The “Brain Drain” Phenomenon Global Mobility of Science and Technology Personnel Salah A....

The “Brain Drain” The “Brain Drain” PhenomenonPhenomenon

Global Mobility of Science and Global Mobility of Science and Technology PersonnelTechnology Personnel

Salah A. SolimanSalah A. SolimanAlexandria UniversityAlexandria University

Email: Email: [email protected]@lik.netNovember 2002November 2002

The DemandThe DemandAs of the second half of the 20As of the second half of the 20thth century, century, skilled migration has often flowed from skilled migration has often flowed from the developing world to the advanced the developing world to the advanced OECD countries.OECD countries.By 1980s, as globalization gained By 1980s, as globalization gained momentum owing to liberalization of trade momentum owing to liberalization of trade and capital flows in 1980s, technological and capital flows in 1980s, technological exchange and demand for skilled labor by exchange and demand for skilled labor by high-tech. and R&D-intensive industries high-tech. and R&D-intensive industries accelerated flows of highly skilled foreign accelerated flows of highly skilled foreign workers (HSFW) to OECD countries.workers (HSFW) to OECD countries.

S. A. Soliman, 2002.

In a number of the industrial In a number of the industrial countries, immigration policies have countries, immigration policies have became more selective and skill-became more selective and skill-based and resulted in relaxed based and resulted in relaxed immigration demand for talented immigration demand for talented labor.labor.The demand for foreign talent also The demand for foreign talent also emanates from universities and emanates from universities and public research organizations, public research organizations, especially in the US, Canada, the UK especially in the US, Canada, the UK and a few other European countries.and a few other European countries.


Industrial countries increasingly Industrial countries increasingly compete for talented students compete for talented students researchers from the developing researchers from the developing world in order to maintain their world in order to maintain their lead in cutting-edge research and, lead in cutting-edge research and, in some cases, to offset the in some cases, to offset the decline in S&T graduate among decline in S&T graduate among nationals.nationals.


Inflows of Highly Skilled Foreign workers (HSFW) Inflows of Highly Skilled Foreign workers (HSFW) and Share of Asian migrants Among themand Share of Asian migrants Among them

(Latest Available Year)(Latest Available Year)

86,20086,200

--------

--------

52,10052,100

43.243.2

56.456.4

Canada (2000)Canada (2000)

Inflows of HSFW (number)Inflows of HSFW (number)

As a % of total temporary migrantAs a % of total temporary migrant

% of Asian among the HSFW% of Asian among the HSFW

129,900129,900

70.670.6

53.253.2

--------

--------

--------

Japan (2000)Japan (2000)




370,700370,700

46.346.3

36.936.9

24,10024,100

46.046.0

46.446.4

USA (1999)USA (1999)




TemporaryTemporaryPermanent Permanent CountryCountry

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In Japan, temporary migration of In Japan, temporary migration of HSFW increased sharply in the HSFW increased sharply in the 1990s following a revision of 1990s following a revision of immigration lows in 1989 that immigration lows in 1989 that facilitated the temporary facilitated the temporary residence and employment of residence and employment of HSFW.HSFW.


Globalization also fuels temporary Globalization also fuels temporary migration of S&T personnel. That migration of S&T personnel. That is, intra-multinational companies is, intra-multinational companies transfers have contributed to the transfers have contributed to the increase in the mobility of S&T increase in the mobility of S&T personnel.personnel.


Intra-Company Transferees in Intra-Company Transferees in Selected OECD CountriesSelected OECD Countries

(1996-1999 in thousands)(1996-1999 in thousands)

USAUSA

1996 1996

140.5 140.5

1997 1997

--------

1998 1998

203.3203.3

1999 1999

--------

UKUK 13.013.0 18.o18.o 22.022.0 15.015.0

JapanJapan 2.82.8 3.43.4 3.53.5 3.83.8

CanadaCanada -------- 2.12.1 2.82.8 2.92.9

(Source: OECD, 2001)

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Additional Indicators of HSFW Additional Indicators of HSFW MobilityMobility

Another indicator of the increase in the Another indicator of the increase in the temporary mobility of S&T personnel temporary mobility of S&T personnel comes from the US data on the inflows comes from the US data on the inflows of HSFW holding H-1B visas.of HSFW holding H-1B visas.

