of the local residents and employees I spoke with during my fieldwork
indicated that almost all of the patients treated in the dental clinics in Los Algodones are
from Canada and the US (dentists suggested they treat anywhere from 90% to 98%
foreign patients). While some of these patients might decide to purchase care once
24
already visiting this small town, most dental clinics in Los Algodones seemingly rely on
the visibility and promotion of dental clinics on the internet and by medical tourism
facilitation companies recommending their services to prospective patients. As a result,
these facilitation companies (often operating in the global north) participate in the
marketing and promotion of the industry to enhance industry development and,
subsequently, the profitability of their businesses as they are typically paid via patient
fees or on commission by recommended dental clinics in Los Algodones (Dalstrom,
2012). Given that so many dental clinics in Los Algodones seemingly rely on facilitation
companies to attract customers, this dependence raises concerns about how these
companies might shape industry policies and practices in ways that align with their
business interests while ignoring the needs and wellbeing of other industry stakeholders,
particularly when operating from afar with limited understanding for how their role
shapes industry practices on the ground (Meghani, 2011).
Furthermore, research indicates that, as a town whose economy relies almost
entirely on medical tourism, Los Algodones’ government representatives and many of
the dental clinic owners work to protect the reputation of Los Algodones through various
activities which ensure dental tourists are satisfied and recommend the care to other
potential dental tourists (Judkins, 2007; Oberle & Arreola, 2004). For example, the town
has taken numerous precautions to protect the reputation of this medical tourism
industry site as a safe place to access more affordable care. According to media and
academic sources, these precautions have included the presence of tourism police,
secured parking lots, and the development of professional associations for dentists and
pharmacists to minimize the occurrence of disruptions that might tarnish the reputation
of Los Algodones as a safe town with high-quality dental services. While these
precautions protect the existing flow of medical tourists across the US-Mexico border,
these precautions, and other industry policies and practices described in the media,
raise concerns about how the industry interacts with the everyday lives of numerous
employees and local residents, particularly if these policies and practices are
implemented to enhance the profitability of activities for elite industry stakeholders
(Judkins, 2007). These concerns, largely informed by examinations of transnational
industrial activities operating in the borderlands, influenced the development of this
dissertation and my research objectives, as described in further detail below.
25
1.4. Dissertation rationale and structure
1.4.1. Research Objectives
As I have discussed in this introduction, Los Algodones, Mexico is characteristic
of other medical border towns whose proximity to the Mexico-US border enables
American and Canadian patients to take advantage of economic asymmetries on either
side of the border to access desired health care. Los Algodones is unique, however, in
its focus on the provision of dental care and claims by local residents that it has the
highest concentration of dentists per capita in the world. While these claims are not
substantiated by any empirical evidence, media descriptions of Los Algodones as the
“dental capital of Mexico” and a “dental oasis” are illustrative of how the concentration is
perceived by many industry stakeholders (Henton, 2011; Robbins, 2014). This industry
site and the positive media portrayals of its exceptional concentration of health care
resources provides a lens through which to examine how and why industry practices
raise ethical concern. The study presented in this dissertation responds to a gap in the
literature regarding ethical concerns for medical tourism informed by empirical research
and grounded in multiple ethical frameworks (Snyder et al., 2013; Widdows, 2011). By
examining the lived experiences of individuals working and residing in this industry site,
this research outlines how structural factors such as global relations of power might
shape localized industry practices, and particularly unjust practices. This study also aims
to develop a better understanding of how and why unjust industry practices might be
occurring, drawing attention to discourses about the industry and the lived experiences
of particular industry stakeholders upholding an overly simplistic portrayal of the industry
as a win-win activity.
Specifically, this research was informed by the following objectives: 1) identify the
discourses driving dental tourism industry development in Los Algodones and analyze
how these discourses are taken up and whose interests are served by these discourses;
2) describe the lived experiences of individuals interacting with the dental tourism
industry in Los Algodones, highlighting the perspectives of various industry stakeholders
on the impacts of the industry on their everyday lives; 3) analyze whether or not dental
tourism practices operating in Los Algodones present a case of structural exploitation
and identify the conditions under which this exploitation is occurring. Together, these
objectives aim to develop a rich description of dental tourism practices in Los Algodones
26
to nuance ethical considerations for medical tourism through a structural exploitation
lens.
Drawing on case study methodology, this research provides an in-depth analysis
of one industry site. This methodology enables an examination of medical tourism
industry practices bounded by this particular industry site (Hartley, 2004). While many of
the findings and discussions presented in this dissertation emphasize industry practices
which might be unique to Los Algodones, I believe these findings are relevant to other
medical tourism industry sites. This critical examination of industry practices within this
one site highlights the structural conditions in which unjust practices are occurring,
tracing how conditions such as tourism dependence, high rates of poverty, and global
relations of power interact with the industry to inform social determinants of health and
subsequent health inequities. These conditions are likely relevant to other medical
tourism industry sites and thus, provide important considerations for ethical
examinations of medical tourism practices in a variety of contexts. However, as
discussed throughout this dissertation, this research might be of particular relevance to
other industry sites reliant on economic asymmetries between medical tourists’ home
countries and the countries where medical tourists are being treated as well as the
proximity of these asymmetries that characterizes the border region (McCrossen, 2009).
1.4.2. Chapter Overviews
This dissertation is structured according to the paper-based model. It is
composed of four different analyses involving three different data sets. Chapters 2, 4, 6,
and 7 are standalone analytic papers with three of these papers published in academic
journals and one paper to be submitted in January, 2018. Between chapters 2, 4, and 6,
I have provided a short bridging or transitional chapter to situate the next analysis within
the larger dissertation project and the objectives of this research. These two bridging
chapters are used to describe a transition between data sets informing the analyses.
Brief overviews of the analytic chapters are provided below.
27
Chapter 2: “The perfect storm”: What’s pushing Canadians abroad for dental care?
This chapter draws on data collected with representatives of provincial and
national dental associations, dental schools, and dental advocacy groups to develop a
better understanding of possible systemic factors pushing Canadians abroad for dental
care. This is the only chapter in this dissertation that discusses perspectives from
medical providers, policymakers, and patient advocacy groups in Canada, providing an
overview of the context in which Canadians decide to participate in dental tourism. This
perspective provides important insight into structural factors in the global north which
contribute to the growth of the dental tourism (and medical tourism) industry in the global
south, specifically highlighting privatization of care and underinsured care coverage as
contributing to the growth of this global industry. As part of the whole dissertation, this
chapter provides an important discussion about the socio-political factors shaping
Canadians’ decisions to travel to places such as Los Algodones for care. This discussion
is relevant to other analyses in this dissertation which consider how, in certain contexts,
Canadian dental tourists have a responsibility to alleviate structural injustices
exacerbated by the dental tourism industry as elite industry stakeholders.
Drawing on interviews conducted with fourteen participants with extensive
knowledge of dental care provision in Canada, this analysis identifies systemic factors
related to how dental care is financed and delivered, rising costs of dental care, and
consumerism as potentially playing a role in Canadians’ decisions to purchase dental
care abroad. This analysis contends that further research on individual experiences
accessing and using dental care, both in Canada and abroad, could help provide a
better understanding of how these systemic factors are informing Canadians’ decision-
making regarding dental care, and, as a result, how to assign responsibility for ethical
concerns for the medical tourism industry. This research indicates that dental tourists
themselves face numerous systemic barriers to accessing needed dental care in their
home countries; however, Canadians are also participating in dental tourism, an
alternative care option that remains unavailable to patients unable to travel and pay out-
of-pocket for care. This analysis was developed as a co-authored paper and published
in the Journal of the Canadian Dental Association in 2017.
28
Chapter 4: Narratives of a “dental oasis”: Examining media portrayals of dental tourism in the border town of Los Algodones, Mexico
Chapter 4 of this dissertation provides a review of English language media
coverage of the dental tourism industry in Los Algodones published in Canadian and
American print media between 2000 and 2015. This analysis is the only paper
developed from this data set and provides an in-depth discussion of common media
portrayals of the industry published in common sending countries for dental tourists
traveling to Los Algodones. As a critical analysis of common discourses presented in
these media sources, this paper provides insight into the ways in which this industry site
might be perceived and understood by prospective dental tourists. In particular, this
analysis identifies the common narrative presented in these media articles and highlights
how this discourse might encourage Canadians and Americans to participate in this
industry while dismissing ethical concerns for industry practices and industry
development in this particular context.
Drawing on an analysis of seventeen news articles, along with my co-authors, we
argue in this paper that the common narrative presented by this media suggests that this
particular industry site is necessarily improving access to dental care and economic
development without discussing in detail for whom these health and economic benefits
are provided and under what conditions or structures of control. We raise concerns
regarding this overly simplified and unbalanced media portrayal of the industry as it fails
to consider the perspectives of industry stakeholders on both sides of the Mexico–US
border. In particular, this paper draws attention to the dominant voices in the media (i.e.,
dental tourists; dental clinic owners) while highlighting the missing perspectives of
individuals with continued poor access to dental care and/or economic resources despite
involvement in dental tourism activities in industry sites like Los Algodones. This analysis
builds on current theoretical discussions in the medical tourism literature regarding how
unbalanced media portrayals of medical tourism activities encourage continued industry
development with limited consideration for various ethical concerns for these industry
activities.
This analysis was published in the Journal of Borderlands Studies in 2017. As an
interdisciplinary journal focused on examining how “borders” (in various forms) shape
socio-political factors and lived realities on both or either side of these “borders”, this
journal venue informed my decision to highlight the location of Los Algodones in the
29
borderlands as raising particular ethical concerns analyzing specific social conditions
shaping industry development. In this analysis, I emphasize how the media ignores
these ethical concerns despite a rich literature describing ethical concerns for industries
operating within the northern Mexican borderlands. I return to these particular ethical
concerns in subsequent chapters of this dissertation.
Chapter 6: “Stay cool, sell stuff cheap, and smile”: Examining how reputational management of dental tourism reinforces structural oppression in Los Algodones, Mexico
Chapters 6 and 8 of this dissertation provide analyses of data collected during
nearly four months of field work I conducted from May, 2015 to May, 2016. During this
fieldwork, I interviewed 43 dental tourism industry stakeholders working in the industry in
Los Algodones to gain insight into their perspectives on and experiences of the industry.
I also lived in Los Algodones for the duration of this field work to learn as much as
possible about common industry practices and the experiences of multiple stakeholder
groups, including groups not typically represented in the medical tourism literature and
media sources of information. After performing thematic analysis of interview transcripts
and comparing these interviews with my field notes, along with my supervisory
committee, we identified two major themes emerging from these interview discussions.
Specifically, we identified common discussion from participants about how desires for
reputational management inform industry practices. We also found that many
participants discussed patient and provider empowerment to justify and legitimize
particular forms of industry development. Along with my supervisory committee, we
developed each of these themes into standalone academic papers.
In chapter 6, we examine interviewees’ discussions regarding the need for
reputational management of this industry site and the participation of various industry
stakeholders working in Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry in reputational
management activities. In this paper, we argue that many of these reputational
management practices reinforce structural injustices and raise concerns for structural
exploitation in the industry. Specifically, this analysis demonstrates how efforts by
industry stakeholders to protect the reputation of Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry
within the competitive global medical tourism industry encourage unjust practices
experienced by different individuals according to nationality, race, and class.
30
This analysis builds on the critical medical tourism literature by discussing the
conditions in which the industry might be considered structurally exploitative. We explain
here how these findings build on theoretical discussions regarding health equity impacts
of the industry. Specifically, we draw on interview discussions and my experiences in the
field to outline how many industry practices are informed by structural exploitation as
elite industry stakeholders work to protect their interests by responding to competition for
customers through the introduction of unfair policies and practices. We suggest that
these practices, including low wages, stressful working conditions, and exclusionary care
practices, exacerbate global health inequities through the perpetuation of social
determinants of ill-health such as poverty, poor access to health care, and inequitable
access to resources needed for wellbeing. We also draw on these findings to contend
that in-country elite stakeholders (i.e., the owners of large clinics; government
representatives) play a significant role in shaping industry development according to
their interests. Thus, we argue that elite industry stakeholders on both sides of the
border share responsibility for the realization of unjust industry practices, particularly
given their position of power in the industry. This analysis was published in Social
Science & Medicine in 2017.
Chapter 7: A critical examination of empowerment discourse in medical tourism: The case of Los Algodones, Mexico
This chapter also draws on data collected during my fieldwork in Los Algodones
to develop an analysis on how and why unjust industry practices are occurring in this
site. Along with my supervisory committee, we provide an examination of how
empowerment discourse is taken up by industry employees working in Los Algodones to
mask or obfuscate the realization of unjust practices within this industry site, particularly
when these injustices serve to enhance the profitability of the industry for some. We
highlight in this chapter how interviewees commonly suggested that the operation of the
industry within this particular site empowers care providers and local residents to access
professional development and economic opportunities made possible by this flow of
dental tourists across the border. Industry employees also emphasized in interviews how
this particular industry site empowers patients to improve their oral health by providing
more affordable and easily accessible dental care than is typically available in dental
tourists’ local care settings. However, we demonstrate here how these discourses are
easily disrupted and complicated by the realities on the ground as numerous individuals
living and working in Los Algodones do not gain improved access to dental care as a
31
result of the industry while economic gains from the industry are primarily afforded to
elite industry stakeholders. We demonstrate how care options and employment
opportunities are mostly available only to those able to pay for privately financed care
and/or take up positions of power securing desirable employment, further empowering
the already empowered
This chapter builds directly on the discussion developed in previous chapters of
this dissertation regarding ethical considerations for the medical tourism industry by
examining how the circulation of a discourse of empowerment can justify and legitimize
unjust industry practices and encourage continued development according to the
interests of particular industry stakeholders. This analysis builds on discussions
presented in the medical tourism literature which question the economic development
potential of the industry and health system development generated by the industry as
cited by media resources and elite industry stakeholders poised to profit from continued
industry development (see Johnston et al., 2015). Drawing on our empirical findings, we
argue that elite industry stakeholders take up a discourse of patient and provider
empowerment to legitimize industry development according to their interests, despite the
fact that this industry development contributes to uneven economic development in this
region. We contend that the concept of empowerment is taken up in this discourse to
suggest the health care and desirable employment options in Los Algodones can be
taken up by anyone, masking health equity concerns for the industry. We plan to submit
this paper for review in Globalization & Health.
Chapter 8: Conclusion
In this concluding chapter, I revisit my research objectives and provide a
discussion of how my four analyses address each of these objectives. I discuss these
objectives in turn and look across my four analyses to respond to each of my research
questions. This approach identifies important cross-cutting themes in my research
findings and examines these findings as they build onto the existing medical tourism
literature and theoretical discussions regarding ethical concerns for medical tourism. In
this chapter, I discuss how this case study demonstrates that, within certain contexts,
medical tourism practices might perpetuate structural injustices as they align closely with
neoliberal ideas of privatization of health care and industry development which
maximizes profitability for elite industry stakeholders.
32
Overall, by approaching ethical concerns for medical tourism using structural
exploitation and structural injustice frameworks, this concluding chapter makes sense of
seemingly disparate perspectives on and experiences of the dental tourism industry in
Los Algodones. At the end of this chapter, I highlight how together, these analyses
suggest that the implementation of policies and practices to secure the success of this
industry site within a competitive global industry encourage unjust practices and
exacerbate structural injustices and, subsequently, global health inequities. This ethical
examination of medical tourism practices builds on academic discussions regarding
health equity impacts of medical tourism industry development by focusing on how
structural factors shape localized industry practices, including unfair practices with
negative impacts on the health of marginalized populations. This research provides new
insight on ethical considerations of medical tourism drawn from different ethical
frameworks and emphasizing different ways in which the industry might exacerbate
social determinants of ill-health for particular populations.
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Chapter 2. The Perfect Storm: What’s Pushing Canadians Abroad for Dental Care?
Dental tourism occurs when people travel out of their home country to access
dental care abroad. In the absence of a reliable means to track patient involvement in
dental tourism, we cannot know how many people are traveling abroad for particular
procedures (Turner, 2008; 2009). However, academic and media reports suggest that
Canadians are traveling abroad for dental care when they face barriers to access, seek
care at a lower cost or both (Calvasina et al., 2015; Turner, 2009). Financial barriers are
particularly pronounced for underinsured, low-income Canadians, including those using
limited, publicly funded dental services and the “working poor,” i.e., those who do not
qualify for public insurance or employment-based insurance (Quinoñez & Grootendorst,
2011). Underinsured and socially marginalized Canadians are reported to seek needed
care options abroad (Turner, 2009; Zelniker, 2016) along with Canadian immigrants
(Calvasina et al., 2015). However, much of this discussion has focused on describing
pull factors and individual motivations, with only limited examination of systemic factors
that could play a role in pushing Canadians to participate in the dental tourism industry
Calvasina et al., 2015; Turner, 2009).
The following analysis responds to this knowledge gap. By documenting the
perspectives of targeted institutional stakeholders with extensive knowledge of the
dental care system in Canada, we provide an overview of how systemic factors such as
dental care financing and delivery, the rising costs of care and consumerism in dental
care could push Canadians abroad for dental care. Although we do not discuss here
particular contexts under which individual Canadians might decide to travel abroad for
dental care (see work by Calvasina and colleagues (2015), our objective is to highlight
broad systemic factors that should be considered when researching and addressing the
dental tourism phenomenon in Canada.
41
2.1. Methods
Between September and December 2015, we conducted eleven semi-structured
telephone interviews with fourteen key informants (two interviews were conducted with
multiple participants). Interviewees worked at Canadian institutions: seven in national,
provincial and territorial dental associations; two at dental schools; three in provincial
dental colleges (regulatory bodies); and two in patient advocacy groups. Interviews
lasted approximately 45 minutes.
After all authors agreed on an interview guide, KA conducted the interviews. As
the participants had different responsibilities in their organizations, the interviewer
facilitated conversation by adjusting questions according to participants’ areas of
expertise. The questions prompted informants to discuss issues related to access to
dental care in the region served by their organization, resources or programs available to
Canadians struggling to access dental care and knowledge of and perspectives on
Canadians’ participation in dental tourism.
Participants were recruited via email sent to organizations whose work focuses
on the development, regulation or promotion of dental care in Canada. All of the
Canadian dental associations (provincial, territorial and national) (n = 13), English-
language dental schools (n = 8) and dental regulatory authorities operating separately
from the dental associations (n = 5) were contacted. We also contacted Canadian
patient advocacy groups whose mandate includes promoting members’ access to dental
care (n = 10). Representatives of these organizations who were interested in
participating were required to read the study details and provide consent before the
interview.
Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Thematic analysis followed
(Guest et al., 2012). The authors first met and discussed the themes that emerged from
the transcripts and identified three systemic factors mentioned as producing barriers to
accessing dental care in Canada. Manual coding was used to identify data relevant to
each theme. The extracted data were then contrasted with the existing literature and our
study objectives to assess the scope of each theme.
42
2.2. Results
Participants emphasized their limited knowledge of overall trends in Canadians’
participation in dental tourism. However, they did suggest that when facing systemic
barriers to care, some Canadians likely seek alternative care options (e.g., services
provided in emergency rooms, by unlicensed dentists at home or by dentists abroad),
suggesting that systemic factors could play a role in Canadians’ participation in dental
tourism.
The three main themes or systemic factors emerging from these discussions
were financing and delivery, cost of care and consumerism in dentistry. We use quotes
to report participants’ views of these systemic factors.
2.2.1. Financing and Delivery
Participants raised concerns about Canadians’ lack of access to adequate dental
services as a result of gaps or limitations in the current Canadian dental care system
(Table 1 below). Quote 1 cites over-reliance on employer-based insurance coverage to
finance care, particularly for the working poor (Quiñonez & Figueiredo, 2010).
Participants suggested that precarious employment (e.g., shift splitting, contract work)
limits opportunities for employed people to obtain private dental insurance through work.
Moreover, with yearly maximums for dental coverage increasing little or not at all, even
patients with employer-based health benefits can face care needs not fully covered by
these forms of insurance.
Quote 2 raises the issue of the oral health of seniors without employer-based
dental insurance who are also ineligible to receive care funded by public insurance.
These concerns regarding insurance coverage suggest that under- and unemployed
Canadians might choose to access care abroad to save money on out-of-pocket dental
expenses. Participants also emphasized that programs providing care to low-income,
underinsured Canadians are geographically concentrated in urban centres, further
limiting access for rural Canadians facing financial barriers to accessing care. For
example, quotes 3 and 4 highlight financial inaccessibility that is amplified as a result of
geographic barriers. Furthermore, even in regions served by not-for-profit clinics and
43
dental schools, participants suggested that their capacity to treat is limited as they rely
on the availability of volunteer dentists and program funding.
Quote 5 describes concerns about financial barriers limiting access to dental care
compounded by other issues not related to geography. For example, participants
suggested that reduced rates for low-income patients are not always welcome if patients
feel stigmatized or providers are unprepared to use this system. Overall, participant
discussions highlighted how systemic factors related to financing and delivery could
produce a variety of barriers to access, causing people to seek out more easily
accessible and affordable options abroad.
44
Table 1. Participants’ views on financing and delivery of dental services.
No. Participant affiliation Quote
1 Provincial dental association
So I looked at the 1978 fee guide and compared it to the 2014 fee guide and... fees had gone up somewhere between 200 and 300 percent. During that time, the yearly maximums for typical dental plans went up from $1000 to $1200.... If a patient walks into an office now needing more than a check-up and a cleaning and a couple of fillings, the first time they need a root canal or a crown... they are going to hit their yearly maximum.
2 Provincial dental association
The provision of dental care to seniors is and has been a problem for a long time. And it’s not getting any better. Both the seniors in the general population have retired and possibly lost their dental plans or for seniors in long-term facilities they, they can’t access care either, it’s a problem with funding for them as well as access to people who can go give them treatment and facilities in homes that they can actually go and get it done.