In response to industry demand for In response to industry demand for skills, the US increased the quota for H-skills, the US increased the quota for H-1B visas, which allow employment for 1B visas, which allow employment for three years and renewable once.three years and renewable once.

In 2000, the cap was raised to 195,000 a In 2000, the cap was raised to 195,000 a year for the years 2001-2003.year for the years 2001-2003.


H-1B Visa Petition Approved by the US H-1B Visa Petition Approved by the US Immigration and Naturalization Service Immigration and Naturalization Service

for the Top Ten Companies (October for the Top Ten Companies (October 1999- February 2000)1999- February 2000)

Rank CompanyRank Company # Visas# Visas Rank CompanyRank Company # Visas# Visas11 Motorola IncMotorola Inc

22 Oracle CorpOracle Corp

33 Cisco SystemsCisco Systems

44 MastechMastech

55 Intel CorpIntel Corp

618618

455455

398398

389389

367367

66 Microsoft CorpMicrosoft Corp

77 RapidigmRapidigm

88 Syntel IncSyntel Inc

99 Wipro LTDWipro LTD

1010 Tat Consult. Tat Consult.

362362

357357

337337

327327

320320


H-1B Petitions Approved by the US Immigration H-1B Petitions Approved by the US Immigration and Naturalization Service for the Top Seven and Naturalization Service for the Top Seven Universities (October 1999- February 2000)Universities (October 1999- February 2000)

Rank UniversityRank University Number of VisasNumber of Visas

University of WashingtonUniversity of Washington

University of PennsylvaniaUniversity of Pennsylvania

Stanford UniversityStanford University

Harvard UniversityHarvard University

Baylor College of MedicineBaylor College of Medicine

University of MinnesotaUniversity of Minnesota

Yale UniversityYale University

113113

9797

7373

7070

6565

6565

6161


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The Competition for S&T The Competition for S&T Foreign StudentsForeign Students

The competition for foreign students The competition for foreign students in S&T between the OECD countries in S&T between the OECD countries is increasing. They direct their efforts is increasing. They direct their efforts to attract specialized foreign PhD to attract specialized foreign PhD students, particularly in the field of students, particularly in the field of S&T, and to facilitate their access to S&T, and to facilitate their access to the labor market.the labor market.


Stock of Foreign Students in Stock of Foreign Students in Selected OECD Countries, 1998Selected OECD Countries, 1998

Rank CountryRank Country # Students # Students % from OECD% from OECD11 USAUSA

22 UKUK

33 GermanyGermany

44 FranceFrance

55 AustraliaAustralia

66 JapanJapan

77 CanadaCanada

88 SpainSpain

99 AustriaAustria

1010 TurkeyTurkey

Total OECDTotal OECD

430,800430,800

209,600209,600

171,200171,200

148,000148,000

109,400109,400

55,80055,800

32,90032,900

29,00029,000

28,40028,400

18,70018,700

1,327,2001,327,200

39.039.0

59.859.8

56.356.3

26.826.8

18.418.4

38.238.2

42.142.1

65.765.7

65.665.6

8.98.9

44.544.5


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Foreign Students Enrolled in PhD Foreign Students Enrolled in PhD Programs, 1999Programs, 1999

(as % of All Students Enrolled) (as % of All Students Enrolled)

Rank CountryRank Country % Foreign PhD Students% Foreign PhD Students11 SwitzerlandSwitzerland

22 BelgiumBelgium

33 UKUK

44 USAUSA


66 DenmarkDenmark

77 CanadaCanada

88 NorwayNorway

99 AustriaAustria

1010 SwedenSweden

35.935.9

34.134.1

28.828.8

25.625.6

22.322.3

18.218.2

18.118.1

15.915.9

14.614.6

13.913.9

(Source: Education at Glance, OECD, 2001)