3 Dental school
Well yeah, I mean you could come to the dental school [for more affordable care], but the problem then is you know, say you live [rurally], I mean, how often could you travel to... the dental school because dental students work more slowly than a dentist in private practice.
4 Dental school
So the problem really is, those, that group which is the lower socioeconomic group they’re falling through the cracks. So in fact the Faculty of Dentistry has lots of free volunteer clinics on the weekends that are students and faculty staff that help address the need, but still we can’t, it’s too many people for us to take care of.... I mean, we just don’t have the capacity to reach out to everyone and we do go around the province, we go to first nations reserves and do things, but the problem is we’re not big enough to cover the needs, when you think of the population... and think of a third of them as people are falling through the cracks.
5 Patient advocacy group
There’s also some issues with people on social assistance... you know they might need an alternative sort of model of care that isn’t accommodated in private practice... private providers don’t always accept the patients for those reasons, they limit how many people on these programs they see.
2.2.2. Cost of Care
Participants expressed concern about the rising costs of providing dental care,
potentially limiting the amount of care actually covered by insurance and exacerbating
barriers to access for under- or uninsured Canadians (Table 2 below). According to
participants, regulation and safety protocols have increased costs considerably over the
past few decades. However, participants emphasized that these costs are justifiable for
care to be safe and effective.
45
One participant (quote 1) compared a dental clinic to a mini-hospital in terms of
all the necessary protocols dentists must follow to meet standards set by associations
and colleges. This participant agreed with many others that the costs of providing dental
care are necessarily high to ensure patient safety; however, these necessary costs are
not always reflected in insurance coverage, leaving Canadians underinsured and
potentially motivated to find more affordable care options abroad.
Some participants also mentioned other costs, not associated with regulatory
requirements, that have been introduced into Canadian dental care, creating a “perfect
storm” of factors raising the cost of care. For example, in quote 2, increased dental care
costs are attributed to rising fees for dental education, suggesting that dentists must
charge high fees to pay back increasingly large student loans. Quote 3 indicates that for
many new dental graduates burdened with large student loans, the pressure to establish
a profitable business can be compounded by increasing competition for patients in urban
centres, driving them to increase fees to cover their operating costs and/or promote
increasingly novel treatment that might not be covered by insurance. Once again,
informants suggested that rising costs related to both regulation and costs of operation
could push some patients to purchase lower cost care abroad.
46
Table 2. Participants' views on cost of dental care
No. Participant affiliation Quote
1 Provincial dental association
There’s a very high overhead situation, it’s like a mini hospital because of all the things that have to be met.
2 Provincial dental college
One of the reasons that dentistry is so expensive and it is, there are several reasons and one is... the advent of dental insurance... that is a major changer as far as costs go because you know when you have a, when you have a dental insurance that’s covering 100% of your costs... then people are willing to have whatever done they need. And so you know with dental insurance of course the fees have gone up over the last four or five decades.... But what’s happened in conjunction with that is the cost of dental education... now we are at a point where there are way more dentists working for a lot less and education is a lot more and so it’s almost like the perfect storm... and there’s a lot of onerous things put on every dentist... to make sure that everything is as safe as it can be for your patients.
3 Provincial dental college
We know that from the data we understand that in Canada for any kind of private practice, you need 1200 to 1400 patients... to have a vibrant practice. And we know that the ratio in Toronto is about 700 and in Vancouver it’s 900.... Well you know, where people are coming to for treatment and how much they are paying for treatment, that’s reflected… um… I mean you are at SFU [in Vancouver] and I am sure you turn on the radio and you are bombarded by all types of advertisements from dentists about dentistry and dental practice. It’s just become competitive. Very, very competitive. It’s certainly driving the advertising promotion side, probably to a place we are not very comfortable with.
2.2.3. Consumerism in Dental Care
Interviews highlighted the role of cultural norms and evolving technology in
driving demand for services that are not always covered by insurance companies and
must be paid for out-of-pocket (Table 3 below). Quotes 1 and 2 illustrate participant
perceptions that, when paying out-of-pocket for dental care, Canadians might shop
around for the best value, just as they would when purchasing other goods and services.
Informants expressed concern that Canadian dental patients might emphasize cost of
care when deciding to participate in dental tourism or other alternative types of care
when their layperson’s knowledge limits their ability to judge the quality or safety of care.
Interview discussions also detailed how patients could face unanticipated out-of-
pocket costs as a result of lost insurance or new diagnoses, particularly when they have
47
not seen a dentist for an extended period. For example, patients who have never
previously paid out-of-pocket for services might be unaware of dental costs if their
insurance coverage decreases (quote 3). This participant highlighted how surprise costs
could also encourage Canadians to shop around for care and alternative options,
potentially leading some to consider dental tourism.
Table 3. Participants' views on the consumerist model of dental care
No. Participant affiliation Quote
1 Dental school In Canada if you’re going to a dentist you can ask for options and if, if the person does three crowns maybe it doesn’t have to be three crowns, maybe it can be one or two and I would say that most patients need to push harder on what are the other options, not the most expensive option.
2 Provincial dental association
So if somebody understands the value of their dental health, they understand they value of the care they need, in light of other costs in society, they’re not going to see dental care all that expensive... any patient that walks into my office in any condition whatsoever, I can get them to the point where they’re pain free and disease free and their mouth is stable and their future treatment needs are predictable for a cost of a package of cigarettes a day for a year.
3 Patient advocacy group
Maybe like a person goes to the dentist, again they’ve enjoyed dental insurance their entire lives, they retire, they lose their benefits and then they are told how much it’s going to cost to do whatever they want to do to keep up the oral health that they’re used to. And then they, they’re like blown away because they’d rather use that you know $5000 to travel or you know to enjoy their retirement and they never actually thought they’d have to pay that much.... I don’t think people always realize how much it costs to pay for things if they’ve had insurance.
2.3. Discussion
Our analysis suggests that some Canadians face barriers to access to domestic
dental care related to systemic factors: the financing and delivery of care; the rising
costs of providing care safely; and increasing consumerism in dental care. Perspectives
from fourteen people with extensive knowledge of dental care provision in Canada
indicate that these systemic factors could play a role in the dental tourism phenomenon,
although this research does not specifically suggest how these factors are informing
individual decision-making as we did not consult prospective or former dental tourists.
The academic literature on international medical travel suggests that Canadian
medical tourists are motivated to travel for care to take advantage of lower procedure
48
costs abroad, to avoid wait lists and to access domestically unavailable procedures
(Johnston et al., 2012). Although our research suggests that cost could be an important
factor in the decisions of Canadian dental tourists, given the systemic factors we
highlight above, there could be varied motivations for Canadians to travel abroad
(Turner, 2009).
Participants’ discussions of access to care barriers suggested that multiple
systemic factors related to financing and delivery differentially inform individuals’ access
to dental care. They identified barriers that are commonly discussed in the dental
literature, such as insufficient insurance coverage for the “working poor” (Quiñonez &
Figueiredo, 2010) and fragmented, geographically concentrated, and financially
unsustainable programs for vulnerable populations (“Improving access…”, 2014;
Wallace et al., 2010).
However, participants also highlighted how particular systemic factors can
amplify existing access challenges. For example, concerns about the limitations of
programs intended to meet the needs of vulnerable populations demonstrate that
diverse health determinants, including insurance status, socioeconomic status,
geographic location, aboriginal status, age, mobility and familiarity with dental care, can
produce overlapping vulnerabilities that exacerbate or introduce new levels of
inaccessibility (Hankivsky & Christofferson, 2008). Research already shows that
Canadian immigrants’ decisions to participate in dental tourism are informed by multiple
push factors, such as labour precariousness and language barriers, that limit adequate
care options (Calvasina et al., 2015). Our findings correspond with this research by
suggesting that interrelated systemic factors can exacerbate barriers to accessing dental
care, barriers which could ultimately push Canadians to participate in dental tourism.
Interviews also highlighted that increasing dental costs attributed to improved
safety and regulatory oversight can result in greater financial burdens on Canadian
patients seeking to protect or restore desired levels of oral health, (Mckay, 2013)
particularly for the third of Canadians without any form of dental insurance (“Putting our
money…”, 2011). Furthermore, insurance companies, public insurance and individual
patients must navigate what qualifies as “good” oral health and determine which
procedures are necessary to achieve this outcome within a context of evolving dental
technology and shifting cultural norms. Factors such as cultural expectations of care and
49
technological advancement shift demands for dental care in ways that can increase
costs for the patient (Mckay, 2013). Participants suggested that increasing costs of care
combined with reduced insurance coverage as well as shifting social norms could push
Canadians to shop around for care options, including alternative options abroad. As
consumers of dental care, patients might seek the best value, unaware that higher cost
care may be attributed to enhanced regulatory activities, which may not be reflected in
the costs of care charged by dental providers abroad. As a result, participants generally
expressed concern about the perceived growth of the dental tourism phenomenon in
terms of patient safety, while acknowledging the systemic pressures that could be
contributing to this growth.
Overall, this research examines how systemic barriers to accessing needed
dental care might push Canadians to seek alternative care options abroad. As the
means for overcoming these barriers, such as income and dental health awareness, rest
very much at the individual level, Canadians might feel they have no choice but to shop
around for what is perceived as lower cost, better value, or more easily accessible dental
care to meet their oral health needs. Canadians’ search for these care options might
push them towards participation in the dental tourism industry (Calvasina et al., 2015;
Lee, 2013; Ramraj & Quiñonez, 2013). The research presented in this paper
demonstrates a need for further examination of potential health safety and equity
concerns surrounding this phenomenon, particularly if pressure to address systemic
barriers to accessing dental care lessens if individuals who are able and willing to travel
abroad opt for dental tourism (“Improving access…”, 2014; Ravaghi et al., 2013).
Given that we spoke with only fourteen informants from a targeted population,
this research is limited in its ability to suggest the impact of dental tourism on the
Canadian dental care system and Canadians’ oral health. Although interviewees were
highly interested in discussing the topic of dental tourism, they had limited knowledge of
patients’ decisions and experiences regarding this subject. Further research examining
the lived experiences of Canadians seeking needed dental care, both in Canada and
abroad, could provide a better understanding of the contexts in which these decisions
are occurring and, as a result, how this phenomenon could affect dentistry and oral
health equity in Canada.
50
2.4. References
Calvasina, P., Muntaner, C. & Quiñonez, C. (2015). Transnational dental care among Canadian immigrants. Community Dentistry Oral Epidemiology, 43(5), 444-51.
Guest, G., MacQueen, K.M. & Namey, E.E. (2012). Applied thematic analysis. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publishing.
Hankivsky, O. & Christoffersen, A. (2008). Intersectionality and the determinants of health: a Canadian perspective. Critical Public Health, 18(3), 271-83.
Improving access to oral health care for vulnerable people living in Canada. (2014). Ottawa: Canadian Academy of Health Sciences. Available from: http://cahs-acss.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Access_to_Oral_Care_FINAL_REPORT_EN.pdf
Johnston, R., Crooks, V.A. & Snyder, J. (2012). “I didn’t even know what I was looking for”: a qualitative study of the decision-making processes of Canadian medical tourists. Global Health, 8(23). doi: 10.1186/1744-8603-8-23.
Lee J. (2013, August 13th). Court orders the arrest of unlicensed dentist. The Province.
McKay L. (2013). Publicly funded dental care in Ontario: rationing principles and rules. MSc thesis. Toronto: University of Toronto. Available: https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/35647/6/McKay_Linda_K_201306_MSc-DPH_thesis.pdf
Putting our money where our mouth is: the future of dental care in Canada. (2011). Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. Available from: https://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/National%20Office/2011/04/Putting%20our%20money%20where%20our%20mouth%20is.pdf
Ramraj, C.C. & Quiñonez, C.R. (2013). Emergency room visits for dental problems among working poor Canadians. Journal of Public Health Dentistry, 73(3), 210-216.
Ravaghi, V., Quiñonez, C. & Allison, P.J. (2013). Comparing inequalities in oral and general health: findings from the Canadian Health Measures Survey. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 104(7), 466-471.
Quiñonez, C. & Grootendorst, P. (2011). Equity in dental care among Canadian households. International Journal of Equity in Health, 10(14), https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-10-14
Quiñonez, C. & Figueiredo, R. (2010). Sorry doctor, I can’t afford the root canal, I have a job: Canadian dental care policy and the working poor. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 101(6), 481-5.
51
Turner, L. (2008). Cross-border dental care: ‘dental tourism’ and patient mobility. British Dental Journal, 204(10), 553-4.
Turner, L. (2009). “Dental tourism”: issues surrounding cross-border travel for dental care. Journal of the Canadian Dental Association, 75(2), 117-119. https://www.cda-adc.ca/jcda/vol-75/issue-2/117.pdf
Wallace, B.B., MacEntee, M.I., Harrison, R., Hole, R. & Mitton, C. (2012). Community dental clinics: providers’ perspectives. Community Dental Oral Epidemiology, 41(3),193-203.
Zelniker, R. (2016, August 26th). Lack of dental services takes painful toll on Nunavut community. Iqualuit: CBC North.
52
Chapter 3. From push to pull factors
The previous chapter provides a discussion of possible push factors motivating
Canadians to travel abroad for dental care. This analysis draws on interviews with
representatives of dental associations, dental schools, and patient advocacy groups to
examine structural factors shaping Canadians’ decisions to seek care options out-of-
country. This chapter is the only analysis that draws upon this dataset and the
perspectives provided by interviewees sheds light on the structural factors shaping
medical tourists’ participation in the industry. While this discussion is specific to
Canadians and their participation in dental tourism, the access to care issues raised in
this chapter provide important considerations for ethical examinations of medical tourism
practices. In particular, this analysis suggests that access to care issues in departure
countries, and particularly for care commonly purchased privately, might drive individuals
to participate in medical tourism.
This next chapter represents a shift in focus from push factors to pull factors.
More specifically, this next analysis considers how media coverage on Los Algodones’
dental tourism industry portrays the industry. By examining this common narrative and
the possible assumptions presented in this media discourse, this analysis provides
further insight into the types of information shaping prospective dental tourists’ decision-
making and interactions in the industry. This chapter suggests that media coverage of
Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry is overly positive and ignores important ethical
concerns about medical tourism industry development. We argue that the circulation of
this discourse by industry stakeholders with a vested interest in the profitability of the
industry might encourage unjust practices and the participation in these practices by a
range of stakeholder groups, including medical tourists.
53
Chapter 4. Narratives of a “dental oasis”: Examining media portrayals of dental tourism in the border town of Los Algodones, Mexico
4.1. Introduction
This paper provides an examination of common discourses presented in media
depictions of the dental tourism industry in the small border town of Los Algodones,
Mexico. Dental tourism is the term used to describe the practice of individuals accessing
dental care outside their home countries that is paid for out-of-pocket (Conti et al., 2014).
By examining American and Canadian media portrayals of dental tourism activities in
one particular industry site, this analysis identifies the common narrative used by media
sources in places most commonly marketed to by the dental tourism industry (Mainil,
2011). This paper critically analyzes this narrative, which we contend fails to account for
ethical concerns related to global health equity and structural exploitation.
We selected this location as the focus of this analysis because it is situated right
at the northern Mexican border, about four km south of Yuma, Arizona, and is very well
known for its widely established dental tourism sector (Miller-Thayer, 2010). By selecting
media about one particular site of industry development close to a border between two
nations, this analysis examines how the media discursively produces a depiction of
industry practices as enhancing access to health care within a globalized market place
close to the border crossing (Oberle & Arreola, 2004). In this exceptional case of a
concentrated dental tourism border town, we suggest that the intense clustering of
dental care resources raises specific global health equity concerns. These concerns are
particularly relevant to dental care given the highly inequitable nature of oral health
globally (Sheiham et al., 2011). In addition, the context of this industry site also raises
ethical concerns regarding potential structural exploitation in the industry. As dental
tourism is by far the dominant industry in the town, elite industry stakeholders are at a
particularly elevated position of power to establish town policies with personal benefit
and legitimized as enabling industry development while other residents and employees
remain vulnerable to these policy and industry fluctuations (Cheong & Miller, 2000).
54
These considerations are not addressed by the media discussions of Los Algodones’
dental tourism industry.
To further our argument, we draw on Gloria Anzaldua’s (1987) theory of borders
as socially and ideologically produced. Anzaldua (1987) argues that borderlands should
not be understood only as a particular geographic location but also in terms of the social
hierarchies that are produced by borders and extend beyond a particular geographic
region (Orozco-Mendoza, 2008). We argue that the media on dental tourism in northern
Mexico ignores how the industry interacts with these hierarchies. Drawing only on the
voices of dental tourists and dental clinic owners, this media portrayal fails to present a
more complex and critical view of the industry that considers how its development could
perpetuate structural injustices by concentrating industry benefits amongst elite
stakeholders, particularly given the private and unregulated nature of the medical
tourism industry (Crooks et al., 2013; Ormond, 2011). Before providing a description of
the common media portrayal of Los Algodones in Canadian and American news
sources, in the section that follows we provide a succinct introduction to the practice of
medical tourism and to Los Algodones.
4.2. Background
4.2.1. Dental tourism in the media
The academic literature on medical tourism, the broad term referring to all travel
abroad for biomedical interventions, has criticized media portrayals of medical tourism
as failing to present ethical concerns that medical tourism causes health inequities,
understood as differential health outcomes resulting from health resources shifting from
the public to private sector; health resources concentrating in certain geographic areas,
displacing resources from other regions; and health resources being used for particular
forms of care based on profitability instead of need (Crooks et al. 2013; Snyder &
Crooks, 2012). Without being able to track the numbers of medical tourists traveling to
countries such as Mexico, researchers have acknowledged the challenge of assigning
health equity impacts to this practice (Adams et al., 2013). Instead, much of the research
on medical tourism has focused on analyzing political and popular discourses regarding
medical tourism in destination countries to better understand how the industry might shift
55
health care practices or policies as well as industry development in places such as Los
Algodones (Mainil et al., 2011; Ormond 2011; Pocock & Hong Phua, 2011).
News media depictions of the industry in Los Algodones are well poised to
contribute to popular discussions of medical tourism practices in industry sites such as
Los Algodones by including contextually relevant ethical concerns informed by diverse
perspectives (Alvarez, 2012). Research suggests that health equity impacts of medical
tourism are complicated by various systems-level processes informing poor access to
health care across local, national, and global contexts (Snyder et al., 2013; Meghani,
2010). For example, while some medical tourists have opportunities to access more
affordable care based on lower costs of private care in particular destinations, many
patients may still be unable to afford to travel for health care. As a result, access to
health care for individuals unable to travel for their care may be further disrupted if
discourses of medical tourism, including media discussions, reduce political pressure to
change domestic health care provision (Johnston et al., 2010). Furthermore, while some
individuals in medical tourism destination communities may gain economically from the
development of the industry in ways that enhance their access to health care, others
may face enhanced barriers to accessing care as a result of shifting health resources
and/or increased costs of care with the influx of foreign patients (Snyder et al., 2013). As
these examples demonstrate, discussions of the industry should resist presenting overly
simplistic depictions of the impacts of the industry on health equity and other social
justice indicators given the complex contexts within which individuals access health care
and interact with the industry (Adams et al., 2013; Imison & Schweinsberg, 2013).
4.2.2. The borderlands
The border region between Mexico and the US attracts visitors and migrants for
a variety of reasons. Mexicans migrate to the northern border region in hopes of
increased access to needed resources, whether it be through employment in one of the
many industries populating the Mexican side of the border or opportunities to ultimately
cross into the US (Orozco-Mendoza, 2008). Individuals from both sides of the border are
also drawn to this region for economic reasons as the border crossing enables the
movement of goods between nations as part of the manufacturing industry whereby
large corporations taking advantage of border flexibility to enhance industry profitability
(McCrossen, 2009; Ong, 1999). Furthermore, the convergence of economic
56
asymmetries at the Mexico-US border also draws individuals to take advantage of
service-oriented industries, including medical tourism (Dalstrom, 2013).
With these border movements in mind, the borderlands should not only be
spatially defined based on proximity to the physical border crossing; instead, they must
be ideologically defined by the power relations and structural injustices maintained and
reinforced by this demarcation that enable the global capitalist market to flourish
(Anzaldua, 1987). In the case of dental tourism along the northern Mexican border,
industry resources and profits are likely taken up differentially amongst industry
stakeholders depending on how these power relations operate within contexts of
tourism, migration, poverty, and a growing private biomedical industry, amongst others
(Dalstrom, 2013; Ruiz, 2008). Furthermore, the movement of skilled resources, such as
health human resources, to urban centres and tourism destinations within Mexico, might
result in the establishment of ‘zones of abandonment’ wherein certain populations have
limited access to health resources as a result of the concentration of resources taken up
by particular populations (Biehl, 2005; Mize & Swords, 2010). Concerns regarding
‘zones of abandonment’ are relevant to export-oriented communities in northern Mexico,
whereby economic gains and access to resources have only occurred in small pockets
within a sea of underdevelopment. The majority of economic gains from activities within
these “islands of development” have been concentrated in the hands of the wealthy elite
or have left the country via foreign ownership (Mize & Swords, 2010, 28). Residents on
either side of the Mexico-US border face systemic barriers to accessing health care
despite the overabundance of health human resources, including dentists, in particular
urban centres or industrial areas (Williams, 2014). Given the extensive documentation in
the literature on health disparities and injustices informed by industries extending
throughout and beyond the geographical borderlands, our critique presented below
considers how the media ignores this literature in favour of a narrative that presents the
industry as win-win for all stakeholders (McCrossen, 2009; Ruiz, 2010). To critically
examine these media discourses, we next present an overview of our study site to
provide context for our analysis.
4.2.3. Los Algodones
Along the northern Mexican border, there are numerous ‘medical border towns’
whose primary industry focus is medical care, providing medical services to tourists with
57
easy access from the US border (Dalstrom, 2013). Los Algodones is the only industry
site that focuses solely on one type of medical tourism, dental tourism, while other
medical border towns provide a range of medical services including surgical care and
general medicine (Dalstrom 2013). As a result, this industry site is an exceptional case
and warrants particular attention and ethical consideration.
The town of Los Algodones was originally settled in 1876. Through the 1900’s,
the town evolved into a small tourist stop and a residential village for nearby farms
(Oberle & Arreola, 2011). In the 1980’s, a dentist by the name of Dr. Bernardo Magaña
moved to the town of 750 people to practice as the sole dentist (Henton, 2011).
According to Dr. Magaña, after living in the border town and witnessing the number of
tourists already crossing the border every day, he decided to expand his business by
attracting tourists to use his dental services (Corchado, 2013). After marketing his
services to American residents already crossing the border, Dr. Magaña began treating
numerous foreign dental patients. He has since grown his practice to include 50 dentists
operating in dental clinics within Los Algodones. Other dentists have also followed Dr.
Magaña’s lead, migrating to Los Algodones to work in the dental tourism industry and
contributing to the current clustering of approximately 500 dentists within the four-block
radius of the town (Oberle & Arreola, 2004).
Today, the majority of Los Algodones’ 8000 residents are employed in the dental
tourism industry in some capacity. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita is
approximately $18,750 USD, about 87% higher than the average GDP per capita in the
rest of Mexico, attracting individuals from other parts of the country to seek out
employment in industrial towns along the northern border. As Los Algodones’ economy
relies almost entirely on medical tourism, the town has taken numerous precautions to
protect this sector. For example, tourism police, secured parking lots, and dentists
serving in municipal governance minimize the occurrence of disruptions that might
tarnish the reputation of Los Algodones as a safe town with high-quality dental services.
While these precautions protect the existing flow of medical tourists across the Mexico-
US border, they may also further establish the dependence of this town on this industry
and prevent the emergence of alternative economic activities for residents unable to
work within the tourism sector (Judkins, 2007).
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4.3. Methods
To analyze news coverage of dental tourism in Los Algodones, we used
discourse analysis to examine the content of media articles written on this topic.
Discourse analysis methodology examines how ideologies emerge within discourse by
identifying references to value judgments, group relations, and societal roles that are
assumed to be inevitable. We used discourse analysis to critique the common narrative
presented in the media about dental tourism in Los Algodones and identify assumptions
about the industry that might ignore particular industry practices, resulting in a biased
representation of the industry (van Dijk, 2011).
To conduct this discourse analysis, we searched Google News and Factiva
search engines for English-language news articles related to dental tourism in Los
Algodones from American and Canadian news sources and published online between
the years 2000 and 2015. We chose to analyze media articles published in American
and Canadian media sources as we wanted to capture depictions from abroad, therefore
focusing on media coverage in common patient homes. We chose to limit our search to
these years to ensure we only analyze current media depictions of the industry. We used
the search terms “Los Algodones” and “dent*” as well as “Mexico” and “dent*” at first to
search for relevant articles in the search engines. This initial search identified 50 articles
that mentioned Los Algodones or dental tourism somewhere in the article. We then
identified seventeen articles for further analysis whose content directly focused on
describing the development of and/or the current scope and structure of the dental
tourism industry. The other 33 articles did not substantially discuss the dental tourism
industry in Los Algodones, either focusing on dental tourism in another location or
describing Los Algodones’ other tourism sectors. See Table 4 below for a summary of
the article sources included in this analysis.
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Table 4. Reviewed news articles
Publication Year
News Article Title News Source Type of Publication
2015 How the world waits for health care Toronto Star Canadian municipal news, print and online
2015 U.S. Seniors head to Mexico for cheaper dental care
CBS News American national news, online only
2014 A reason to smile: Mexican town is a destination for dental tourism
NPR American national news, online only
2013 Albertans beating a path to Mexico and other countries for discount dental work
The Calgary Sun Canadian municipal news, print and online
2013 Dental tourism on the rise, especially from Alberta
The Calgary Sun Canadian municipal news, print and online
2011 The Molar City Magnet The Edmonton Journal Canadian municipal news, print and online
2011 Canadian snowbirds flock to Mexico’s ‘Molar City’ for cheap dentists
The Wall Street Journal American national news, print and online
2011 Americans head to Mexico for cheap dental care
KPBS American national news, online only
2011 Cheap dental care draws Alberta snowbirds
The Edmonton Journal Canadian municipal news, print and online
2011 Canadians flock to Mexico for tooth care
The Vancouver Sun Canadian municipal news, print and online
2011 Dental work in Mexico a roll of the dice
The Edmonton Journal Canadian municipal news, print and online
2011 Mexico a dental Mecca Saskatoon Star Phoenix Canadian municipal news, print and online
2011 Canadians head south to Molar City
The Calgary Herald Canadian municipal news, print and online
2009 For cut-rate dental care, head to Mexico
CNN American national news, online only
2008 Tourists biting into cheaper prices for dental work in Mexico
The Arizona Republic American state news, print and online
2007 Sun, sand… and root canal The Toronto Star Canadian municipal news, print and online
2005 Elderly, town help each other USA Today American national news, print and online
We entered the seventeen articles into NVivo qualitative data management
software to thematically categorize the content of the selected articles according to the
following discourse-informed concepts: the border; access to health care; rationale for
the industry; and governmentality. We also identified the interviewees and sources of
information presented in the article to identify which voices were being used to produce
this depiction of the industry. We selected these categories after initially reading the
articles and identifying a distinct common narrative presented by this media. We read
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through the text coded in each thematic category to identify how this media discourse is
developing this common narrative and critique this narrative from a health equity lens.
Before sharing our critiques, in the section that follows, we first outline the common
narrative depicted in the 17 media articles we reviewed.
4.4. Findings: Media Narratives of Dental Tourism in Los Algodones
American and Canadian media suggest that the emergence of dental tourism on
the northern Mexican border is akin to “any competitive marketplace” offering
competitive prices and a variety of treatment types (Browne and Joffe-Block, 2011).
Much of the media content provides descriptions of the dental care offered to emphasize
the reportedly high standards of care available in Los Algodones. These media reports
present dentists in Los Algodones as “chaf[ing] at suggestions that their work is inferior”
to care provided elsewhere (Ellingwood, 1999). The articles use quotes from dentists
and patients that refer primarily to the aesthetics of dental offices and dental equipment
as evidence of the high standards of care. For example, one article described dental
clinics as “modern, immaculately clean and [...] bright, comfortable exam rooms […] like
a typical US office, except that the staff is Mexican and bilingual” (Zimmerman, 2010).
Mexican dentists practicing in Los Algodones draw on American standards, training, and
aesthetics to indicate their services as being of high quality. According to one dentist:
“everybody works with gloves and a mask. The technology is the same. Some of our
equipment is the newest available” (Mann, 2011), comparing the equipment and dental
procedures to what patients might see and experience in the US. The media reports
highlight dentists’ efforts at making their “practice mirror [patients’] experiences in the
US” (Zimmerman, 2010), emphasizing there are familiar standards and aesthetics of
care provided in the Los Algodones’ dental clinics.
According to the reviewed media reports, dentists in Los Algodones face the
challenge of convincing foreign patients that despite “costs up to 70% cheaper than in
the US”, the care they provide is of high quality (“Medical tourism offers hope”, 2007).
The reviewed articles typically highlight the comparatively low cost of dental care in
Mexico to emphasize the role of this dental tourism industry in expanding Americans’
and Canadians’ access to needed dental care. For example, one of the articles depicts
the following story of a dental tourist’s journey to Los Algodones:
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[Mike] drives tractor-trailers. He has since 1984. Over the years, he admits to eating a lot of roadside food and not making a lot of trips to the dentist. So by the time he went to see his dentist in Fargo, North Dakota, he was told it would take $20,000 to quell his many toothaches. Instead, Mike looked for other options. ‘Know where to find a good dentist in Mexico?’ he asked someone he met on the road. ‘Yes, Go to Los Algodones,’ she said. Which he did. Mike made eight trips in six months for a total of four root canals, four crowns, five fillings, a teeth cleaning, a deep cleaning, and laser whitening. He’s not done. Soon, he’ll also get two new implants and a permanent bridge. This was going to cost $20,000 in the United States. In Mexico, it cost him $3,800 [...] (Browne & Joffe-Block, 2011).
The media narratives focus on describing the cost savings for expensive dental
interventions such as crowns and implants and suggest that these interventions can be
accessed within full-service clinics. The articles highlight the sheer size of some of the
dental clinics that are owned by large private dental groups operating throughout
Mexico, suggesting that these clinics have the ability to make the necessary equipment
on site and treat patients quickly so they can return home as soon as possible. The
articles emphasize that many clinics have their own labs and that with hundreds of
dentists operating in Los Algodones, this industry site is really a one stop shop for
efficient and high-tech dental care (Robbins, 2014). The articles also commonly
emphasize the ease of physically getting to Los Algodones for Americans and
Canadians, further emphasizing the ease with which dental consumers can participate in
the industry to save time and costs. For example, one article stated that:
Or you can step across the U.S. border and cut your tab to $250. That's the going rate for a crown at DentiCenter, a small but growing chain of full- service dental centers lining the U.S. border along California, Arizona and Texas. DentiCenter's six outposts are located in Mexico, but 97% of its patients come from the U.S. (Zimmerman, 2010).
A common narrative presented in the media, namely that care in Los Algodones
is of high quality and is easily accessible, emphasizes the inclusion of medical tourism
facilitation groups that help arrange travel details and book the dental procedures at
preferred dental clinics. Some of the articles suggest that the facilitators help make
patients feel safe and comfortable as they do not need to navigate travel planning and
transportation in a foreign country (Rothe, 2007; Zimmerman, 2010). The narratives also
suggest patients can stay in a familiar environment by lodging in hotels on the American
side of the border and crossing the border only to get care:
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Well-marked dental offices hover closely over border crossings, vying for a piece of the discount toothy trade. Ron Vinluan's Phoenix-based dental brokerage company Dayo Dental runs a 3-1/2- hour van shuttle of six to 10 people a time, up to four times a month to the Yuma, Ariz. side of the border. From there, patients walk across the frontier into a tooth care bazaar where they'll find themselves reclining and receiving anesthetic within minutes (Kaufman, 2013).
Many of the articles briefly mention the presence of police and military forces in Los
Algodones, emphasizing the added safety this presence brings for the tourist. The media
focuses much of its attention on resisting assumptions that northern Mexico’s border
region is a dangerous place for visitors, stating that, “The town is tightly controlled and
anyone who upsets the flow of dollars is whisked away by the tourist police” (Rothe,
2007). Many of the articles spend time describing the amenities available for tourists,
interviewing previous patients about their positive experiences accessing dental care in
Los Algodones, further underscoring the idea that Los Algodones is a safe and
enjoyable destination for dental care. This emphasis of Los Algodones as a desirable
tourist destination portrays the town only from the perspective of the foreign tourist who
can easily cross the border without even showing his or her passport and cross back
with cleaned teeth and souvenirs. As a result, Los Algodones truly becomes a “dental
oasis” (Henton, 2011), a place drawing on American aesthetics and globally recognized
biomedical care with clusters of private dental care whose prices reflect the Mexican
economic context (Judkins, 2007).
Along with discussions of patient journeys, the media articles also devote much
of their content to describing the journeys of the dentists and other entrepreneurs that
have helped develop the industry in Los Algodones. Many of the articles emphasize how
the dental tourism industry has cleaned up the town from its “dusty” and morally
questionable past to a more “modern” town where “business is booming” (Browne &
Joffe-Block, 2011). In particular, the media suggests that the industry has created jobs
for numerous residents of the area. The quote below exemplifies the typical discussion
of how Los Algodones came to be the “dental capital of Mexico” (Robbins, 2014):
[When he first arrived], Los Algodones was a dusty border town. Magaña remembers that there were no less than 48 cantinas. Still, he sensed that if he put his practice here, people would come, Americans would come. He started advertising on television in the U.S. He became mayor and shut down the cantinas and the brothels. He worked and worked and so they came — not only more American patients, but also more Mexican dentists.
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The dentists moved into the empty spaces the cantinas and brothels left behind (Browne & Joffe-Block, 2011).
Broadly speaking, the overall narrative shared by the reviewed articles is of the
dental tourism industry enhancing access to dental care for Americans and Canadians
while providing jobs and economic development to the town and border region in
northern Mexico. In keeping with this, the articles typically conclude by presenting the
industry as a win-win for all industry stakeholders and maintain that the industry will grow
because it is beneficial to everyone involved:
He was told the extensive dental work he needed – his teeth needed to be raised and he needed a crown on every molar – would cost $65,000 at a private dentist. He worked for lower rates, finding a dental school where the work was less expensive because it was performed by students. But it still cost $35,000. He paid $3,000 in Mexico […] (“U.S. Seniors”, 2015).
Juan Manual Comacho has branched out, opening a restaurant and a new Main Street shopping plaza with a few partners. Comacho was one of the original six dentists in Los Algodones, starting his career as an associate of one of the town’s first dentist, Bernardo Magana. He has resisted the urge to expand into specialized dental procedures. A 61-year old grandfather, Comacho has his eye on retirement as he practices general dentistry in a clinic by the border gates with his pediatric dentist wife. He hopes to one day turn his practice over to one of his four children. (Henton, 2011).
While the media articles almost all present the dental tourism industry as being a
win-win for everyone involved, one article diverges from this common narrative at certain
points. This article presents stories of patients’ and dentists’ experiences; however, it
also offers a critical assessment:
Essentially, the market sets the bottom line. Which means that along the border, it is a constant race to the bottom to lower and lower prices. One economist, Michael Ellis from New Mexico State University, calls this an example of a “medical maquila,” not unlike the factories along the border that produce goods for the U.S. market. “The medical maquila model has been talked about for the last decade,” Ellis said. “It’s just beginning to take hold, but I think the pressure will build as the boomers retire” (Browne & Joffe-Block, 2011).
This article highlights the structural injustices informing the development of the industry
as numerous Americans and Canadians struggle to access dental care while the
economic context in Mexico facilitates the development of a dental tourism industry
offering care at lower costs than typically available in Canada and the US. This article
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suggests that pressure to compete in the global medical tourism industry might actually
drive down prices and as a result industry wages, reinforcing the structural injustices
underlying the industry’s development, much like with the manufacturing industries
operating within the maquila factories located in northern Mexico (Browne & Joffe-Block,
2011). This critique of the exploitative nature of borderland industries along with critiques
of medical tourism as potentially exacerbating health inequities informs the remainder of
this paper as we examine how the media narrative fails to these raise important ethical
considerations.
4.5. Discussion
In the previous section we summarized our analysis of seventeed media articles
focused on the dental tourism sector in Los Algodones, a small border town in Northern
Mexico. We found several recurring narratives, including the emphasis on the low cost of
care, the availability of high quality procedures, the emphasis on “modern” care aesthetic
(Browne & Joffe-Block, 2011), the safe nature of the local environment, the accessibility
of travel and lodgings, and the entrepreneurial nature of those who have established this
sector. Collectively, these heavily positive narratives point to the fact that media
coverage is supportive of this sector and encourages the movement of international
patients considering accessing dental care in Los Algodones. In the remainder of this
section we apply a critical lens to these narratives, paying particular attention to ethical
and equity issues either emerging from these narratives but not explicitly discussed or
ignored in the popular media.
4.5.1. Dental care in the borderlands
The common overall media narrative on dental tourism in Los Algodones
produces a particular depiction of the type of dental care provided in the clinics that
populate a four block radius of the town (Judkins, 2007): it is care that is of high quality
and affordable, provided in a familiar aesthetic in a location that is safe for visitors and
easy to access. Our review points to the fact that most media sources equate “modern”
dental aesthetics such as high technology machinery and pristine waiting areas with
care quality (Browne & Joffe-Block 2011). In other words, there is an underlying
assumption that care aesthetics are indicators of care quality. This assumption is
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concerning. First, it disrupts the possibility of other types of care, particularly care which
is tailored to meet the needs of the community within which the dental practice is
situated (Johnston et al., 2010). Second, typically dental tourists are only traveling once
they already have many oral health problems (Miller-Thayer, 2010). As a result, the care
provided within dental tourism clinics focuses on interventions aiming to correct
significant oral health problems, potentially overshadowing low technology services
focused on more preventative care, both for the local communities and dental tourists
(Miller-Thayer 2010; Meghani 2011). Finally, this assumption hides the fact that while
dental tourists can access desired treatments in Los Algodones, without continuity of
care, they may not take the necessary measures to prevent future complications from
arising, increasing burdens on finite dental resources and lessening their overall oral
health (Johnston et al., 2010). Overall, these discussions related to quality of care ignore
potential health equity impacts of the industry if services emphasize the use of resource-
intensive medical solutions with limited emphasis on oral health promotion and systemic
changes important for addressing oral health inequities (Williams, 2014).
We believe the news media also fails to discuss how the type of care provided in
dental tourism clinics might shift dental tourists’ expectations of care upon return home.
The dental tourism industry model in Los Algodones relies on “full-service” (Zimmerman,
2010) dental clinics that can treat patients quickly with dental labs operating right next to
clinics at all hours of the day (Judkins, 2007). Patients’ expectations might change as
they experience a fast food-like style of dental care that prioritizes speed of care and
volume of patients to maximize profit for the dental clinics and ensure patients can get all
the care they want done within their limited holiday time. These changing expectations
might create pressure on other dental care systems to adjust their style of care despite
potential negative impacts on the health and safety of the patient as well as the equitable
distribution of oral health resources (Johnston et al., 2010).
An overwhelming majority of the seventeen articles we reviewed pointed out that
“Los Algodones has become known as having more dentists per capita than anywhere
else on Earth” (Kaufmann, 2013), focusing attention on the concentration of dentists that
are practicing in this one small border town. By relying heavily on dental tourists as
sources of information for the media content, these articles shine a positive light on this
intense spatial concentration of health professionals, suggesting this concentration is
enabling patients to shop around for their ideal care like any other resource in the market
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place (Conti et al., 2014). Meanwhile, the media fails to address health equity concerns
related to the concentration of health professionals working within one particular industry
and treating patients in one geographic location, potentially disrupting or denying access
to dental care elsewhere or for patients unable to participate in the industry. There are
many areas of Mexico experiencing slight to extreme shortages of medical
professionals, including dentists (Novelo-Arana et al., 2013), while this particular border
community is oversupplied relative to local need, raising important concerns about how
dental tourism industry development could limit opportunities and political will to address
dental care shortages in particular communities (Johnston et al., 2010)
Furthermore, the media’s depiction of the type of dental care provided in the
dental tourism industry in Los Algodones assumes that the procedures being accessed
are necessary forms of care (Mann, 2011). While patients deciding to participate in this
industry might be informed that procedures are required by their home dentist, it must be
understood that recommendations for care provided by dentists in wealthier countries
like Canada and the US are based on the national and local resource availability and
health care norms (Homedes & Ugalde, 2002). While Mexico actually has a higher ratio
of dentists per 10,000 people than Canada (Novelo-Arana et al., 2015), many Mexicans
lack purchasing power to use these services, producing an oversupply of dentists with
limited patients to treat. Despite large numbers of Mexican dentists being trained since
the 1970’s, oral health outcomes have not improved as many Mexicans are unable to
afford the care provided within private dental clinics and dentists are unable to work in
the public system due to a limited number of positions (Maupome, Borges & Diez-de-
Bonilla, 1998). In fact, research indicates that only 48% of the general Mexican
population in need of oral health care receives treatment (Perez-Nunez et al., 2006).
Dental tourism provides job opportunities for underemployed dentists in Mexico and
enhances treatment availability to dental tourists from the global north. However, it does
so by potentially exacerbating oral health inequities between those that can afford
private care and those that cannot (Sheiham et al., 2011). The realities of dentistry in
Mexico indicates some dentists potentially migrated to Los Algodones not only as heroic
entrepreneurs, but also out of economic need and lack of alternative employment
options. As a result, dentists and other industry employees with limited alternative
employment options might be vulnerable to potential exploitation, particularly as
competition between clinics in Los Algodones and other dental tourism sites could place
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pressure on employees to attract customers with lower prices or other efforts that limit
benefits to many employees in Los Algodones (Dalstrom, 2011).
Finally, the news media portrays dental care as easily accessible to tourists and
residents near Los Algodones based on the stories of dental tourists safely and
efficiently crossing back and forth over the border. By highlighting those that “are very
lucky to live near enough to Mexico to get good healthcare at a reasonable price”
(Gaynor 2009) without addressing the policies and activities related to the border and
tourism industry that establish this secure access, the media ignores the power relations
and structural injustices implicated and potentially even perpetuated by industry activities
(Cheong & Miller, 2000). The media we reviewed suggests that the town is patrolled by
police officers and security guards (Browne & Joffe-Block, 2011); however, the media
never questions how these security measures impact the daily lives of residents in Los
Algodones and whether these measures enhance the physical safety of residents as
well as tourists. Research on the northern Mexican border region indicates that violence,
both in the physical and economic sense, is pervasive as large inequities in access to
resources and power facilitate violent actions such as policy brutality and wage theft
(Marrujo & Pulido, 2010). These forms of violence limit the safety and well-being of
residents living in this region, despite the heavy presence of security forces and as a
result, may also limit residents’ ability to access the health resources securely and cost-
effectively provided to tourists. Furthermore, dependence on the dental tourism industry
for employment raises concerns regarding structures of control that could take
advantage of these vulnerabilities to enhance industry profits for elite populations,
concerns largely ignored in the media portrayal of Los Algodones.