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Share of Temporary Residents Share of Temporary Residents Enrolled in US Graduate Programs in Enrolled in US Graduate Programs in S&T, by Field of Study (% of Total)S&T, by Field of Study (% of Total)

Rank Field of StudyRank Field of Study 19901990 19951995 19971997 19991999

EngineeringEngineering

Mathematics & Mathematics & Computer SciencesComputer Sciences

Natural SciencesNatural Sciences

Social SciencesSocial Sciences

Total S&TTotal S&T

35.535.5

32.3 32.3 27.327.3

13.713.7

25.925.9

33.033.0

31.831.8

24.724.7

11.811.8

23.323.3

36.136.1

34.834.8

23.823.8

12.012.0

24.224.2

40.840.8

39.239.2

24.024.0

13.113.1

26.726.7

(Source: Science and Engineering Indicators, NSF, 2002)

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Attraction of Foreign Talent by Centers of Attraction of Foreign Talent by Centers of Excellence and Innovation ClustersExcellence and Innovation Clusters

Foreign S&T personnel are drawn to academic Foreign S&T personnel are drawn to academic centers of excellence and clusters of research-centers of excellence and clusters of research-intensive and innovative firms.intensive and innovative firms.

The Us share of Nobel Prizes in the medical The Us share of Nobel Prizes in the medical sciences increased from just 50% to 74% from sciences increased from just 50% to 74% from the middle to the end of the 20the middle to the end of the 20thth century. Many century. Many of them are concentrated around a small of them are concentrated around a small number of research universities (MIT, number of research universities (MIT, Stanford, UCB) and public labs as well as Stanford, UCB) and public labs as well as some R&D-intensive companies (e.g. Lucent some R&D-intensive companies (e.g. Lucent Technologies).Technologies).

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Share of Foreign-Born Workers in Share of Foreign-Born Workers in Highly-Skilled EmploymentHighly-Skilled Employment (1999/2000) (1999/2000)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Australia Canada USA(Source: Trends in International Migration, OECD, 2002)

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Total Investment in Knowledge as a Total Investment in Knowledge as a % 0f GDP by the Top Investors% 0f GDP by the Top Investors

(R&D + Software + High Education)(R&D + Software + High Education)**

Rank CountryRank Country % GDP% GDP Rank CountryRank Country % GDP% GDP11 SwedenSweden

22 USAUSA

33 FinlandFinland

44 CanadaCanada

55 JapanJapan

66 DenmarkDenmark

77 NetherlandsNetherlands

6.76.7

6.06.0

5.25.2

4.84.8

4.84.8

4.54.5

4.24.2

88 GermanyGermany

99 FranceFrance

1010 NorwayNorway

1111 UKUK


1313 AustriaAustria

1414 GreeceGreece

4.154.15

4.14.1

4.04.0

3.93.9

3.83.8

3.53.5

1.71.7

* About 50% goes to R&D.(Source: OECD Science, Technology & Industry Outlook, OECD, 2002)

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““The Drain”The Drain”Do Foreign PhD Graduates Remain Do Foreign PhD Graduates Remain

in The Host Country?in The Host Country?It is estimated that of the 400,000 Chinese It is estimated that of the 400,000 Chinese students who studied abroad (between students who studied abroad (between 1978 and 1999), 300,000 went to study 1978 and 1999), 300,000 went to study science and engineering.science and engineering.Upon graduation, many foreign PhD Upon graduation, many foreign PhD students remain in the host country.students remain in the host country.The decision to remain, like the decision to The decision to remain, like the decision to emigrate from the country of origin, emigrate from the country of origin, depends on a variety of factors.depends on a variety of factors.


In addition to many other economic, In addition to many other economic, political and social factors in country of political and social factors in country of origin, origin, laws and regulations in most host laws and regulations in most host countries allow foreign PhD graduates to countries allow foreign PhD graduates to change migration status while remaining in change migration status while remaining in host country.host country. These opportunities These opportunities influence the propensity to stay.influence the propensity to stay.It was true that in many OECD countries It was true that in many OECD countries students are not allowed to change their students are not allowed to change their status at graduation and must leave before status at graduation and must leave before reapplying under a different category; reapplying under a different category; however, this situation is changing.however, this situation is changing.