4.5.2. Journeys to the borderlands
The previous section describes the ways in which the media discursively
produces an assumption that dental tourism is occurring within a “dental mecca”
(Henton, 2011) that expands access to health care in ways that are necessarily positive
and beneficial for all stakeholders involved. While we critiqued this assumption based on
particular industry practices documented in the media and literature, here we build on
this argument by discussing the journeys and experiences of individuals and
communities not made visible in the media but potentially implicated in the dental
tourism industry in Los Algodones. Anzaldua’s conceptualization of borders depicts
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these boundaries as taking on different meanings to individuals within different contexts
as cultures and practices mix, transform, and as a result, redefine our understanding of
space and place (Anzaldua & Keating, 2009). In the following section, we demonstrate
how Los Algodones might be perceived as a place of hope for tourists and economic
migrants or a medical mecca for dentists and dental patients. However, this town can
also be characterized by stories of inequalities and injustices as a result of its location at
the northern Mexican border, “the open wound where the third world grates against the
first and bleeds” (Anzaldua, 1987). In this section, we present a more nuanced
understanding of how different individuals might interact with Los Algodones’ dental
tourism industry within very different contexts, emphasizing the failure of the media to
portray the industry from multiple perspectives.
First of all, the journeys of patients and dentists to Los Algodones are
characterized in the media as journeys of ‘savvy consumers’ and ‘heroic entrepreneurs’
that travel to the border region in search of job opportunities or affordable health care.
Through the media emphasis on particular industry stakeholders, descriptions of the
industry ignore the journeys of individuals that have moved to the town in search of
employment, opportunities to emigrate to the US, or through forced deportation
(Wheatley, 2012). The media never discusses how or why the population of the town
has increased more than ten-fold in the past 40 years or why so many residents of Los
Algodones speak English (Judkins 2007). By ignoring certain contextual elements, the
media presents the industry as universally beneficial, an extension of dental care in the
global north, without considering the structural injustices that enable this industry to
flourish and that might be perpetuated by industry activities. For example, the literature
suggests that many of the people living and working in northern Mexican towns are
actually deported Mexican-Americans. With their families still living in the US, many
deportees take up residence in towns with work opportunities in the various industries
populating this region (Wheatley, 2012). The dental tourism industry provides a stable
income for these employees (Judkins, 2007); however, as a result of border politics,
these employees must also watch Americans and Canadians easily cross the border on
a daily basis while they remain separated from their families as a result of these same
border policies (Wheatley, 2012).
Furthermore, individuals might journey to Los Algodones from southern Mexico
and Central American countries in search of new job opportunities, particularly as
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seasonal workers selling souvenirs in the curios stands lining the streets of Los
Algodones (Judkins, 2007). However, the media never discusses the origin of the
residents of the town and the structural injustices informing their search for employment
opportunities such as those resulting from the North American Free Trade Agreement
and other global economic agreements (McCrossen, 2009). Furthermore, while friends
and family members can benefit from remittances sent back from the industry, they must
also live separated from their loved ones while experiencing their communities turn into
“ghost towns” as work becomes increasingly scarce (Cohen, 2004). Additionally,
undocumented migrants living in the US are unlikely to cross the border to access dental
care as they might not be able to safely return back to their home in the US without
required documentation to cross the border (Wheatley, 2012). The media never
considers those left behind when patients and dentists leave, ignoring how these
journeys could disrupt or fragment health resources and the political will for systemic
changes to improve economic opportunities and access to needed health services at
home (Johnston et al., 2010; Cohen, 2004).
Finally, the media depicts Mexican dentists as resisting assumptions that their
services are of inferior quality because they are being provided within the global south,
reframing Los Algodones as a “dental oasis” providing standardized biomedical care
recognized by global citizens, and not just Mexican or American patients (Henton, 2011).
In devoting media space to reinforcing this idea of Los Algodones’ as a borderlands
industry town that is not quite Mexican and not quite American (Anzaldua,1987), the
media ignores how these industry practices are still embedded within the Mexican
national context and thus informed by and informing this national context as well as local
and global practices on both sides of the Mexico-US border (Judkins, 2007). As Cox
(1996) notes:
Globalization restructures production which undermines the power of labor in relation to capital; stimulates migrations of people in search of better working conditions and higher wages; creates an internal South in the North, and a thick layer of society [in the South] that is fully integrated into the economic North (Cox 1996: 528).
As the quote above demonstrates, the border near Los Algodones cannot be
defined only geographically by the formal boundary between Mexico and the US, but
must also be understood as an ideological concept that produces new movements of
people and activities, and often in ways that might unevenly distribute health care and
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economic resources within and across communities, countries, and regions. For
example, the families of dental clinic owners working in the dental tourism industry in Los
Algodones might have excellent access to expensive dental treatments; however, many
residents of Los Algodones, both permanent and seasonal, might not be able to afford
these treatments without the wages dental clinic owners are paid. Furthermore, many
individuals might not be able to make these same journeys to the dental clinic or take up
entrepreneurial opportunities in the borderlands and live instead with the losses and
voids left behind from the journeys to the borderlands and the concentration of resources
in places like Los Algodones. The media does not share these stories.
4.6. Conclusion
This paper analyzes American and Canadian news coverage of dental tourism
activities in the northern Mexican border town of Los Algodones. We found that news
media articles examined in this analysis typically focus on how practices within this
industry site expands access to dental care without considering ethical concerns for this
practice. The media generally ignores parallels between the dental tourism industry in
Los Algodones and other industries in the area that have drawn media attention to their
reliance on and perpetuation of structural injustices in their practices (Mize & Swords,
2010). The dental tourism industry relies heavily on border proximity to take advantage
of the movement of people and medical equipment, much like the maquilas take
advantage of the ability for goods to move quickly back and forth across the border
(McCrossen, 2009). The industry also mimics the maquiladora industry in its use of low-
wage labour to reduce costs of the manufacturing, or in this case the service, being
provided (Judkins, 2007). In the context of Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry, as a
result of low-wage labour from many industry employees, economic benefits are
primarily concentrated amongst elite tourism operators and dental patients saving
money accessing dental care in Mexico (Dalstom, 2013). This concentration of economic
benefits necessitates further examination than provided by the overly simplified win-win
portrayal of the industry in these media reports.
By primarily relying on the voices of only two industry stakeholders (i.e.,
[satisfied] patients, [successful] dentists) to characterize the dental tourism industry in
Los Algodones, media coverage fails to depict the industry as embedded within
structural injustices that might be reinforced by industry practices. The common media
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narrative discusses the town of Los Algodones but only from the perspective of the
‘heroic entrepreneurs’ and the ‘savvy dental consumer’. The stories and histories of Los
Algodones beyond the dental chair are lost to this common narrative, silencing those
struggling as a result of the structural injustices that enable the industry to operate. As
this paper has emphasized, the borderlands crosscut communities throughout the global
north and south (Anzaldua, 1987), separating families, concentrating resources in
certain areas, and fragmenting access to health care based on differing economic
contexts, whereby certain forms of dental care are made more affordable within the
dental tourism industry only to those willing and able to travel for care. We argue that a
more balanced and critical media portrayal of industry practices could drive a new
popular discourse about medical tourism, drawing on examples from industry sites such
as Los Algodones to demonstrate a need for more ethical engagement from industry
stakeholders.
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Chapter 5. Drawing insights from the lived experiences of local residents and industry employees
While the previous chapter draws on my review of media sources discussing the
dental tourism industry in Los Algodones, the next two analytic chapters draw on data
collected during my time spent living in this Mexican medical border town. These
chapters present my analysis of interviews and informal conversations with individuals
living and working in Los Algodones and representing a range of roles in the industry,
including dentists, dental clinic owners, marketing staff, street promoters, government
officials and representatives of patient facilitation companies. These interviews highlight
the perspectives of individuals not typically captured in the medical tourism literature and
media sources of information. These next chapters outline and discuss what practices
are actually occurring, why they are occurring, and how these practices might affect the
health of different populations based on the experiences of locals residing and working
in the industry. These analyses build on my examination of media discourse by providing
examples drawn from the everyday lives of individuals working and living in Los
Algodones to disrupt the assumptions underlying media coverage of Los Algodones’
dental tourism industry.
The analysis presented in the previous chapter employs borderlands theory to
examine how place shapes industry practices, drawing attention to the ways in which
media discourse on Los Algodones frames the industry as occurring within a “medical
mecca” or “dental oasis” conveniently located along the Mexico-US border. In chapter 6,
I employ a structural exploitation and structural injustice framework to consider how and
why the industry raises ethical concern and the conditions in which these concerns are
borne out in reality. Specifically, this analysis disrupts assumptions regarding the
accessibility of dental care within this “dental oasis” and the positive impact of the
industry on the lives of local residents by highlighting more specifically for whom the
industry does not enhance access to care and how the industry perpetuates structural
injustices.
Chapter 7 builds on this discussion through a consideration of common
discourses taken up by interview participants in Los Algodones to legitimize or justify
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unjust industry practices. This analysis suggests that this discourse is taken up by
industry employees in contexts of limited alternative employment options, competition for
customers in the global medical tourism industry, and a profit-driven industry,
highlighting the role of structural factors in shaping or enabling unjust practices in the
industry.
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Chapter 6. “Stay cool, sell stuff cheap, and smile”: Examining how reputational management of dental tourism reinforces structural oppression in Los Algodones, Mexico
6.1. Introduction
“This party is for you!” the announcer shouts through the microphone while
walking across the stage in front of a sign that reads: Los Algodones’ Welcome Party. A
crowd of a hundred or so tourists from Canada and the United States (US) sit on white
lawn chairs, enjoying free beer and tacos. The Welcome Party is one of two annual
events hosted by businesses operating in the small northern border town of Los
Algodones, Mexico to showcase the dental tourism industry to foreign tourists. Drawing
in crowds of largely white-haired party-goers, the event is primarily open only to foreign
tourists and includes dance performances, door prizes, and dental clinic employees
displaying their clean and modern clinics and advanced dental technologies to potential
customers who are intrigued by the promise of lower cost dental care than is available
back home. While many regular winter tourists (also known as snowbirds) in the area
may have already used the dental services in Los Algodones, event organizers hope the
display of dental clinics and available treatment might draw customers back with the
promise of world-class care at discount prices.
The Welcome Party is just one example of activities, promotional events, and
marketing strategies employed by dental tourism industry members to manage Los
Algodones’ reputation and protect the success of the largest employment sector in this
region (Judkins, 2007). In the remainder of this paper, we draw on interviews and
conversations with individuals working in Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry to
examine how policies and practices related to reputational management are understood
and experienced by different dental sector employees and local residents. Our analysis
shows that many policies and practices related to this reputational management focus
on disrupting dental tourists’ prejudiced assumptions about Mexico as a homogenously
dangerous and underdeveloped country in the global south and Mexican medical care
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providers as generally less knowledgeable and less capable than care providers in the
global north. Employees’ efforts to manage Los Algodones’ reputation respond to these
prejudiced assumptions about Mexico and the global south in ways that encourage and
legitimize racist and classist practices. By demonstrating how industry practices follow
closely the contours of global power relations, we suggest that these practices
perpetuate structural injustices experienced by individual employees and residents with
limited power to shape industry practices. Additionally, we argue that elite stakeholders
(characterized as population groups such as the owners of large hospital chains, patient
facilitation companies, and medical tourists from the global north who are well-positioned
to respond to industry fluctuations by negotiating different industry practices and
switching industry sites and/or care providers to meet their needs) can fail to address
these structural injustices when upholding and extending unjust institutions, policies, and
practices to secure their interests in the industry, raising concerns for structural
exploitation in the industry.
6.2. Medical Tourism in Mexico
Medical tourism industry activity along the Mexico-US border has primarily
developed in areas referred to as Mexican medical border towns. Activities typically
included in these medical border towns include the provision of biomedical health
services such as dental care, surgical procedures, and general medicine to patients from
countries in the global north (Dalstrom, 2012; Oberle & Arreola, 2004). Canadians and
Americans are known to travel abroad for medical care to save money on care typically
paid for privately, for care that is unavailable, such as in the case of certain experimental
procedures, and/or for care that is more desirable in terms of timeliness or type of care
(Buzinde & Yarnal, 2012; Johnston et al., 2010). While the medical tourism phenomenon
includes flows of patients across and throughout the global north and global south
(Crush & Chikanda, 2014), in this analysis, we examine one specific flow of patients
from Canada and the US to Los Algodones, Mexico for dental care, and the
accompanying industry practices and employee experiences informed by this flow of
patients across the Mexico-US border. Although we focus only on one type of medical
tourism, namely dental tourism, our case study aims to nuance commonly cited ethical
concerns for medical tourism practices in the global south that cater to patients from the
global north. These concerns have typically emphasized possible health equity impacts
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of medical tourism if industry development encourages care providers to work in the
private sector and primarily treating foreign patients despite unmet local care needs
(Snyder, 2013; Meghani, 2011). Here, we complicate and extend this discussion by
drawing on structural injustice and structural exploitation frameworks to examine how
industry practices might also exacerbate health inequities through the perpetuation of
structural injustices.
As an industry reliant on cross-border flows of goods and services, the medical
tourism industry has drawn some comparison to the Mexican maquiladora industry
(Judkins, 2007). The maquiladora industry is characterized by foreign companies
operating manufacturing facilities that employ workers at wages lower than what is
possible in the global north (Mize & Swords, 2010). These wages enable low cost goods
to flow from the maquilas to shopping centres for consumption (McCrossen, 2009),
drawing parallels to the medical tourism industry in northern Mexico as patients travel to
concentrations of private medical care to shop around for better deals on medical
procedures (Oberle & Arreola, 2004).
Research on the lived experiences of employees working in the maquilas or
manufacturing factories has prompted criticism of the maquiladora industry’s reliance on
and perpetuation of structural injustices including poverty and poor working conditions to
guarantee good industry profits and to compete with other manufacturing sites globally
(Horowitz, 2009). The global nature of the medical tourism industry also raises similar
ethical concerns if elite industry stakeholders keen to protect their interest in the industry
encourage poor labour conditions and other social determinants of ill health experienced
by vulnerable populations desperate for work in the industry (Horowitz, 2009; Tamborini,
2007). As the medical tourism industry in Mexico seemingly relies on the provision of
lower cost private medical care than available in Canada and the US to attract
customers to dental tourism shopping centres (Judkins, 2007), industry sites in northern
Mexico might similarly perpetuate structural injustices and structural exploitation to
enhance industry profits, a concern driving our analysis below.
While academic discussion of the maquiladora industry has emphasized ethical
concerns for industry practices rooted in the lived experiences of employees (Horowitz,
2009; McCrossen, 2009; Simon, 2014), empirical research on medical tourism along the
northern Mexican border has predominantly examined the perspectives of medical
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tourists (Miller-Thayer, 2010), the geographical distribution of medical tourism facilities
(Oberle & Arreola, 2004), or the role of medical tourism facilitators in arranging foreign
medical care to patients (Dalstrom, 2013a), with limited attention to the experiences and
perspectives of industry employees working and living in particular industry sites.
Concerns for industry practices raised in the medical tourism literature often provide
broad discussions of these concerns with limited empirical analysis of realities on the
ground in different industry sites (Johnston et al., 2011). For example, Buzinde &
Yarnal’s (2012) analysis of medical tourism practices draws on post-colonial theory to
examine how neocolonial discourses in the industry might reproduce structural injustices
informed by global relations of power. While this research provides important insight into
how the industry might perpetuate structural injustices, this discussion does not draw on
the lived experiences of different populations living and working in medical tourism
industry sites, a gap we aim to address in our research.
The analysis presented herein examines the perspectives of dental tourism
industry employees working in Los Algodones to nuance ethical considerations for
medical tourism industry practices, particularly in contexts of vast economic asymmetries
between the countries of origin for medical tourists and industry employees. While this
case study provides insight relevant to other dental tourism and medical tourism sites
both in northern Mexico and globally, by examining in depth one industry site catering
almost entirely to dental tourists this research is able to examine structural factors
informing localized industry practices. We also build upon a body of literature examining
Canadian and American involvement in dental tourism (See Turner, 2008; Miller-Thayer,
2010) and consider the structural barriers to accessing dental care in these two
countries as part of our analysis. These barriers are likely relevant to health systems
globally (Milosevic, 2009). Before providing a discussion of our findings and analysis, we
first provide an overview of the dental tourism sector in Los Algodones to demonstrate
why we focus our analysis on this particular site of inquiry.
6.3. Los Algodones’ Dental Tourism Sector
Los Algodones is a small town located in the state of Baja California in the
northwestern region of Mexico. As a rural town previously reliant on the struggling cotton
farming industry, tourism provided economic revitalization to Los Algodones in the 1980s
after the town’s dentist began marketing his services to tourists (Judkins, 2007). Since
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this time, hundreds of dentists have established practices in Los Algodones and the
population has grown from 750 to approximately 8,000 permanent residents, with an
unknown number of curios (souvenir) vendors from southern Mexico residing in or near
the town for part of the year (Judkins, 2007). These vendors, along with other migrant
workers employed within the dental clinics, dental labs, restaurants, and liquor stores,
have migrated to northern Mexico where tourist hotpots receive thousands of tourists
during the winter months (Dalstrom, 2013b).
Both academic and media reports have commented on the high volume of
tourists crossing the border from Yuma, Arizona to Los Algodones (estimated at up to
15,000 tourists daily during winter), suggesting that most tourists park their cars on the
American side of the border and walk across the border to explore the small commercial
centre and/or purchase dental services (Judkins, 2007; Henton, 2011). Along with cost
savings, media sources suggest that Mexican border towns are chosen as dental
tourism destinations due to their proximity to the US and existing familiarity of American
and Canadian tourists with traveling to Mexico (Robbins, 2014). Los Algodones is a
unique industry site in this region due to its exceptional concentration of dentists and
affiliated dental services, resulting in Los Algodones’ reputation in the media as a “dental
oasis” (Henton, 2011) where prospective patients can choose amongst hundreds of
different dental providers all within a four block radius.
The unique positioning of Los Algodones’ medical tourism sector has contributed
to economic development in the town and surrounding region (Oberle & Arreola, 2004;
Judkins, 2007). In Los Algodones, the GDP per capita is approximately $18,750, about
87% higher than the average GDP per capita in the rest of Mexico (Judkins, 2007).
However, the specialized economic dependency of local residents on the dental tourism
industry along with limited public sector investment in northern border towns raises
concerns for the vulnerability of Los Algodones’ residents if industry fluctuations disrupt
economic stability (Oberle & Arreola, 2004; McCrossen, 2009). We consider this
vulnerability of local residents in further detail below to inform our analysis of industry
practices from a structural injustice and structural exploitation lens.
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6.4. Methods
We employed case study methodology to examine the experiences and
perspectives of industry employees in the dental tourism industry in Los Algodones.
Case study methodology is well suited to exploring a phenomenon occurring within
specific boundaries with the aim of generating a comprehensive and robust account of
this particular phenomenon with potential relevance to similar social contexts (Gerring,
2004). Consistent with case study methodology (Flyvberg, 2006), multiple methods were
used in order to understand the relevant context in addition to the on-site fieldwork
reported on here that involved gathering observational and interview-based data. These
methods included conducting key informant interviews with members of the Canadian
dental community in order to understand the factors motivating people to access care in
destinations such as Los Algodones and a detailed review of the media coverage of Los
Algodones’ dental sector, both of which have been reported on elsewhere (Adams et al.,
2017; Adams et al., in press).
The first author (KA) traveled to Los Algodones to conduct three months of
fieldwork after receiving approval from Simon Fraser University’s research ethics board.
KA recruited as many participants as possible during the three month fieldwork and
conducted semi-structured interviews with 43 participants who held a range of roles in
the dental tourism industry in Los Algodones. The majority of participants worked as
dentists (n=30; 9 women, 21 men), six of whom also owned the clinics where they
practice. The remainder of participants worked in the following professional roles: dental
assistant (n=4; 2 women, 2 men); street promoter or patient facilitator (n=4; all men);
marketing manager or business executive (n=3; 1 woman, 2 men); and municipal
tourism planner (n=2; all men). It is important to note that many dentists who participated
in this study also held leadership roles on tourism committees and organizations in the
town; however, we have only recorded these participants’ profession as dentist.
Furthermore, we were not able to conduct recorded interviews with many “street
promoters”, those who try to chat up tourists on the street and lead them to a particular
clinic for services, as they could not get permission from their employers. We also did
not conduct recorded interviews with vendors given language barriers and their limited
knowledge of clinic activities. However, we do draw on informal conversations with street
promoters, vendors, and other residents in Los Algodones to inform our analysis.
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All of the 43 interviews were recorded and lasted between 20 and 90 minutes
with the majority of interviews lasting approximately 45 minutes. A semi-structured
interview guide was used to generate discussion of experiences working in the clinics
and/or in the dental tourism industry, perspectives on how structural factors are
informing these practices, and concerns and hopes for the industry in the future.
Interview recordings were transcribed verbatim, with the exception of six interviews
conducted in Spanish that were transcribed and translated by a native Spanish speaker
to better capture nuance in the discussion.
A thematic approach to data analysis ensued. To begin our analysis, all
investigators independently reviewed six transcripts in order to identify significant
themes and outliers. Next, a meeting was held to review each investigator’s
interpretation and to seek consensus regarding the scope and scale of the dominant
themes. Through this process the analytic theme of reputational protection and
management emerged as being a key aspect of industry stakeholders’ concerns and
actions. KA then developed a coding scheme to capture and organize the key issues
informing each theme and implemented coding with the assistance of the NVivo data
management program. Throughout the analytic process we enhanced rigour through
employing investigator triangulation at multiple points, creating an audit trail to track key
decisions and facilitating trustworthiness by triangulating observational field notes with
interview data (Ryan & Bernard, 2003).
6.5. Findings
In the following section, we examine how dental employees and stakeholders
intent on protecting the industry participate in activities primarily related to managing the
following aspects of Los Algodones’ reputation: a modern and safe tourist destination;
provider of recommended or standardized care; and site for fast, lower cost dental care.
We use participant quotes, and indicated the professional group of the participant who
said each quote, to illustrate how these aspects of Los Algodones’ reputation are
managed and what this management produces in terms of industry practices and
policies.
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6.5.1. Los Algodones as a modern and safe tourist destination
Inside many of the clinics clustered within the town centre of Los Algodones,
clinic employees can often be seen sweeping and mopping the floors throughout the day
to maintain the distinctly clean appearance of the dental offices. The smell of sanitizer
immediately overwhelms one’s senses when stepping into clinic lobbies, along with loud
broadcasts of American news stations or movies. Many clinics use the term “American”
somewhere in their clinic name, and some advertise that they employ American-trained
dentists. Participant discussions suggest that this sanitized and Americanized aesthetic
helps distinguish Los Algodones from the dirty, unsafe Mexico imagined or expected by
many tourists.
While clinic owners and employees work to sanitize and modernize their office
buildings, the tourism committee and dental association in Los Algodones (both small
committees predominately made up of clinic and other business owners) meet regularly
to discuss possible improvements to town aesthetics to better present Los Algodones as
a “modern” site with high safety standards. For example, industry employees have
participated in activities such as lobbying the municipal government to pave the roads
and clean up garbage on the streets. Participants suggested these activities are good for
tourism because a clean, modern space might help differentiate Los Algodones from
tourists’ perceptions of Mexico as an underdeveloped and dangerous place. As one
participant stated, “Of course this is good, because when I grew up in this town in 1969 it
was a poor town, dusty town, sleepy town. The street was dusty, dusty street. Now it’s
another world. Tourists like to come here.” (dentist)
Along with improvements to the town’s aesthetics, many of the policies and
activities developed by the municipal government are intended to protect tourists’ safety.
These policies and practices are introduced to disrupt tourists’ negative stereotypes of
Mexico as homogenously crime-ridden. According to one participant, the police “well,
they take care of [the violence], they make sure nothing’s going on in this town [...] They
make sure the town is secure” (street promoter). Numerous participants referred to
tourists’ perceptions of Mexico as a dangerous place to justify the heavy police
presence. These police officers are tasked with ensuring tourists do not witness or
become victims of crime and report these experiences to the media or prospective
tourists.
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Informal forms of policing were used within the community to protect the
reputation of Los Algodones as a safe destination. For example, one participant stated:
We want tourists to be here, we want you to spend your money. And
when I say we, I am talking about everyone. In fact, if anything ever
happens, when something does happen to an American or Canadian in
our country, we all get pissed. Everyone (street promoter)
This quote indicates that many individuals who work and live in the town are involved in
efforts to protect tourists’ safety. Participants suggested that these efforts are often
directed at three populations who might be perceived as threatening by tourists. The first
group, street promoters, include men paid commission to encourage tourists to purchase
care from particular clinics. New informal rules have been introduced that require street
promoters to remain in particular areas of the town while working and to wear
identification badges so tourists can file complaints about particular promoters at the
tourism office. Curios vendors are also required to follow strict rules regarding where
they can sell their products. Individuals who work in the curios stands are typically from
the poorer regions in southern Mexico and sell souvenirs such as pottery and jewellery
in spaces they rent on the sidewalks in front of dental clinics. Finally, participants
indicated that a third group of street vendors, all indigenous women and children, live in
or near Los Algodones and sell products such as gum, bracelets, and small wooden
carvings.
Several participants raised concerns for how the indigenous population might be
a tourist deterrent because individual vendors approach tourists to beg for money,
stating that:
…we have to help those people [indigenous populations]. […] we need
to help them because we cannot have them in the streets because they
represent our roots but sometimes they are dirty because they are not
used to being clean […] So we talked to the Mayor and the Mayor
happens to be one of those people you know, from down south. So he
understands the situation and so we come down and he talks to people
and we do the best to avoid fights because it doesn’t look good to the
tourists. As long as there is money in Los Algodones for the dental work,
everybody is going to have money (municipal tourism planner).
As this quote illustrates, some participants suggested that efforts to educate or police the
indigenous population are legitimized by the fact that indigenous vendors represent the
underdeveloped Mexico imagined by tourists. These participants suggested that the
87
presence of indigenous people begging for money in this industry site might disrupt
attempts to distance Los Algodones from the Mexico portrayed in the media and
envisioned by individuals in Canada and the US. One clinic promoter recounted a story
of a dentist asking him to walk up to the roof of his clinic and dump a bucket of water on
“los indios” (street promoter) selling souvenirs in front his clinic entrance. While rare,
stories such as this one of harassment and outright violence towards vendors perceived
to be hurting Los Algodones’ reputation highlight the level of concern portrayed by some
participants about how vendors, and particularly indigenous vendors, might disrupt
tourism and the flow of money into Los Algodones.
Along with controlling where both indigenous and non-indigenous vendors and
street promoters work, elite industry members such as clinic owners and municipal
government officials also keep a close watch on how vendors interact with one another.
Participants often referred to competition between vendors as occasionally resulting in
public altercations, raising concerns amongst elite industry stakeholders about how
these altercations might confirm tourists’ fears about Mexico as a dangerous place.
Participants cited activities to discourage fights amongst competing vendors, including
elite industry members circulating to break up fights and reminding individuals that
aggressive behaviour might deter tourists.
I tell [the vendors] ya know, stay cool, sell stuff cheap, and smile to
people. [...] Don’t be aggressive to the tourists. If you be nice to them,
they will give you a quarter or maybe even a dollar. Just be nice to
them. And then you don’t have to push them or nothing […] So they
make their money, they make their way, they aren’t starving. Maybe
down south, yes, because there is no tourism but here we are blessed
by the tourism (municipal tourism planner).
As demonstrated by this quote, efforts to police the activities of vendors are legitimized
by the belief that the dental sector’s current form and reputation “helps everyone gain
money from the tourists” (business executive). However, by being encouraged to “keep
their prices low” (municipal tourism planner) or stand only in certain locations to appease
tourists, vendors and street promoters raised concerns about how these policies might
affect their economic opportunities and produce more stressful work environments,
particularly under the surveillance of elite industry members. Conversations with vendors
and street promoters indicated that this stress is compounded by the fact that violating
the informal rules of conduct might result in being “run out of town” (municipal tourism
planner). Despite these concerns for their working conditions, street promoters and
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vendors often described how working in the dental tourism sector is a preferable job to
working in the fields, the other main industry where this population might find work.
6.5.2. Provider of high quality dental care
Participants indicated that Los Algodones’ reputation as a desirable dental
tourism destination relies on disrupting concerns for the quality of medical care provided
in the global south. To address this concern, owners for larger clinics often employed
additional staff to enhance customer service available to dental tourists, including patient
coordinators who have previously lived in the US or Canada, and many paid commission
to patient facilitation companies and industry related websites operating out of the global
north and recommending particular industry sites and clinics to prospective dental
tourists. Participants suggested that patient coordinators, facilitators, and website
representatives often refer to their familiarity with dental care in the global north as
helping to assure dental tourists that the quality care provided in recommended clinics
meets the same standards. Given this perceived importance of clinic employees’
familiarity with standards of care in Canada and the US, many clinic owners hire
customer service staff who currently reside in or previously resided in the global north,
limiting employment options for local residents. Furthermore, one of the most commonly
cited facilitation websites operates from Ireland and arranges dental appointments for
Canadians and Americans to destinations around the world. While some participants
spoke positively about this website as a means of connecting global patients to clinics
abroad, others felt frustrated that they were pressured to use this site to remain
competitive, citing the cost of twenty British pounds per patient referral made by this
website company as impacting on the profitability of their clinics.
Along with concerns about the costs of using industry related websites and
facilitation companies, participants also raised concerns that many of these websites
enable patients to publish seemingly unfair or inaccurate reviews, undermining efforts to
manage Los Algodones’ reputation as a provider of high quality care. These practices
increased pressure on many clinic employees to satisfy customers, even if this means
providing care that is not medically recommended. One participant explained:
Ya know we see a lot of racism. […] We have had patients throwing
money at people in the clinic, insulting people. They explode out of
nowhere, and I think it is a lack of understanding how things work. And
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people also trying to come here and saying, okay, it’s Mexico and so you
can ask for anything and I can pay you less. And it’s like why? This is a
medical establishment. We live with that every day. And people think,
they feel superior those Americans. And I have to work around it. But
it’s hard. Some [tourists] will also come with, “ok this is what I want to
do, this is how I want to do it, and if you won’t do it, I will go to the
clinic next door.” And they threaten you [...] People come here and they
say “okay, if you don’t do this, I am going to bad mouth you everywhere.
I am going to go to Facebook and TripAdvisor and I am going to bad
mouth you. And just because I can.” And they will openly say, you know,
nobody is going to believe you, they are going to believe me (business
executive).
As this quote illustrates, participants often felt pressured to accept disrespect and
harassment towards Mexican employees working in the industry to satisfy customers
and avoid negative online reviews. Furthermore, participants suggested that dental
tourists’ racist assumptions about Mexican employees encouraged patients to look for
sources of information and recommendations from the global north to enhance their
confidence in the care available in Los Algodones, at times resulting in a total disregard
for medical opinions from Mexican dentists. One participant described how her employer
recommended all clinic employees should eliminate their accents and change certain
“Mexican” (marketing manager) habits that might suggest the medical care provided in
Los Algodones is characteristic of care tourists might assume is provided in the country.
These efforts to reduce the “Mexicanness” (marketing manager) of clinic employees
exemplifies numerous efforts undertaken by industry members to reinforce tourists’
perceptions that the medical care provided in Los Algodones is acceptable to foreign
patients seeking high quality care.
6.5.3. Site to find fast, lower cost care
Along with safety and quality of care, participants also identified the speed and
price of care as extremely important considerations for dental tourists when selecting
their site of care. As a result, they have become important aspects to manage when
protecting the reputation of Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry. Speed of care was
described as particularly important in Los Algodones because many tourists want to
return across the US border at the end of the day. Participants suggested that pressure
from patients to provide fast service encouraged long working hours at a very fast pace
to meet expectations. One participant stated that “that’s the biggest problem I have, they
want to come in for a weekend and leave with a full mouth restoration” (marketing
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manager), indicating that patient’s expectations are at times difficult if not impossible to
meet. Despite this challenge, some participants explained that their clinic owner has
responded to these patient desires by adjusting the style of care to decrease the time a
patient spends in the dental chair. It was also reported that the demand for trained
technicians exceeds supply and so some clinics hire untrained technicians in order to
increase the volume of crowns and implants that can be made in a single day and
thereby provide timelier care.
Clinic owners highlighted the importance of offering competitive prices to entice
tourists and to promote Los Algodones’ reputation as a provider of lower-cost care.
Signs out front of clinics prominently display price lists and special deals, reinforcing
dental tourists’ perceptions that dental care in Los Algodones is desirable because of
cost savings. However, these bargain prices also raised concerns from participants
about how low is too low:
That’s one of the main things that is important, the prices […] I told
some patient, she was like, “how much are your teeth whitening.” I was
like “you know ma’am, original price $150 but I’ll give it to you for $120
and I’ll include a cleaning” and she’s like, “I could have that done at
home for not much more”. If I would have done it for $50, she would
have come in, but $50 that’s what the whitening treatment costs me to
do [...] (street promoter)
As this quote suggests, participants were often concerned about how to develop a
profitable business in a competitive industry. As a result, many participants raised
concerns that meeting some tourists’ pricing expectations could encourage poorer
quality care and/or lower wages for employees.
Participants’ discussions of dental care speed and costs illuminate a key tension:
the sector’s reputation is based on the provision of fast, lower cost care in a safe spot,
yet faster and lower cost care limits the ability of clinic employees to ensure the provision
of quality care that will ultimately meet patients’ desired oral health and result in positive
reviews and customer loyalty. According to participants, this tension materializes when
time and price constraints discourage activities such as peer-regulation, oral health
promotion, and follow-up care arrangements with dental tourists’ home providers. Many
participants expressed concerns about how employees must work hard to navigate
these tensions with limited ability to call out unfair practices by dental tourists:
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It’s unfair because they [potential customers] play us, they’ll play three
or four clinics at the same time and then you’re forcing, the
competitiveness is already there ‘cause you are already getting a good
price, but when you want to go lower than that and being unfair like
that, it starts to damage [the care]. And it’s already inexpensive enough
and we cannot have, we cannot afford for Mexico as a country to start
getting that reputation which has already got a pretty bad reputation for
other things, so let’s not let the medical tourism get damaged (patient
facilitator).
As this quote illustrates, employees are highly aware of the competition in the global
medical tourism industry and how prejudiced and negative perceptions of Mexico affect
the appeal of Los Algodones within this industry.
6.6. Discussion
Interviews and informal discussions with numerous individuals working within
some of the hundreds of dental clinics or in affiliated businesses such as dental labs,
marketing and promotion, and street vending, show that employees in Los Algodones
are concerned (and hopeful) about the future of the dental tourism sector without many
alternative employment options in the region (Ruiz, 2010). As a result of this concern,
employees are actively committed to protecting the industry’s reputation. However, many
of the perspectives we captured highlight ethically concerning practices related to
managing Los Algodones’ reputation, such as: the payment of low wages and/or practice
of precarious employment; the presence of clinic protocols that promote long working
hours and stressful working environments; the reinforcement of social hierarchies within
the industry that contribute to discriminatory access to economic resources; and, finally,
the perceived lack of respect for employees exemplified by threats and harassment from
dental tourists. We contend that such aspects of reputational management and
protection are, in fact, acting as forms of structural injustice that impact on all scales of
the local dental tourism sector, from individual employees’ participation in the industry to
town policies meant to enhance the appeal of this industry site within the global
marketplace for dental care.
In the remainder of this section, we examine our analytic findings regarding Los
Algodones’ dental tourism industry and the contextual factors informing unjust practices
within this site. Drawing on our examples of reputational control, we demonstrate how
global relations of power interconnect and coalesce in ways that differentially shape
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individual experiences of the sector, including experiences of discrimination and
marginalization. We demonstrate below how actors differentially access, experience,
and are excluded from employment, community events, and health care based on power
relations informed by race, class, and nationality. We also provide a closer examination
of the idea of structural exploitation as well as an application of it to the examples offered
in our examination of reputational control. By applying this theory to data grounded in the
lived experiences of dental tourism employees and stakeholders, we add nuance to, and
generally complicate, the ethical debates that exist regarding the global health services
practice of medical tourism and the ethical considerations that inform such transnational
care.
6.6.1. Protecting the industry, reproducing structural injustices
Participants’ discussions of reputational management activities raise concerns for
unfair and degrading labour conditions for groups whose presence and work are
perceived to threaten this reputation. Examples of a dentist considering dumping
buckets of water on the heads of indigenous women and elite industry members
circulating to remind vendors to keep their prices low exemplify such conditions. Unjust
practices directed at indigenous populations, and especially indigenous women, are
particularly concerning from a social justice perspective given the well-documented
marginalization of this population in Mexico. For example, indigenous women have the
worst health outcomes in Mexico as a result of inequitable access to health care and
other social determinants of ill health such as poverty (Pelcastre-Villafuerte et al., 2014).
We argue that the practices meant to police or control indigenous vendors’ activities
further marginalize this population by limiting access to economic resources from tourists
and by reinforcing discourses of indigenous people as a marginalized other in ways that
legitimize their exclusion from community events and health care services.
Our research suggests that street promoters also experienced discrimination and
harassment in their everyday interactions working in the dental tourism sector. We have
documented above how perceptions that promoters lack professionalism were used to
legitimize policies and practices that constitute poor working conditions such as long
working hours, lower wages, and a stressful working environment. These working
conditions are concerning given that the majority of promoters are deported Mexican-
Americans, a population that is highly vulnerable to poor health outcomes as a result of
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their deportation status and subsequent experiences of familial separation (Ojeda et al.
2011). Desperation to work anywhere but the fields is problematic as it leaves both
street promoters and vendors vulnerable to industry abuse. The experiences of both of
these groups in Los Algodones align with academic accounts of tourism policing
practices elsewhere in Latin America that ultimately limit the wages of and security for
marginalized populations reliant on the industry for their employment (Seligmann, 2014).
Even amongst ‘trained’ or ‘professional’ employees in the sector such as
dentists, dental clinic owners, marketing staff, patient facilitators, and business
executives, participants’ experiences suggest that nationality and gender seemingly
determine who counts as a trusted source of dental knowledge and, as a result, who
deserves to be paid higher wages and treated with respect. As dentists vigorously
sanitize their offices, Mexican marketing staff undergo training to reduce their accents,
and foreign facilitation companies charge Los Algodones’ dental clinics 20 British
pounds per referral, these practices reinforce and are reinforced by perceptions of
acceptable and standardized care provided in the global north, or at least vetted by
actors residing in the global north. According to this logic, minimizing the “Mexicanness”
of a clinic aesthetic or employee as a strategy of reputational protection facilitates the
perception that the sector provides high quality, standardized care, conflating
professionalism with practices rooted in the global north (Buzinde & Yarnal, 2012). This
conflation is particularly concerning when it encourages the diversion of profits from
industry employees in Mexico to individuals perceived to be more ‘professional’ because
of their residence in the global north, as occurs in Los Algodones with patient facilitation
companies. A similar diversion of profits has been documented in the literature
examining the maquiladora industry in northern Mexico, reinforcing comparisons
between the maquiladora and medical tourism industries in this region (McCrossen,
2009; Tamborini, 2007).
Overall, our interviews highlight common expectations or assumptions of dental
tourists according to care providers and other individuals working in Los Algodones and
raise concerns for the ways in which industry stakeholders might respond to these
assumptions, otherwise referred to as the tourist gaze (Schantz, 2010). Dental tourism
industry stakeholders’ consideration of the tourist gaze highlights tensions in managing
different aspects of Los Algodones’ dental tourism reputation based on tourists’
expectations for fast, lower cost care provided within an exotic location, but also care
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which is familiar and acceptable based on patient perceptions of standardized medical
care. Our research suggests that the realization of these tensions is largely informed by
the commodification of health care as dental tourists look for indicators of care that is of
good value, encouraging care providers to lower wages and work hard to provide
services such as on-call patient coordinators and free x-rays. These responses by clinic
employees are further encouraged by concerns for reputational management,
particularly in contexts where new patients are looking online for indicators of good
value. As a result, industry stakeholders’ desires to protect and manage the reputations
of Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry raise concerns about medical tourism broadly
in contexts where extensive efforts to manage these different aspects of reputation
encourage poor working conditions characterized by discriminatory and disrespectful
practices.
We believe it is important to note that dental tourists might decide to access care
in Los Algodones in the face of structural barriers to accessing dental care in their home
countries (Adams al., in press; Miller-Thayer, 2010). While we acknowledge the contexts
of poor access to dental care that may drive dental patients abroad (Turner, 2008; Miller-
Thayer, 2010), we argue that structural factors - including tourism dependence and
prejudiced assumptions about the global south – might encourage tourists and elite
tourism operators to perpetuate structural injustices that maintain industry practices and
policies of particular benefit themselves. Many of the structural barriers pushing
Canadians and Americans abroad for dental care might be unique to the dental tourism
context if patients have better access to other types of care domestically (Turner, 2008);
however, as we demonstrate in this analysis, the realization of unjust industry practices
informed by structural factors, including those highlighted above, are not procedure
specific and might occur in multiple industry sites offering a range of care while
competing for customers within the global medical tourism industry.
As the announcer at the Welcome Party described at the outset of the paper
subtly indicated, not everyone working and residing in Los Algodones is invited to the
party. We argue that in this case, the enjoyment of the dental tourism “party” for some
relies on the exclusion or degradation of others. Furthermore, drawing on our analysis of
reputational protection activities in Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry, we contend
that this exclusion and degradation might be justified by elite industry stakeholders such
as the owners of large clinics and other affiliated businesses who believe these
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reputational management activities are necessary to protecting their interests in the
industry.
6.6.2. Structural exploitation in medical tourism
As we showed in the previous sub-section, the dental tourism sector in Los
Algodones perpetuates structural injustices experienced by individuals living and
working in this area as global relations of power inform unjust industry practices,
including degrading working conditions and inequitable distribution of industry resources
(Mitra & Biller-Andorno, 2013; Young, 2006). We suggest that the concept of structural
exploitation adds nuance to our understanding of the town’s dental tourism industry and
further illuminates morally problematic practices in Los Algodones. Structural exploitation
differs from structural injustice in that it refers to the favouring and maintenance of unjust
systems and institutions by parties who stand to gain from the perpetuation of structural
injustices (Sample, 2003). Snyder (2013) suggests that the wrongfulness of structural
exploitation is due to the failure of these parties to address structural injustices despite
opportunities to do so through their position of power within these unjust systems or
institutions.
In the case of Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry, dental tourism employees
generally perceived the sector to be mutually beneficial for both tourists and local
employees; however, this benefit might mask what is morally problematic about the
dental tourism industry in this site. We contend that if elite sector stakeholders fail to
address structural injustices experienced by various employees to secure access to
benefits produced by the industry, this failure is constitutive of structural exploitation. Our
findings suggest that actors occupying positions of power in Los Algodones’ dental
tourism industry fail to address institutions, policies, and practices that reinforce and
compound structural injustices. We have shown that these actors might seek to
legitimize unjust practices and neglect for the needs of marginalized populations
according to discourses of reputational protection while working to protect the industry
and its reputation according to their own interests.
Understanding our findings from a structural exploitation perspective raises
important policy considerations based on assigning responsibility to actors who
perpetuate structural injustices through their role in the industry. This case study
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demonstrates how industry development within particular contexts and conditions might
be especially concerning from an ethical perspective as structural factors such as
tourism dependence, economic asymmetries, and competition within the global medical
tourism industry encourage unjust industry practices. However, as we demonstrate in
our analysis, the task of assigning responsibility is complicated by the context of
overlapping and interconnected structural injustices informing different individual
experiences of and opportunities to shape industry practices amongst stakeholder
groups living and working on both sides of the Mexico-US border. Our analysis
advances key discussions of how both foreign and in-country elite actors shape medical
tourism development globally (Johnston et al., 2015; Ormond, 2013; Snyder et al., 2016)
and highlights the influence of global relations of power on industry practices. We
suggest that multiple actors, from both destination and patient’s home countries, have a
role to play in reproducing, and thus ultimately alleviating, injustices pertaining to this
form of tourism. This remains an important avenue for future research.