On average, On average, 50% of all foreign-born 50% of all foreign-born S&E PhD graduates remain in the S&E PhD graduates remain in the USA.USA.

There are striking differences There are striking differences among them, however, PhD among them, however, PhD students fro East and South Asia students fro East and South Asia receive the highest number of receive the highest number of doctoral degrees by far and are the doctoral degrees by far and are the most likely to stay in the US.most likely to stay in the US.


The Average % Stay Rates of EAST & The Average % Stay Rates of EAST & South Asian Students Receiving PhD in South Asian Students Receiving PhD in

S&E in the USA (1990-1999)S&E in the USA (1990-1999)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

China India Taipei Korea (Source: NSF, 2002)

87 82

57

39

% S

tay R

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an

, 2

00

2.

The % Stay rate of Latin American The % Stay rate of Latin American S&E-PhD Students in the USA,1999S&E-PhD Students in the USA,1999

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Argentines Colombians

Mexicans

57.1 33.0

30.6

% S

tay R

ate

(Source: NSF, 2002)

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UK data show that 59% of the UK data show that 59% of the foreign PhD students leave the foreign PhD students leave the country after degree completion country after degree completion (NSF, 2002). However, nearly all (NSF, 2002). However, nearly all PhD graduates from Malaysia and PhD graduates from Malaysia and Turkey in the UK returned to their Turkey in the UK returned to their country.country.


Mobility Trends of Chinese S&E Mobility Trends of Chinese S&E Students in the USAStudents in the USA

The number of Chinese students The number of Chinese students earning PhD in S&E from US earning PhD in S&E from US universities increased from only 200 in universities increased from only 200 in 1986 to almost 3000 in 1996.1986 to almost 3000 in 1996.

In terms of the stock of foreign-born In terms of the stock of foreign-born students with degrees at higher levels students with degrees at higher levels in 1999, China ranks second as country in 1999, China ranks second as country of origin (135,300 individuals), after of origin (135,300 individuals), after India (164,600).India (164,600).


Learning the Lesson:Learning the Lesson:China’s Policy for S&TChina’s Policy for S&T

China General Goal for the tenth five-year China General Goal for the tenth five-year plan (2001-2003) was:plan (2001-2003) was:

““revitalizing the nation revitalizing the nation through science and through science and education”.education”.


Since 1999 China’s S&T policy Since 1999 China’s S&T policy focuses primarily on achieving focuses primarily on achieving three policy objectives:three policy objectives:

* Enhancing technology* Enhancing technology

innovation.innovation.

* Developing high technology.* Developing high technology.

* Supporting industrialization of* Supporting industrialization of

the Chinese economy.the Chinese economy.


To achieve these objectives, the To achieve these objectives, the Chinese set strategic priorities for Chinese set strategic priorities for S&T as to:S&T as to:

* promote the technological* promote the technological

of industry; and of industry; and

* increase scientific and * increase scientific and technological innovation capability.technological innovation capability.


The first priority involves making The first priority involves making the enterprise the main source of the enterprise the main source of technological innovation.technological innovation.

The second requires The second requires strengthening the role of strengthening the role of universities in scientific research.universities in scientific research.


The Chinese government pursues The Chinese government pursues three sets of policy to reach the goal, three sets of policy to reach the goal, these are:these are:

* * To improve enterprise-sector R&DTo improve enterprise-sector R&D and develop high-technologyand develop high-technology industries.industries. * To deepen the reform of the S&T* To deepen the reform of the S&T systemsystem and optimize resource allocation forand optimize resource allocation for R&D.R&D. * To strength R&D financing.* To strength R&D financing.


The MiracleThe Miracle

After less than two years of the After less than two years of the China’s tenth five-year plan, no one China’s tenth five-year plan, no one can deny how they are achieving can deny how they are achieving their objectives.their objectives.

They have a goal, they set the They have a goal, they set the strategic plan priorities to reach it strategic plan priorities to reach it and they act with their well to have it.and they act with their well to have it.


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