6.7. Conclusion
This case study of the dental tourism sector in one town along the northern
Mexican border raises ethical concerns related to structural injustice and exploitation in
the global medical tourism industry. We demonstrated how efforts to manage the
reputation of this sector in Los Algodones, Mexico reinforced structural injustices based
on race, class, and nationality. As we argued, events and activities related to
reputational management might be supported and promoted by the vast majority of
residents who are reliant on the economic gains from this type of tourism; however, even
if mutually beneficial, the dental tourism “party” is not necessarily enjoyed by everyone.
In this analysis, we have suggested that discourses and practices involved in
specific medical tourism contexts, particularly involving flows of patients from the global
north to the global south, can reinforce and exacerbate structural injustices that maintain
systems of oppression and marginalization. While our analysis relied predominantly on
the voices of a few stakeholder groups (i.e., dentists and clinic owners) from one specific
border town in Mexico, the narratives and experiences that emerge provide insight into
the ways in which diverse populations can differentially experience practices undertaken
within a single economic sector. These narratives, though partial, suggest further
analysis is needed on locally contextualized medical tourism practices to examine social
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justice concerns related to this industry and to begin identifying opportunities for their
mitigation or elimination.
6.8. References
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Chapter 7. A critical examination of empowerment discourse in medical tourism: The case of Los Algodones
7.1. Introduction
Medical tourism is a term used to describe the phenomenon of individuals
intentionally traveling across national borders to privately purchase medical care
(Johnston et al., 2010). Individuals might be motivated to travel as medical tourists to
avoid wait lists for care and/or to access more affordable care than is domestically
available or care not typically available within their domestic health care system
(Johnston et al, 2010). Research on this phenomenon suggests that medical tourists
travel between and within both the global north and global south; however, the majority
of media and academic attention has focused on the flow of patients from the global
north accessing care in the global south care that is more affordable than in their home
countries (Connell, 2016; Crush & Chikanda, 2014).
Media and industry portrayals of medical tourism often suggest that this practice
empowers both patients and providers to choose amongst a variety of industry sites and
regulatory environments to arrange their ideal care or work experiences (Imison &
Schweinsberg, 2013; Qadeer & Reddy, 2014). The industry has been portrayed in the
media as a “safety zone” or “escape valve” providing alternative care options as a result
of vast economic asymmetries between the global north and global south and the
flexible regulatory environment in which care is provided to medical tourists (Horton &
Cole, p. 1848; Whittaker & Leng, 2016). For example, media reports on the dental
tourism industry in Los Algodones indicate that patients can shop around for care within
a “dental oasis” of clustered care providers, enabling patients to easily try out different
providers and negotiate the care and price that fits their needs (Henton, 2011). Research
has also demonstrated how elite industry stakeholders including owners of large medical
clinics, patient facilitation companies, and governmental bodies have encouraged the
relaxation of regulatory mechanisms to enable lower cost care provision, entice medical
providers keen to offer certain types of care that might not be allowed in other
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jurisdictions, and ultimately increase the flow of medical tourists and profits to that
particular site (Meghani, 2010; Ormond, 2011).
There are good reasons to be critical of this dominant discourse of
empowerment, however. Drawing on critiques of privatization of health care encouraged
by neoliberal discourses and policies (Birn, Nervi & Sequiera, 2016; Schrecker, 2016),
the medical tourism literature has demonstrated how industry stakeholders have taken
up neoliberal assumptions about the role of market-driven care in driving economic
development and enhancing patient access to care to push forward an overly simplistic
discourse of empowerment in medical tourism (Connell, 2011; Smith, 2012). For
example, the alternative care options promoted in the media and industry sources of
information are mostly taken up by patients from the global north and only those who are
able to travel and pay for care, limiting this empowerment to a particular population
which does not include the most vulnerable patients struggling to access care (Meghani,
2010). Furthermore, by presenting choice in health care as necessarily empowering
(Whittaker & Leng, 2016), media coverage on medical tourism and industry discourse
ignores and dismisses the myriad ways in which more choice for patients and providers
can be “stressful, confusing, time consuming, and impossible to do well” (Mulligan, 2017,
p. 41). Researchers suggest choice rhetoric might be taken up in media discourse and
health system planning in ways that assume more choice is always good while
dismissing or ignoring the unintended consequences of policies focused on enhancing
patient and provider choice. These unintended consequences include new safety risks
for patients when more care choices hinder effective regulatory mechanisms and/or the
irresponsible use of health care resources when care provision intent on enhancing
choice does not align with the health care needs in the community (Mulligan, 2017;
Chanda, 2002).
Discourse emphasizing medical tourism activities as necessarily empowering
care providers and other industry employees also fails to consider how the economic
development opportunities promised by proponents of industry development are
differentially experienced by stakeholders occupying a range of positions in the industry.
Many entrepreneurial providers have struggled to guarantee profits when competing for
the same pool of patients in the global medical tourism industry (Johnston et al., 2015;
Snyder et al., 2016) while the relaxation of regulatory mechanisms such as licensing
requirements for medical professionals and professional regulation could also enable
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and exacerbate unjust practices such as low wages for industry employees and limited
professional oversight to promote responsible usage of health resources (Chen & Flood,
2013; Whittaker & Leng, 2016). Overall, these critiques emphasize the potential health
equity and health system implications of this empowerment discourse as it drives
localized industry practices – implications that we consider and expand upon in our
analysis below.
In the remainder of this article, we examine how the circulation of empowerment
discourse amongst medical tourism industry stakeholders can work to mask or dismiss
ethical concerns for the industry, enabling ongoing industry development. Drawing on a
case study of medical tourism practices within the industry site of Los Algodones,
Mexico, we provide a critical examination of how and why this empowerment discourse
is taken up by industry stakeholders. We specifically argue that this discourse is taken
up by industry stakeholders to promote the industry to prospective customers and
investors. However, we argue that this type of promotion serves to further entrench
structural injustices such as poor access to health care as this empowerment discourse
assumes everyone can participate in the industry in ways that improve their health. We
also draw on this case study to question whether providing more choice to patients is
necessarily desirable for building robust health care systems if this choice involves
limiting regulations needed to protect patient safety and responsible use of finite health
resources. Before we examine this localized example in more detail, we first provide an
overview of medical tourism industry development in Mexico and discuss why we chose
Los Algodones as our site of inquiry.
7.2. Medical tourism in Los Algodones, Mexico
Los Algodones is a small town located directly across the border from Yuma,
Arizona in the United States. This location has informed the development of a medical
tourism industry and encouraged slow but increasing growth of the town’s population.
Currently, approximately 500 dentists work in Los Algodones, which is a town of 6000
residents. As a result of this concentration of dental care providers, Los Algodones has
earned the title of “dental capital of the world” according to media reports (Judkins, 2007;
Oberle & Arreola, 2004). This exceptional concentration of dentists has been
characterised in the media and in industry marketing and promotional materials as
empowering patients though increased choice for affordable and acceptable dental care
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than is typically available in visitors’ home care contexts (Adams et al., 2017). Dentists in
Los Algodones primarily treat American and Canadian patients, many of whom are
seniors who spend the winter months in Yuma as ‘snowbirds’. Dental tourism in this site
relies on the concentration of dental clinics available to treat tourists crossing the border
for the day as well as affiliated staff and businesses including numerous labs, street
promoters, patient facilitators, and medical repositories to attract customers and facilitate
care provision to a high volume of patients. Generally, patients travel to Los Algodones
with the intention of purchasing more affordable care than is available in their home
countries; however, some tourists decide to become patients while already visiting Los
Algodones to souvenir shop, enjoy the bars and restaurants, purchase lower cost
alcohol or prescription drugs than available back home, or participate in community
events (Miller-Thayer, 2010; Oberle & Arreola, 2004).
Los Algodones is just one of many sites in Mexico catering to medical tourists
from the global north. National policies and contexts seemingly play an important role in
shaping industry practices and policies in sites such as Los Algodones (Judkins, 2007;
Ormond, 2011). In Mexico, the federal, state, and municipal governments have
contributed substantial resources towards promoting and financially supporting tourism
activities, including medical tourism (Ely, 2013). The Mexican Tourism and Convention
Bureau (COTUCO) has listed medical tourism as one of twelve categories of tourism
diversifications being developed and promoted in Mexico (VisitMexico.com). The state
of Baja California, where Los Algodones is situated, has a webpage dedicated to
advising prospective medical tourists on what to expect when traveling to the state as a
medical tourist and how to choose destination cities, providers, and procedures during
their medical tourism experience (Bajahealthtourism.com). Overall, the medical tourism
industry in northern Mexico is portrayed on many of these government websites and
promotional materials as both an important economic activity encouraging
entrepreneurial pursuits as well as an opportunity to enhance patient access to desired
care. As the Baja California webpage devoted to medical tourism states: “For millions,
medical tourism has become the healthy choice”, exemplifying how medical tourism in
this context is framed as necessarily enhancing health outcomes for a large proportion of
the global population (Bajahealthtourism.com). We contend that this framing seemingly
ignores those who cannot participate in this “healthy choice”, a concern which drives our
analysis below.
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7.3. Methods
We employed case study methodology to examine the dental tourism industry in
Los Algodones through interviews, media reviews, and first-hand observation. Case
study methodology enables a nuanced examination of a well-defined and bounded
phenomenon to provide insight into complex social relations and processes (Flyvberg,
2006; Gerring, 2004). While dental tourism occurs in other northern Mexican border
towns, Los Algodones is unique in that it is the only medical tourism destination site in
this region focused almost entirely on dental care instead of a range of medical care
options. Our case study of this unique industry site aims to trace how global forces
shape local industry practices to develop a better understanding of ethical concerns for
medical tourism practices grounded in the lived experiences of individuals working and
residing within a particular site.
To gain insight into individuals’ experiences of industry practices in Los
Algodones, we recorded 43 semi-structured interviews with individuals representing a
range of different professional roles including dentist (n=30; 9 women, 21 men), dental
assistant (n=4; 2 women, 2 men); street promoter or patient facilitator (n=4; all men);
marketing professional and business executive (n=3; 1 woman, 2 men); and municipal
tourism planner (n=2; all men). Interviews were conducted during three months of
observational field work in Los Algodones. I conducted all interviews in English, except
for six which I conducted in Spanish. During the interviews, participants were asked
about their decisions to work in the industry, descriptions of their professional role and
influences on their work and industry practices, and any concerns for current industry
practices and industry development. Specific questions were organized by a semi-
structured guide that allowed participants to raise issues and concerns not initially
probed. The recorded interviews were then transcribed verbatim and interviews
conducted in Spanish were transcribed and translated to English by a native Spanish
speaker for ease of analysis. Recorded interviews lasted between 20 and 90 minutes
with the majority lasting approximately 45 minutes.
To analyze the data, I conducted a thematic review along with my supervisory
committee of interviews and informal conversations with industry employees working in
Los Algodones. All investigators independently reviewed six transcripts and we met as a
team to reach consensus on significant emergent themes and the scope and scale of
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each. One of the themes identified through this process was patient empowerment. The
first author then developed a coding scheme to capture and organize the key issues
informing this theme and then implemented coding with the assistance of the NVivo data
management program. Data extracts related to patient empowerment were compiled
and reviewed to identify key sub-themes and contrast them against relevant published
literatures. Throughout the analytic process we enhanced rigour through employing
investigator triangulation at multiple points, identifying necessary context relevant to our
interpretation in order to enhance transferability, and facilitating trustworthiness by
triangulating observational field notes with interview data (Ryan & Bernard, 2003).
7.4. Findings
In the remainder of this section, we share the findings from our interviews and
highlight participant depictions of practices characterized as empowering for providers
and patients while also drawing attention to participant concerns for various industry
practices. We specifically focus on participant discussions that legitimize or justify the
continuation of certain industry practices despite ethical concerns.
7.4.1. Provider (dis)empowerment
The majority of participants spoke very positively about the medical tourism
industry and hoped to continue working in Los Algodones. Participants suggested that
they chose to work in the industry because it afforded better working conditions than
other alternatives, including wages, unique professional development, and opportunities
to provide the types of care for which they were trained. Participants generally agreed
that it would be very difficult to find work as a dentist in both the public and private
sectors in certain regions of Mexico due to limited demand and job positions, potentially
pushing dentists to seek work in the dental tourism industry. Some participants
suggested that intense competition for employment in the dental sector might be caused
by accepting too many dentists into dental colleges. Other participants insisted that
competition for work amongst dentists is a result of structural barriers to accessing
dental care in Mexico, with one participant stating: “It has to do with poverty, if you do
not have money to get dressed or to eat you do not have money to go to the doctor, or to
buy medicines”. This participant suggested that dentists from poorer regions of Mexico
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might seek employment in other regions, including dental tourism sites, where
populations can more easily pay for private medical care.
Participants suggested that dentists might be drawn to work in the industry not
only for better wages but also because they preferred the working conditions and
professional opportunities afforded by the industry. For example, one participant
indicated that she decided to work in the dental tourism industry due to her struggle to
balance work with child care. She explained that dental tourists are typically retired and
are willing to book appointments during the day, unlike local residents who typically have
work commitments requiring them to book appointments during evenings and weekends.
Participants highlighted other pull factors for working in the industry including financial
investment by government and businesses supporting medical tourism industry
development. Participants suggested that this investment enabled dentists to open their
own clinics with better equipment and patient support staff, as exemplified by the
following quote:
Okay the situation in the late 90’s, we were around 30, 40 dentists. And
then the boom from the place start noise in everywhere and more people
they start coming down, until the investment people or the investment
in dental marketing start establish here. People who have money start
opening clinics and then contract doctors. (dentist)
Because dental tourists typically access a high volume of care in a shorter
amount of time compared to local residents, this has allowed dentists to treat more
patients and develop their skills. Many participants explained that they prefer treating
foreign patients, and almost exclusively treat non-Mexican patients, because they can
provide the treatment they were trained to do, enhancing their professional development.
One participant stated that: “There are two cultural levels. This is local culture, this is
Mexican culture. We work by appointments, we have medical records, we have to check
everything, x-ray machines and everything. They [Mexican patients] want to pull it, pull
the tooth out [without proper examinations first]. Not everybody, but 90%” (dental clinic
owner), suggesting that the type of care provided in the clinics catering to dental tourists
is distinct from care provision in Mexico outside of the industry. Many participants also
distinguished their experiences working within the medical tourism industry and outside
of this industry by referring to the amount of money provided by dental clinic owners in
Los Algodones to attend conferences, ongoing education, and other forms of
professional development.
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Despite generally positive portrayals from dentists about their work in the
industry, many participants also shared stories that contradicted common assertions that
the industry is necessarily characterized by professional development and desirable
employment opportunities. For example, many participants explained that most dentists
working in Los Algodones were not part of the local professional dental association
despite professional guidelines requiring dentists to join a professional association if
practicing in Mexico. While most participants did not express concerns about the limited
participation in Los Algodones’ professional association, referring to consumer-driven
forms of regulation as encouraging acceptable quality of care, some participants raised
concerns about how limited professional regulation enables unethical or unsafe dental
practice. This concern was particularly focused on “some of the new entrepreneurs [who]
don’t want to have to pay [for professional association membership] because they want
to sell their dental care for even cheaper” (dentist). Participants who raised concerns
about this limited participation in the local professional association typically emphasized
competition between providers as limiting communication between different medical
professionals in Los Algodones, frustrating some participants who felt better
collaboration at the professional association or other venues is necessary to promote
high standards of care provision.
Some participants suggested that even if dentists wanted to join the professional
association or other professional development activities, sometimes this is not possible
due the long hours they work treating a high volume of patients. One participant
explained that “The thing is, we have too many people. For example, if they sit in the
chair, sometimes I don’t stand up until 10:00 pm so I don’t know. I don’t know if this guy
has two years or three years since he did the training” (dentist). Other participants
expressed similar concerns that with long working hours, many dentists do not have time
to join the professional organization and also cannot provide peer-regulation as there is
limited opportunity to contact and communicate with dentists working in different clinics.
A few participants questioned assumptions that all dentists can access
professional development opportunities to improve their skills by highlighting how some
of the clinic owners do not have a dental background and as a result, might be reluctant
to fund or enable dentists to attend professional development activities. This concern is
exemplified by the following quote:
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Yes, there are people interested in this [regulation], but nobody pays
attention to us. The industry should be regulated; it would help a lot to
have control over situations that are currently happening here. For
example, because everything here is driven by money, people who sold
blankets in stores before and now have dental clinics, they do not want
to sell blankets anymore, what they do is to put a dental chair and
someone to work there and now they are the owners of a clinic that is
not regulated. That is why there should be regulation. (dentist)
This quote demonstrates a common perspective from dentists we interviewed that
employment in the industry varies considerably between clinics, especially in terms of
access to professional development opportunities and standards of care. Participants
who raised a similar concern emphasized that despite the existence of high quality care
in Los Algodones, there are providers who provide lower standards of care, indicating
that this is made possible by the limited enforcement of regulatory standards.
7.4.2. Patient (dis)empowerment
Within a context of unique professional development opportunities and
investment in high quality care provision, many participants portrayed their role in a very
altruistic way and emphasized how their services expand access to desired dental care
for populations facing structural barriers to accessing this care. This perception was
largely informed by providers’ interactions with patients who expressed high levels of
gratitude for the care they had received. Multiple participants emphasized the
concentration of dental clinics and affiliated services in Los Algodones as producing a
type of medical marketplace for dental care that enables patients to shop around for care
and select services in a clinic that best fits their needs. As one participant explained that:
Well, it’s a small town, it has only two blocks actually, and you can find
about 310 dental clinics, at least. And they call it “molar city”, people in
the United States call it “molar city” ‘cause people come to get their
teeth done [...] So everybody is happy here. (municipal tourism
planner)
This quote exemplifies common participant perspectives that the concentration of
dentists working in Los Algodones has produced a unique care context characterized by
the high concentration of health human resources. Additionally, some clinic owners have
hired patient coordinators and other support staff to respond to patient inquiries “around
the clock”, enhancing patients’ ability to access care that meets their needs.
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Participants suggested that the volume of online resources available to dental
tourists enhances patients’ access to desired care. Participants indicated that many
dental tourists use online review websites to compare patient perspectives of different
clinics and dental tourism industry sites in ways that informs patients of a variety of
choices available to them in Los Algodones and facilitates their decision-making. Many
participants also suggested that consumer-driven forms of regulation and competition for
patients necessarily enhance quality of care because patient reviews online ensure “bad
doctors” (dental clinic owner) go out of business. According to participants, this review
system encourages dentists to provide high quality care because they know that patients
can provide a negative review online and will want to avoid harming their reputation. As
a result, participants suggested that some clinic owners focus on meeting customer
demands through changes to their practices. These changes can include hiring
untrained technicians to lower their prices, adjusting clinic practices to speed up care
(i.e., one clinic has patients move from room to room in an assembly-line fashion to
reduce the time dentists spend moving between offices), and hiring patient coordinators
or working with facilitation companies to arrange patients’ travel details and answer
questions throughout their medical tourism experience.
Despite the common assertion from participants that the dental tourism industry
in Los Algodones enhances patients’ choices for more accessible and affordable dental
care than available in their home countries, particular anecdotes and perspectives
complicated this discourse by highlighting exclusionary practices in the industry and
concerns for unethical and/or substandard care practices. Multiple participants
questioned the effectiveness of patient review websites in driving acceptable standards
of care in Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry. Participants described how some
patients have published inaccurate or unfair reviews when they did not like their
experience. The possibility of patients publishing negative reviews online has
encouraged some care providers to give treatment according to patients’ demands or
expectations, even if these demands do not align with safe and ethical treatment
protocols. Many participants explained that dentists and other industry employees
assume other employees will attract more customers by adapting or responding to
patient demands, encouraging care providers to adjust to these demands, as
exemplified by the following quote: “But in season they’re coming from Canada or USA,
so they have not much time […] but they want all the work fast, fast, fast. And we need
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to do it. Somebody will do it.” (dentist). As this quote demonstrates, providers often felt
pressured to treat patients as fast as possible to attract customers keen to minimize the
amount of time they need to spend in Los Algodones; however, many dentists
expressed their desire for tourists to take more time so that they could provide
appropriate aftercare before patients head home.
Within this competitive industry context, participants suggested that clinic
employees commonly devote time and resources to providing customer service and
improving online patient reviews in ways that might limit time to actually provide care to
patients in need. Participants suggested that clinic employees, including dentists, often
spend time reviewing x-rays and providing estimates so patients can shop around for the
best price before booking their dental tourism trip. Furthermore, many dental clinics in
Los Algodones advertise free x-rays and we witnessed one dental tourist undergo three
x-rays in one day to compare treatment prices before determining which clinic to use.
Some participants also suggested that dental tourists will sometimes get treatment fixed
from a different provider at the first sign of pain, even if this care is not needed. Overall,
participants suggested that patient reviews might cause dental tourists to feel
overwhelmed when navigating so many different opinions, resulting in patients
accessing multiple free examinations and diagnoses or other forms of unnecessary care,
wasting dentists’ and other clinic employees’ time and resources.
Some participants raised concerns about exclusionary care practices in Los
Algodones as many clinics focus on treating customers who will maximize profits. A few
participants emphasized a large need for dental care amongst vulnerable populations
living in and around Los Algodones and expressed their disappointment that many clinic
owners and dentists do not use their resources to help these populations. Some dentists
indicated that they provide treatment at lower cost or for free for friends, family
members, or other local residents; however, participants often emphasized that local
populations might only be able to access care when clinic providers are not busy treating
foreign patients while some souvenir vendors said that they are never able to get the
care they need in Los Algodones. Some participants explained that they don’t treat some
local populations because they perceived them to be “bad patients” (dentist),
characterised as patients who are late for appointments, who don’t pay in full for
treatments, or request to have their teeth pulled instead of paying for recommended
care. These participants suggested that they prefer treating foreign patients who pay in
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full, in American dollars, and in a shortened timeframe, allowing them to generate more
profit by treating a higher volume of patients who pay more for each treatment.
Finally, many participants justified their focus on treating foreign patients despite
needs for dental care in the local population by explaining how local residents have
existing access to dental care in the public or private sector. However, the quality of
dental care provided in the public sector was commonly described by participants as
“very poor” and, as a result, some of our participants felt that elite industry members
could do more to enhance the oral health of local residents who cannot afford to access
care within the dental tourism industry. One participant suggested that when he tried to
coordinate with other clinic employees to develop a health promotion activity in local
schools, no other clinic employees would work with him as they were sceptical about
collaborating with a competitor and because they did not have the time to devote to this
project. He explained that:
It is not common at all to find dentists who are interested in seeing local
people, we are a small group of people who procure the local people, to
treat them, and to charge less money for our services. Lowering our
prices to serve them is difficult but I think it is possible and it can be
done. I do it. (municipal tourism planner)
This participant expressed frustration with the culture of care in the dental tourism
industry compared to care provision outside of the industry, explaining that: “We all are
capable of providing preventive services, it is our duty as dentists to provide preventive
services to the community. However, we unfortunately turn a blind eye to this situation
here”. Overall, while some dentists and industry employees had developed initiatives to
promote improved oral health amongst marginalized populations (i.e., one dentist uses
his 3D printer to make crowns and molds for clinics in southern parts of Mexico where
there are limited numbers of dental labs), multiple participants suggested these efforts
were few and far between and were hard to pursue within clinic environments focused
on maximizing profits.
7.5. Discussion
Participants’ discussions aligned closely with media coverage on Los Algodones’
dental tourism industry by suggesting that the context of care provision in this particular
location enables international patients to access high quality dental care at more
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affordable prices than typically available in Canada and the US (Adams et al., 2017).
Furthermore, many participants suggested that the industry provides work opportunities
for dentists struggling to secure adequate employment in the public or private sector, a
perspective that is reflected in the research on the dental industry in Mexico (Gonzalez-
Robledo, 2012). However, particular experiences and perspectives complicated this
discourse by highlighting who is not able to access needed dental care within this
industry site and how this care provision might actually exacerbate oral health inequities
through irresponsible use of health resources and exclusionary care practices. Despite
concerns from some participants about particular industry practices, our findings
demonstrate that the profit-driven nature of the industry and competition for customers
encouraged industry stakeholders to take up an overly simplistic discourse of
empowerment. We argue that this discourse serves to mask and dismiss many of the
concerns highlighted by participants, as we describe in further detail below.
Many participants spoke positively about consumer-driven forms of regulation of
the dental tourism industry in Los Algodones, such as patient review websites, and
suggested that the use of these websites by prospective dental tourists provided these
patients with information to choose more desirable care options. However, some
participants’ stories and concerns about practices related to review websites
contradicted these assertions: they expressed frustration at unfair reviews from patients
who were unhappy with their care for reasons unrelated to the care itself. These
examples align with findings in the literature that suggest that too much choice can be
overwhelming and confusing to patients, specifically when this information is provided
online (Mulligan, 2017). We found that patients sometimes sought out unnecessary
treatment in Los Algodones according to recommendations from other patients via word-
of-mouth or as a result of confusion when navigating contradictory advice. While the
addition of care choices empowered these patients as consumers, this shift of power
away from providers competing for these consumers’ dollars seemingly came at a cost
to patient safety and responsible use of health resources; however, this “cost” is rarely
discussed by industry stakeholders focused on promoting particular industry sites such
as Los Algodones.
Our findings align with research on patient review websites that indicate that
within contexts of profit-driven care provision, providers often feel pressured to adjust
their practice to maintain their reputation online. While this adjustment might empower
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patients to find the right care provider for their needs, it also raises concerns about
whether or not attention to customer satisfaction aligns with professional standards of
care and ethical care provision (Menon, 2017). Our research suggests that within a
profit-driven industry, dentists often felt pressured to meet patient demands and at times,
this pressure encouraged unethical and/or substandard care practices characterized by
unlicensed providers, limited follow-up care, and unnecessary treatment. Research
examining the perspectives of doctors working in the medical tourism industry in India
found that many of these doctors felt as though they could access better professional
development opportunities, wages, and labour conditions by treating international
patients and, as a result, were willing to go along with certain industry protocols and
norms to continue working in this context (Qadeer & Reddy, 2014). Similarly, our
findings suggest that dentists felt they had limited acceptable employment options
outside of the industry, and as a result, they had no choice but to take up certain
practices that are highly encouraged throughout the industry, including lowering their
prices, speeding up their care, and focusing on treatment which meets the needs of the
dental tourist population. We found that many participants were also wary about
introducing regulatory measures that might increase the costs of care provision while
trying to attract customers within a competitive global industry. The empowerment
generated by medical tourism is thus limited for practitioners in that they may become
trapped by the demands of a highly competitive industry; however, this limitation to
provider choice was rarely discussed by many of our participants.
Finally, many participants ignored or dismissed concerns about unjust practices
in the industry by distancing the work they perform in the medical tourism industry from
health care provided within the formal health care system. Research on “border doctors”
working in ‘medical border towns’ suggests that in the context of Los Algodones, care
providers might perceive themselves as working in a unique space along the Mexico-US
border, outside of the national health care system; as a result, they feel they do not have
a responsibility to address local health needs (Horton & Cole, 2011, p. 1849). Many of
our participants dismissed concerns regarding the exclusion of local populations from
care provision in clinics catering to dental tourists despite oral health needs amongst
local populations. This was legitimized by suggesting Mexican residents can always
access care in the public sector. However, this common explanation by participants
contradicts measures of oral health outcomes and access to dental care in Mexico,
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which indicate that many populations struggle to access adequate dental care in
contexts of poorly equipped public clinics and limited dental resources in rural areas
(Gonzalez-Robledo et al., 2012). Participants’ dismissal of unmet oral health needs in
the local population corresponds with other research on medical tourism that suggests
that many industry stakeholders perceive medical tourism activities to be a form of
tourism diversification and/or entrepreneurial pursuit, distancing the work in the industry
from the objectives and values regarding health equity underpinning the national health
care system (Johnston et al, 2015). Thus, our research shows how industry stakeholders
focused on the economic development potential of the industry might choose to focus on
the empowerment experienced by some patients and providers, even though this
empowerment occurs at a cost for global health equity and local access to care.
We suggest that this research nuances our understanding of how structural
factors shape local medical tourism practices. As our findings show, patients are
typically able to access care in the “escape valve” of Los Algodones’ dental tourism
industry according to global relations of power (Horton & Cole, 2011, p. 1847).
Furthermore, by drawing on a discourse of empowerment which ignores these global
relations of power, we contend that many stakeholders wrongly assume everyone can
choose to access dental care within these alternative care spaces and that these
choices necessarily enhance access to desirable care provision. In fact, pressure on
industry stakeholders to compete for customers and secure employment encouraged
care provision that is even more accessible and affordable to international dental tourists
while further limiting access to this same care for marginalized populations. The health
of marginalized populations might be negatively impacted through the irresponsible use
of health resources, exclusionary care practices, and spatial injustice caused by the
concentration of dentists working in Los Algodones. As care providers focus on providing
faster care at lower prices while protecting their reputations in online reviews, industry
employees in Los Algodones avoided treating patients who cannot pay out of pocket for
care, take time off work, or travel to this specific industry site (Voigt, 2012), suggesting
that this industry empowers the already empowered.
7.6. Conclusion
In the context of Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry, the borderlands prove to
be “quintessential spaces of exception wherein laws are regularly suspended”
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(Sundberg, 2015, p. 211). As our research demonstrates, many dentists working in Los
Algodones perceived themselves as “border doctors” (Horton and Cole, 2011, p. 1849)
working outside of the Mexican health care system. We argue that within this discourse
of exceptionalism, industry stakeholders with a vested interest in the profitability of the
industry work to portray this exceptionalism as opening up new possibilities for patient
empowerment; however, we raise concerns about this discourse when it is used to
legitimize unethical practices within the industry. This discourse assumes that patients
can choose to purchase care within this “safety zone” as a form of empowerment and
those who do not are failing to take responsibility for their care (Horton & Cole, 2011;
Whitaker & Leng, 2016). Furthermore, within a context of a competitive global industry,
industry stakeholders might feel they actually have no choice but to participate in
practices meant to promote the industry and enhance patient choice, even when these
practices do not align with their values as care providers and responsible patients.
Overall, this analysis demonstrates that when taking up empowerment discourse, many
industry stakeholders do not consider who is (not) empowered by the industry and how
this type of empowerment might exacerbate health inequites. Our case study of dental
tourism in Los Algodones, Mexico suggests that industry practices and the language of
empowerment used to promote the industry instead serve to trap patients and providers
into practices aimed at profit maximization while widening global health inequities.
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Chapter 8. Conclusion
8.1. Chapter Overview
The four analytic chapters of this dissertation have explored and described
ethical concerns for medical tourism industry practices through a case study of industry
activities in the small northern border town of Los Algodones, Mexico. Taken together,
these chapters have responded to my research objectives, namely to: 1) identify the
discourses driving dental tourism industry development in Los Algodones and analyze
how these discourses are taken up and whose interests are served by these discourses;
2) describe the lived experiences of individuals interacting with the dental tourism
industry in Los Algodones, highlighting the perspectives of various industry stakeholders
on the impacts of the industry on their everyday lives; 3) analyze whether or not dental
tourism practices operating in Los Algodones present a case of structural exploitation
and identify the conditions under which this exploitation is occurring. In the remainder of
this chapter, I will discuss in more detail how my analyses meet my objectives,
highlighting key findings from across these analyses and situating these findings within
the wider literature. I will conclude with a discussion of limitations of my research and
suggestions for future research directions related to ethical examinations of and policy
implications for medical tourism industry practices.
8.2. Review of dissertation objectives and key findings
Objective 1: To identify the discourses driving dental tourism industry development in Los Algodones and analyze how these discourses are taken up and whose interests are served by these discourses
As described in the introductory chapter, academic critiques of medical tourism
have highlighted how industry sources of information have promoted the industry as a
driver of economic development and source of patient empowerment with limited
consideration as to who actually enjoys these benefits and at what cost to health equity
(Hoffman et al., 2015; Johnston et al., 2016; Pocock & Hong Phua, 2010). Much of this
critique has drawn on empirical reviews of industry sources of information, including
websites, promotional materials, and newspaper articles, which suggest this information
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often presents an overly positive depiction of the industry (Imison & Schweinsberg,
2013; Turner, 2011). The circulation of this discourse has raised ethical concern for how
this discourse might be taken up by industry stakeholders in ways that promote and
legitimize industry development despite its negative health equity implications (Crooks et
al., 2011; Imison & Schweinsberg, 2013). However, there remains limited empirical
research examining how industry stakeholders across multiple social positions and
geographical contexts take up these discourses and how this then informs localized
industry practices and ethical concerns for the industry (Carrera & Lunt, 2010; Johnston
et al., 2011).
The case study presented in this dissertation responds to this first objective by
looking closely at the circulation of discourses amongst various industry stakeholders to
provide further insight into how and why unethical industry practices might occur. This
research agrees with academic discussions for how structural factors, including
structural injustices and global relations of power, can be normalized or legitimized by
this circulation of discourses and serve to reinforce these structural conditions (van Dijk,
2011). These conditions, including the profit-driven nature of the industry (particularly
when operating as a form of tourism diversification), economic asymmetries between
industry sites and the home countries of medical tourists, and exclusionary care
practices for patients who cannot participate as ideal patients in the industry, are
normalized, and thus entrenched, by discourses portraying the industry as win-win for
everyone involved. Throughout this dissertation, I demonstrate how the industry is
portrayed this way by industry stakeholders as a form of promotion; but also, the industry
is understood as a source of empowerment for patients and providers based on
assumptions that more choice promotes health. My findings critique this discourse using
a health equity lens and structural exploitation framework, as I outline below.
Chapters 4 and 7 provide the clearest examination and discussion of how
particular discourses are shaping industry practices within Los Algodones, including
practices which raise ethical concern. Chapter 4, in particular, draws on a review of
Canadian and American media sources discussing the dental tourism industry in Los
Algodones. This chapter argues that the assumptions presented in media discourse
about medical tourism might normalize the privatization of health care and global
economic asymmetries that enable the provision of lower cost care to patients from the
global north. This analysis highlights how much of this discussion positions Los
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Algodones as an “escape valve” (Horton & Cole, 2011, p. 1849) providing patients with
more affordable and/or easily accessible care options. By framing Los Algodones’ dental
tourism industry, this discourse assumes everyone can and should become savvy
consumers by purchasing care in this medical marketplace. I argue in this chapter that
this finding follows closely critiques of medical tourism as encouraging the privatization
of health care and subsequently, exacerbating health inequities (Sengupta, 2011).
However, my analysis nuances this critique by outlining how media discourses about the
industry serve to reinforce the privatization of care by masking the health equity impacts
of this privatization. Overall, I found that as media reports offer Los Algodones as a
solution for patients struggling to find affordable care, this discourse ignores those who
are not able to pay out-of-pocket for care provided through the dental tourism industry. I
believe this finding provides further evidence to disrupt assumptions that the medical
tourism industry necessarily expands access to care through increased patient choice
and more affordable care options by highlighting the experiences of individuals living and
working in an industry site.
Furthermore, my critique of discourses employed by elite industry stakeholders to
promote the industry builds on critical examinations of neoliberal ideology and its
impacts on health equity and social justice processes (Janes et al., 2006). This literature
has highlighted how the health equity impacts of the privatization of social services can
be obscured by discourses highlighting the “flexibility” of these services to adjust to the
needs of different populations (Ong, 1999). The research presented in this dissertation
examines how a discourse of patient empowerment is being taken up by industry
stakeholders in Los Algodones and serving a similar purpose – obscuring potential
health equity impacts of medical tourism practices by framing the industry as enhancing
patient choice. I discuss in chapters 4 and 7 how the voices typically captured in the
media and industry sources of information about Los Algodones, including the voices of
dental tourists, the owners of large dental clinics, and the owners of large affiliated
businesses such as facilitation companies, employed words such as “empowerment”
and “choice” to present the industry as serving a positive role for everyone involved.
However, my research also demonstrates that marginalized and vulnerable populations
struggle to access any services as consumers with choice but limited resources. In other
words, this dissertation provides a useful example of how the introduction of alternative
care options via global health practices, including services provided as part of the
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medical tourism industry, might actually exacerbate health inequities if these choices are
taken up only by those in a privileged position to travel and pay out-of-pocket for care.
Additionally, this research demonstrates that the promotion and provision of these
alternative care choices might irresponsibly use finite health resources in efforts to
attract customers.
The analyses presented in this dissertation also offer new insight into critical
examinations of media discourse on medical tourism by disrupting common assumptions
that the industry provides desirable economic development. By comparing the dental
tourism industry in Los Algodones to other types of industrial activities occurring in the
northern Mexican borderlands (i.e., the maquiladora industry), the findings from this
research suggest that, like with industries operating within the borderlands, the
economic benefits of the dental tourism industry are likely concentrated within the hands
of elite industry stakeholders (Mize & Swords, 2008). Chapter 7 draws on interviews with
a range of industry stakeholders living and working in Los Algodones to demonstrate
how this border town attracts tourists, residents, and migrant workers from across the
global north and global south because of the industrial activities facilitated by the
proximity to the Mexico-US border. This chapter highlights how discourses touting the
economic benefits of the industry are taken up and circulated by many different
stakeholder groups converging in Los Algodones and economically reliant on the
industry; however, by drawing on my interviews to examine why different individuals are
participating in the industry, this research indicates that these discourses are likely taken
up by some populations more so out of necessity (i.e., to promote the industry site and
protect employment in the industry) and not because these economic benefits are
perceived as desirable or adequate by all stakeholder groups.
Taken together, these analyses enhance our understanding of elite industry
stakeholders as individuals well-positioned to influence discourses about the industry in
ways that serve their interests. My analyses highlight how in this case, elite industry
stakeholders, including the owners of patient facilitation companies and large dental
clinic chains and other affiliated businesses, could use their position of power and the
profits generated by this medical industry to improve access to care for marginalized
populations. This conceptualization of elite industry stakeholders helps us to consider
the role of medical tourists in driving industry development, including unjust industry
practices. Chapter 2 of this dissertation agrees with much of the medical tourism
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literature which highlights how policies and practices in medical tourists’ home countries
might push individuals to travel abroad for care (Kangas, 2007; Miller-Thayer, 2010).
While they are in a privileged position to travel abroad for care in sites such as Los
Algodones, our research indicates that dental tourists in Los Algodones often struggle to
access care domestically and their decision-making might be influenced by overly
positive media discourses and industry sources of information. I believe this indicates
that medical tourists’ decision-making is constrained by structural factors and this
alleviates some of their responsibilities to address unjust industry practices in the
medical tourism industry, distinguishing this population from other elite industry
stakeholders. I discuss the responsibilities of different stakeholders in further detail
below.
Objective 2: To describe the lived experiences of individuals interacting with the dental tourism industry in Los Algodones, highlighting the perspectives of various industry stakeholders on the impacts of the industry on their everyday lives
The research presented in this dissertation addresses this objective by
examining the perspectives of industry stakeholders not usually described in the medical
tourism literature. Much of the empirical data on medical tourism to date emphasizes the
perspectives of medical tourists themselves (Kangas, 2010; Miller-Thayer, 2010),
caregiver companions accompanying medical tourists on their journey (Whitmore et al.,
2015), and the perspectives of health care providers and policymakers in medical
tourists’ departure countries (Crooks et al., 2015; Snyder et al., 2010). While empirical
work has been conducted examining the perspectives of policymakers and health care
providers in some destination sites for medical tourists (i.e., Ormond (2011) in Malaysia;
Johnston (2016) in the Caribbean), there has been limited empirical work garnering
perspectives from a range of industry stakeholders in northern Mexico. For example,
previous empirical research specific to Los Algodones focused on the perspectives of
medical tourists purchasing care in this small town (Miller-Thayer, 2010) or the
impressions described by researchers visiting the town as tourists (Oberle & Arreola,
2004) with limited attention to the perspectives and experiences of local residents. The
research presented in this dissertation offers insight into these perspectives and
experiences. These insights illuminate the role of industry stakeholders not commonly
considered in the medical tourism literature but potentially highly influential and/or
influenced by industry development. Our research suggests that these stakeholder
groups could include the heads of affiliated businesses, municipal government and
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tourism planners, as well as migrant workers and marginalized local communities,
groups which might be relevant to other medical tourism industry sites.
By examining the perspectives of a range of stakeholder groups, the findings of
this research complicate our understanding of the industry as a source of ethical
concern. Both chapters 6 and 7 highlight the perspectives and experiences of a range of
industry stakeholders including street promoters, souvenir vendors and other migrant
workers, and dental lab technicians, many of whom are highly marginalized populations
with limited alternative economic opportunities. These participants mostly expressed
gratitude for the industry as a source of economic security; however, many also pointed
out frustration and/or concern about certain industry practices perceived as unfair or
unjust such as low wages, harassment by clinic owners and/or dental tourists,
exclusionary care, and unsafe or irresponsible care, as outlined in chapters 6 and 8.
Chapter 6, in particular, provides a close examination of reputational management
activities in Los Algodones. By describing why and how these activities are occurring
according to various local residents and industry employees, this analysis suggests that
structural factors such as economic deprivation, competition for customers between
industry sites, and global relations of power inform reputational management activities
intending to protect the flow of patients into the town. As described in Chapter 6, these
activities seemingly limit the economic benefits from the industry available to residents in
Los Algodones, exclude certain populations from accessing needed dental care, and
encourage industry practices focusing on profitability instead of care provision to those in
need.
While the exact roles of different industry stakeholders might not be relevant to
other medical tourism industry sites, I argue that the contexts or conditions in which
these unjust industry practices are occurring in Los Algodones provide important insight
into the ways in which medical tourism could be ethically problematic in industry sites
around the world. Many participants highlighted the failure of care providers to ensure
local residents have access to needed dental care despite the concentration of dental
care resources in the town and indicated that this failure is largely a result of clinic
owners’ desires to maximize profits within a context of economic deprivation
(McCrossen, 2009). However, attempts by clinic owners and industry employees to
attract customers by catering to patients’ prejudiced assumptions about Mexico and
desires for faster, lower cost care raise ethical concerns relevant to other industry sites
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competing for the same pool of prospective medical tourists and engaging with the same
marketing strategies. This finding aligns with research highlighting the competitive nature
of the global medical tourism industry as producing a race-to-the-bottom effect (Snyder
et al., 2016). Within this competitive environment, industry stakeholders living and
working in medical tourism industry sites around the world might experience similar
injustices as efforts to protect these sites drive unjust practices. As with the case of Los
Algodones, migrant workers and other marginalized populations living in and around
various industry sites might struggle to have their rights met when there is money to be
made. This finding agrees with and nuances ethical examinations of medical tourism
which have raised significant ethical concern for industry sites in the global south by
highlighting how tourism dependence and economic deprivation contribute to unjust
industry practices further entrenching these structural injustices.
As a type of privatized care provision, this case study adds insight into ethical
concerns for the privatization of health care, particularly in contexts of global health care
mobilities. While there is an extensive body of literature documenting how the provision
of privately purchased medical care exacerbates health inequities due to financial
barriers to accessing care (Schrecker, 2016), this research suggests that in the context
of some global health care mobilities such as medical tourism, global relations of power
might serve to exacerbate these health equity impacts as competition for customers
drives practices informed by racism, classism, and nationalism. In this case, industry
stakeholders with a vested interest in the profitability of the industry seemingly supported
unjust practices that maintain their interests in the industry by limiting the role of
regulatory bodies to save costs, upholding prejudiced views when hiring and training
employees, and reinforcing exclusionary care practices to prioritize patients who can pay
for more costly services. I argue that these activities, and many others, could have very
real negative health equity impacts as these unjust practices inform social determinants
of ill-health experienced by marginalized populations.These impacts could be realized
both in Los Algodones and elsewhere if similar activities are taken up by elite industry
stakeholders competing for medical tourists. This research suggests, however, that the
health equity concerns raised in this dissertation are more likely realized in industry sites
located in the global south competing for patients from the global north and facing
prejudiced assumptions from customers about care provision in this context.
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Finally, I believe this research emphasizes the need for current health care
systems to adapt to new forms of patient mobility in ways that uphold the value of health
equity. This empirical examination of medical tourism practices demonstrate how and
why current regulatory frameworks might fail to mitigate unjust industry practices. In this
case, the location of the industry in a tourism hotspot and within the borderlands enabled
industry stakeholders to frame this site as a placeless oasis separate from the rest of
Mexico and thus occurring outside of the Mexican health care system, potentially
absolving industry stakeholders of a sense of responsibility to provide care to local
populations. Furthermore, as industry stakeholders shopped around for the best prices
and most profitable environments to set up shop, this research demonstrates how this
encourages a race-to-the bottom effect with industry sites lowering standards and
reducing national or local regulation needed to protect workers and health equity. With
this in mind, I believe this research demonstrates the importance of developing
multilateral regulatory frameworks to guide industry practices. I discuss this in further
detail below when I consider future research directions.
Objective 3: To analyze whether or not dental tourism practices operating in Los Algodones present a case of structural exploitation and identify the conditions under which this exploitation is occurring
Chapter 6 directly responds to this objective by considering how industry
employees in Los Algodones participate in reputational management activities. I argue
that this participation highlights the ways in which global relations of power shape
industry practices and how these relations are maintained by these practices. Based on
this analysis, the industry site in Los Algodones could be considered structurally
exploitative as elite industry stakeholders, in efforts to protect their interests in the
industry via reputational management, exacerbate unjust relations of power and fail to
address the needs of marginalized populations despite opportunities to do so. This
examination aligns with the structural exploitation frameworks laid out by Snyder (2013)
and Sample (2003) which assert that activities can be considered structurally exploitative
when they perpetuate structural injustices to meet the interests of parties situated to
benefit from these injustices. Existing structural injustices informing the development of
the industry in Los Algodones include poverty, global economic asymmetries, and
inequitable access to dental care, both in departure countries where financial barriers to
care push dental tourists abroad (Miller-Thayer, 2010) and in Mexico where most dental
care is purchased privately (Gonzalez-Robledo et al., 2012). I highlight in Chapter 6 how
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concerns from certain industry stakeholders about the reputation of Los Algodones
within a competitive global industry encourages these stakeholders to produce more
desirable and lower cost care options for prospective customers in ways that lower
wages, exclude certain populations from accessing resources and using the care
provided in the industry, and divert profits to elite industry stakeholders (especially those
living in the global north). This finding suggests that the structural injustices informing the
industry might be perpetuated through industry practices to ensure success of the
industry, and particularly success for elite industry stakeholders.
While chapter 6 provides the most direct discussion of structural exploitation in
Los Algodones, all of the analyses in this dissertation contribute important insights into
this ethical examination. Chapters 6 and 7 particularly illustrate how a subset of elite
industry stakeholders benefit by the perpetuation of structural injustices highlighted
above. Furthermore, these two chapters raise examples of how industry stakeholders
including dental clinic owners could use their profits, health care resources, and
proximity to highly marginalized populations living in northern Mexico to provide needed
dental care. However, chapter 2 also complicates considerations of who counts as an
elite industry stakeholder and responsible for the structural exploitation I witnessed in
Los Algodones. By highlighting the structural factors constraining access to dental care
for Canadians and Americans and pushing these populations to participate in dental
tourism, this analysis questions whether these populations are actually elite stakeholders
contributing to the structural exploitation outlined in chapter 6. I argue in these analyses
that dental tourists purchasing care in Los Algodones likely have less responsibility than
other elite industry stakeholders to address unjust industry practices given their lack of
opportunity to do so; however, my research provides numerous examples of activities
undertaken by dental tourists which could be changed to mitigate some of the injustices I
witnessed. In particular, I argue that medical tourists could engage more ethically in
medical tourism activities (particularly when traveling to industry sites with economic
deprivation) by reducing pressure for faster, lower cost care.
Overall, this examination of medical tourism practices through a structural
exploitation lens provides new insight into critical discussions of this practice by
highlighting how this framework might capture ethical concerns which have drawn limited
attention in the literature. In this case, considerations for how the industry in Los
Algodones is structurally exploitative highlight how medical tourism practices could
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exacerbate health inequities as a result of discriminatory or exclusionary practices and
irresponsible use of resources (both medical and other resources needed for the well-
being of a population). This research agrees with and builds on discussions on how
global relations of power mediate the social determinants of health, including health care
provision, in ways that exacerbate health inequities (Labonte et al., 2011; Shiffmen,
2015). Although the industry in Los Algodones is often portrayed in the media as
benefitting all stakeholders and is seemingly supported by the vast majority of local
residents as a necessary economic provider, according to my research, the industry also
serves to maintain and even exacerbate relations of power based on race, nationality,
and class. This finding adds to the critical global health literature by highlighting how
global health practices might follow closely the contours of global relations of power as
these practices are driven by and can be used to secure interests for privileged
populations (Brown, 2015; Shiffmen, 2015). In particular, this research suggests that, in
certain contexts, medical tourism not only expands access to care for those who can
travel and pay-out-of-pocket, but also contributes to poor health for marginalized
populations as the industry entrenches structural injustices.
This examination of Los Algodones’ dental tourism industry through a structural
exploitation lens highlights the exceptional and more common characteristics of Los
Algodones, providing insight into the transferability of these research findings. First of all,
as it is such a small site focused on one type of care provision, Los Algodones could be
perceived as an exceptional case. My analyses also highlight highly specific concerns
from many employees about drastic policy changes in Canada or the United States
which could alter the insurance coverage for dental care and limit customers looking for
alternative care options via the medical tourism industry. Furthermore, as a site along
the borderlands, Los Algodones attracts numerous migrant workers and deported
Mexican-Americans, populations who are often highly vulnerable to unemployment and
industry abuses given that many are marginalized populations with limited economic
opportunities (Horton & Barker, 2010). These exceptional circumstances suggest that
individuals working and living in Los Algodones are highly vulnerable to industry
fluctuations, raising significant concern about structural exploitation in a highly
competitive global industry (Snyder et al., 2016). Individuals living in this region might
feel they have no alternatives but to accept the conditions of the industry as necessary
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to protecting the success of the site and the flow of customers, even in contexts of poor
labour conditions and lower wages.
Despite these exceptional and highly concerning conditions in which industry
development is occurring in Los Algodones, this research also highlights conditions
which might be more common in other industry sites and also raise ethical concern. For
industry sites not positioned within border zones or tourism hotspots, the flow of patients
from the global north to global south to purchase medical care raises significant
concerns from a structural exploitation perspective as this research indicates these
patients might travel with prejudiced assumptions about the global south. In this case,
these assumptions seemingly shaped industry practices as care providers and other
industry stakeholders responded to these assumptions by positioning or adjusting their
services to be acceptable to prospective dental tourists. This was often done by
presenting care facilities and services as modern with Americanized aesthetics to meet
the expectations of dental tourists who equate high-quality care with care aesthetics
familiar in the global north. This finding aligns with critical examinations of global health
practices as extending global relations of power by privileging certain aesthetics and
ways of providing care (Shiffmen, 2015). In this case, this privileging of medical care
aesthetics from the global north served to enhance the workload for employees working
in dental clinics in Los Algodones and encouraged clinic owners to devout resources into
the creation of certain aesthetics instead of the provision of care for those in need.
Taken together, the four main analytical chapters of this dissertation provide
significant examples and explanations as to why I consider the industry in Los
Algodones to be structurally exploitative. While individual motivations for participating in
the industry are highly diverse, this research focuses on identifying the structural factors
shaping industry practices and the everyday realities of individuals interacting with these
practices. I believe this focus provides insight into the ways in which these structural
factors are producing unjust industry practices and, when examined through a structural
exploitation lens, this research provides an explanation as to why these injustices are
occurring. As a result, this research serves to demonstrate how employing a structural
exploitation framework to examine medical tourism practices can provide new insight
into ethical concerns for medical tourism. This insight is particularly useful for critically
examining the medical tourism industry in contexts of seemingly mutually beneficial
industry development. Employing a structural exploitation framework, this research
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suggests that industry practices can still be unjust even if mutually beneficial as elite
industry stakeholders could use their position of power to mitigate negative health
impacts of the industry (i.e., due to poor labour conditions) and improve the health of
marginalized populations interacting with the industry.
8.3. Limitations
While I believe this research provides an in-depth examination of structural
factors shaping industry practices in Los Algodones, and the subsequent ethical
concerns for these practices, there are several limitations to this research. First of all, my
research site of Los Algodones is confined to a small border town, limiting the ability to
draw inferences from this case study about the medical tourism industry and more urban
industry sites. The rurality of Los Algodones influenced the central importance of the
dental tourism industry and reinforced the vulnerability of many local residents reliant on
their employment within a competitive global industry. I believe this centrality of the
industry informed the willingness of many participants from diverse backgrounds to
speak with me and share their concerns about the future of the industry, something that
might not occur in other industry sites with more diverse employment options.
Furthermore, as a site located near the Mexico-US border, a border renowned for
dividing the global north from the global south (McCrossen, 2009), this particular location
of the industry site might limit the transferability of findings to our understanding of other
sites and the medical tourism industry more broadly. For example, the location of Los
Algodones near the Mexico-US border informed specific concerns I raised in this
research about patients pressing to have the work completed faster and at a lower cost,
particularly given the history of American and Canadian snowbirds traveling across the
border to shop for items at lower costs than available in their home countries (Berger &
Grant, 2010).
Additionally, by employing case study methodology, this research presents some
limitations in its ability to clearly bound or delineate the “case” being studied (Nerida et
al., 2014). I selected Los Algodones as a site of interest given the media attention to this
location, the concentration of medical services within such a small town, and, as a
Canadian researcher, the popularity of the destination for Canadians. I perceived the
contextual boundary for this case to be service delivery in Los Algodones and thus
considered all activities related to the delivery of dental care within the town limits to
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inform my analysis. However, as I conducted my fieldwork and recruited participants, I
increasingly discovered that these lines became a bit blurry. In particular, I learned about
the central importance of the municipality of Mexicali in driving industry practices in Los
Algodones as the mayor of Los Algodones and tourism officers are appointed by the
government in Mexicali; however, numerous participants insisted that the government in
Mexicali plays no role in shaping the industry in Los Algodones other than providing
finances for town improvements. These ideas seemed contradictory and it became
difficult to understand how to place municipal government in the sphere of influence on
Los Algodones’ industry. Similarly, as I increasingly learned about the role of online
resources, patient facilitation companies, and other businesses in seemingly shaping
patient expectations and interactions with the industry, I struggled to understand how
these companies fit in this case given that none of these companies would speak with
me and many had limited information about Los Algodones on their websites. In the end,
the majority of my analyses describe industry practices in Los Algodones from the
perspectives of local residents. While these findings speak to the influence on the
industry from outside stakeholders, including patient facilitation companies, municipal
and provincial government representatives, and other stakeholder groups, the
perspectives of these groups could have contributed useful insight to better understand
their sphere of influence.
Selection bias is also a possible limitation of this work (Roulston & Shelton,
2015). I primarily recruited participants by walking from clinic to clinic and knocking on
doors. While I tried to invite participants representing various roles in the industry and
from different backgrounds, doing so was limited by who was willing to speak with me
and my ability to identify prospective participants. For example, I may have missed
clinics located in less obvious or accessible areas. Also, receptionists at the clinic may
have passed on the letter only to particular dentists or other employees such as dental
clinic owners. Many of my participants who worked in clinics were owners and the vast
majority of these participants were men, limiting the voices of other employees, including
female employees, who may have contributed different insights into this research. I also
invited participants through snowball sampling which may have limited the breadth of
information or perspectives contributing to my analyses. For example, I spent
considerable time living at one of the two hotels located in Los Algodones. This hotel
was owned by one of the dental clinics in town and I was able to conduct interviews with
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multiple different staff members for this clinic. Finally, I struggled to recruit participants
outside of the clinic setting which again might have limited the range of perspectives
informing this research. For example, I was only able to interview a few street promoters
as many could not get permission from their bosses to participate in interviews. I also
struggled to recruit patient facilitation companies who send a significant number of
patients to Los Algodones.
My research is also limited by potential issues regarding rigour (Nerida et al.,
2014). Although I believe I have provided a strong methodological justification and
rationale for selecting Los Algodones as my case site, this research could have been
strengthened by improved Spanish language skills and less time constraints for my
fieldwork. While I was able to conduct interviews in Spanish, I did stumble over some
terminology and struggled to develop the depth of conversation I generated when
completing interviews in English. Furthermore, some participants chose to do the
interview in English but also clearly struggled to convey the details they would otherwise
in their native language. These language constraints might have resulted in
misinterpretations from participants and myself, producing findings that do not accurately
reflect the perspectives of those participants. I also relied on a Spanish speaking
transcriptionist to transcribe the recorded interviews conducted in Spanish (n= 6) and
this might have changed the ideas being conveyed by participants. Furthermore, the
other interviews (n= 37) were all transcribed by an English speaking transcriptionist so
this might have produced discrepancies in how language was captured and the inclusion
of certain nuances in the recordings (Welch & Piekkari, 2006.; Marshall & While, 1994).
Interestingly, most participants chose to conduct the interviews in English despite the
fact that English was their second language. This might have been because they could
tell that I was not fluent in Spanish. However, it might also have been because these
participants were trying to present themselves as fluent in English for the purposes of
maintaining the reputation of Los Algodones as an ideal industry site for American and
Canadian patients. This is an important methodological consideration for research
examining medical tourism within sites where common medical tourists speak a different
language.
Finally, my experiences in the field also raised concerns about representation
and positionality of the researcher as it impacts on the interviews and the information
shared by participants. I believe that, as a woman, my gender enabled me access to
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spaces that might have been restricted to a male researcher. I noticed that I was able to
start numerous conversations from what started as cat-calling or mansplaining by men in
Los Algodones (either dental tourists or local residents). However, in this context, my
interviews were also likely shaped by gendered perceptions and it is possible that
participants’ answers were informed by these perceptions. I found many participants
perceived me to be a journalist or undergraduate student even after explaining my role
and I believe it is possible that this was a gendered reaction. While I would always
reiterate my role as a doctoral student and health services researcher, these
assumptions might have still shaped the type of information provided to me during the
interviews and, as a result, shaped the findings informing my analysis. Finally, my
positionality also informed the types of questions I asked during the interviews and the
lens through which I conducted my analysis, shaping the overall focus of these analytical
chapters. I have provided in-depth detail throughout my dissertation as to my
methodological decision to enable readers to interpret these findings within the context
of my research project (Roulston & Shelton, 2015). While I did not seek to develop
generalizable findings as a qualitative researcher, when contextualized, these findings
might be transferrable to other industry sites (Maxwell & Reybold, 2015).
8.4. Policy implications and future research directions
While this research is theoretical in nature and does not identify specific policy
changes or program development needed to address health equity concerns for medical
tourism practices, I believe the key findings across the analytical chapters of this
dissertation nuance and complicate global health equity concerns for medical tourism.
As highlighted in the introduction of this dissertation, these concerns have often focused
on health system impacts in terms of economic gains from the industry and the impacts
of the industry on health human resources available for meeting the needs of different
populations (Hopkins et al., 2010; Meghani, 2011). This dissertation suggests a
structural exploitation lens provides further insight into possible health equity impacts of
the industry informed by metrics not typically captured in other health equity analyses. In
particular, this research demonstrates how the private provision of health care can
exacerbate health inequities not only because of financial barriers to accessing care for
individuals but also because of the ways in which providers are practicing to compete in
this global industry (i.e., clustering of clinics in tourism hotspots; exclusionary and
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discriminatory care practices; the provision of the most profitable types of care; and
extensive efforts marketing and promoting clinic services). These practices raise health
equity concerns as this care provision might require the irresponsible use of finite health
resources to attract customers while this care is available only to relatively empowered
individuals who can travel to this industry site. Further research could build on these
considerations by examining the realization of unjust practices in other industry sites to
refine this approach and provide new insight into ways in which this framework could be
used to inform health equity analyses and policy development regarding medical
tourism.
This research also highlights the role of structural factors in shaping unjust
medical tourism industry practices, emphasizing the need for policy implementation
which addresses these factors. This dissertation sheds light on critical discussions in
global health research regarding the current conceptualization of health care systems as
nationally bounded (Brown, 2015). Drawing on this research, I agree with academic
discussions asserting that a more cosmopolitan view of health systems could enhance
fair access to resources needed for equal opportunities for good health. In particular, this
cosmopolitan view could inform global health care mobilities within regulatory
frameworks to distribute health resources across borders for populations most in need of
care (Lencucha, 2013). While this research suggests a multilateral regulatory framework
could mitigate many ethical concerns for industry practices (i.e., unjust spatial
distribution of health human resources; the provision of unnecessary care; exclusionary
care practices), it remains unknown what this regulation might look like and how it would
inform industry practices, if at all. Further research could be done to examine how
multilateral regulatory frameworks could be introduced and whose voices should shape
the development of these frameworks. However, I believe the research presented in this
dissertation provides useful insight into the diverse stakeholders who could play an
important role in developing new forms of regulation and the critical role, and
subsequent responsibilities, of elite industry stakeholders in mitigating unjust practices.
Furthermore, assigning responsibility to particular stakeholders could help to
focus measures meant to mitigate the most harmful impacts of medical tourism industry
practices in terms of exacerbating health inequities (Snyder et al., 2013). This research
highlights the central role of structural factors in shaping unjust practices, challenging the
task of actually identifying particular stakeholders most responsible for unethical industry
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activities such as structural exploitation. For example, while some clinics owners in Los
Algodones participated in and encouraged unjust practices, this research highlights how
these decisions may have been informed by pressure to compete for customers in a
competitive global industry. Despite the challenge, this research clearly highlights how
elite industry stakeholders such as patient facilitation companies, government officials,
and the owners of large medical clinics, have opportunities to use their positions in the
industry to mitigate these harmful effects, but might choose not to protect their interests.
With this in mind, this research agrees with academic discussions calling for new
regulatory frameworks for the global industry (Chen & Flood, 2013). Based on my
dissertation research, this regulation could focus on holding elite industry stakeholders
responsible for mitigating the harmful impacts identified in this research. Furthermore,
industry regulation and better education for prospective dental tourists could avoid
pressure from dental tourists for lower cost and faster care, mitigating unjust practices
taken up to meet dental tourists’ demands.
Research on different industry sites might also provide important insights
informed by different social contexts to this ethical examination. In particular, it would be
interesting to consider how industry practices compare in different regional patient flows
outside of North America. This would provide insight into how different governance
structures and trade agreements inform these flows and the ways in which local industry
sites position themselves in the global market. I believe this information could better
enhance our understanding of how structural factors and institutions inform different
forms of industry development around the world. This information could also highlight
similarities between different industry sites in terms of unjust and structurally exploitative
practices. This research could help to further identify the conditions under which medical
tourism raises particular ethical concern and the role of different stakeholders in
upholding these conditions, providing information needed to assign responsibility for
unjust practices in medical tourism.
Finally, further research could also provide important methodological
considerations for other case studies of specific industry sites, particularly in contexts of
less bounded medical tourism industry sites such as medical tourism practices dispersed
over a wide geographic area. This dissertation provides important insight into the value
of case study methodology for ethical examinations of global health care practices given
the complexity of practices involving multiple stakeholders interacting across borders
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and informed by large structural factors. By focusing on a specific industry site to provide
an in-depth view of industry practices, I believe this research reiterates the value of case
study methodology when navigating complex phenomena with numerous stakeholders
operating within overlapping policy and judicial realms. In the field of global health, case
study methodology could provide a focal point for examining how large structural factors
ultimately shape local health outcomes and diverse experiences with health care
provision.
8.5. Concluding thoughts
As I have discussed throughout this chapter, I believe the research outlined in
this dissertation provides important insight into the critical medical tourism literature and,
more broadly, global health equity concerns related to global health care mobilities. This
insight has drawn on ethical critiques regarding the privatization of health care and
concerns about structural exploitation in cross-border, international industries to examine
how emerging forms of health service provision within a globalized world might
exacerbate global health inequities. By highlighting the unregulated nature of the
medical tourism industry within a “dental oasis” (Henton, 2011) in the northern Mexican
borderlands, this dissertation nuances our understanding of how structural factors shape
global health care mobilities according to global relations of power. In other words, this
research highlights how global health care mobilities such as medical tourism are both
informed by and inform structural injustices. These analyses suggest that elite industry
stakeholders take advantage of these injustices to promote the private provision of
medical care to patients able and willing to pay, raising concerns for how these mobilities
enable increased privatization of health care. Furthermore, as highlighted in this
research, this privatization of care might occur uncriticised when masked by industry
discourses of patient empowerment and economic development.
Overall, I believe a success of this research is its ability to highlight the value of
using a structural exploitation framework to examine the medical tourism industry. By
drawing on structural exploitation and structural injustice frameworks, this research
serves to complicate assumptions that medical tourism industry sites are win-win for all
stakeholders involved because certain industry sites are perceived as mutually
beneficial. This research provides a strong counter-argument to industry and media
sources of information touting the positive attributes of the medical tourism industry and
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primarily informed by neoliberal ideology by outlining how, even when mutually
beneficial, the industry might raise ethical concern.
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