The Arts of Africa - PBworkswjarthistory.pbworks.com/f/Chap12.pdf · FIGURE 12.1 Africa, Ghana,...

264

oint out Africa on a map of the world. Have you ever seen a displayof African art in the museum? Have you ever heard of kente cloth?

Africa is the second largest continent in the world and accounts for about20 percent of Earth’s land area. Africa is the home of many peoples whohave created many art forms. These art forms serve a powerful link betweenpast and present generations.

12The Arts of Africa

Read to Find Out Read this chapter to understand and appreciatethe beauty and power of African art. Read further to learn about morerecent wooden artworks, such as masks and sculpture.

Focus Activity Look at the kente cloth in Figure 12.1. What functiondid kente cloth have in the lives of the people in the Asante kingdomduring the eighteenth century? Is it still used today? Divide your paperinto two parts. In the first column, list past uses of kente cloth. In theother column, list present uses of kente cloth. Continue pausing at eachartwork in the chapter and record the connections between past andpresent uses of the different pieces of art.

Using the Time Line Take note of some of the other artworks fromthis chapter that are introduced on the Time Line. What purposes doyou think they served and/or still serve in the lives of African peoples.

P

c. 1000–1400Artists of Ife createportraits of Yorubakings and queens

c. 1800–1900Yoruba artists use manydifferent materials to create egungun costumes

c. 1850A carved sculpturefrom northeasternAngola representsChibinda Ilunga,who became a hero to his people

800–1000Yoruba citiesdevelop

c. 1000 The Yoruba spiritual capital of lfe flourishes

1500The kingdom of Benin

1600Asante weavers create the first kente cloth

1000 1500 1800c. 1600 Asante Kingdom

■ FIGURE 12.1 Africa, Ghana, Asante people. Kente cloth. Cotton cloth. UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, Los Angeles, California.

265

1985The Bwa people makeleaf masks, the mostancient mask form

1850 1900 2000

late 1800sMende women ofSierra Leone com-mission helmetmasks from malecarvers

1910–14The Yoruba artistOlowe of Ise carvesVeranda Post ofEnthroned King Refer to the Time Line

on page H11 in yourArt Handbook for moreabout this period.

c. 1800–1972European Colonization in Africa

c. 1950–1975Independent Territories emerge across continent

Vocabulary■ raking cornice ■ entablature■ kente cloth

DiscoverAfter completing this lesson,

you will be able to:■ Discuss how Yoruba religious

beliefs are reflected in Yorubaartworks.

■ Identify important features inthe art and architecture of theEmpire of Mali.

■ Describe metal sculptures created in the Benin kingdom.

■ Explain the importance of goldworks and kente cloth in theAsante kingdom.

■ Discuss the creation of crosses inthe ancient kingdom of Ethiopia.

ithin the immense continent of Africa (Figure 12.2), an impressive array of art forms has originated. As you will discover, Africa’s

ancient civilizations produced refined sculptures and architectural monu-ments that have endured for centuries. More recent works reflect the vital-ity of African art today.

The peoples of Africa can boast of long-established, highly developed cultures that have been producing sophisticated art forms for centuries. The court of Ife, the ancient spiritual capital of the Yoruba people, located in what is now southern Nigeria, flourished 1,000 years ago. At that sametime, Europe was still working its way through the Middle Ages. Other technologically sophisticated, politically centralized African kingdoms andempires even predate Ife. One was the ancient Egyptian empire. Anotherwas the kingdom of Cush, which conquered Egypt around 700 B.C.

The Role of Art in African CulturesThroughout Africa, in both the past and the present—even within the con-

text of modern nation-states—the visual arts are well integrated with other artforms, including music, dance, and drama. Art is an importantpart of people’s lives, from birth, through adulthood, to death. In death, the spirit joins the ancestral realm if the individual hasled an honorable, productive life. Art addresses not only the concerns of the living, their ancestors, and those yet to be born,but also those of the spirits of nature. A great deal of African artemphasizes the important events of life and the forces in naturethat influence the lives of individuals and communities.

Dominant themes in African art include birth and death;the roles of men, women, and children; coming of age; sick-ness and healing; the importance of food and water; and thehuman relationship with nature. Artworks are often linked tocelebrations and rituals, both secular and sacred. Although itis possible to appreciate works of art from Africa in purely aes-thetic terms, a fuller understanding of these forms comes froma knowledge of their cultural context and specific functions.

Art of Ancient IfeFor the Yoruba people of Nigeria, the city of Ife is the place

where life and civilization began. Yoruba people now numbermore than 25 million and live in Nigeria, the neighboringRepublic of Benin, and throughout Africa. Large concentrationsof people of Yoruba ancestry live in Brazil, Cuba, Haiti, andthe United States. One in ten of all African-Americans is ofYoruba descent.

Art of African Kingdoms

W

Cities

Benin CityKumase Ife

S A H A R A

AFRICA

CONGO

BASIN

Mande

KongoLuba

Bwa

Baule

Delta ofthe Nile

Asante

Chokwe

SongyeFang

Kota

ATLANTICOCEAN

INDIANOCEAN

NigerRiver

Nile

River

LakeVictoria

Con go River

African Cultural Groups

MAP SKILLS■ FIGURE 12.2 Artworks created by culturalgroups across the African continent reflect thevaried traditions and lifestyles of the people. Findout how natural resources impact the art forms ofgroups living in different areas of Africa.

266

LESSON ONE

Yoruba Sculpture■ FIGURES 12.3 and 12.4

Yoruba cities developed between the yearsA.D. 800 and 1000. By 1100, artists of Ife haddeveloped a highly refined, lifelike sculpturalstyle to create portraits of the first Yorubakings and queens. The display of royal por-traits, with their composed, balanced facialfeatures, added a sense of stability in periodsof political transition between rulers, or fol-lowing the death of a ruler.

Metal sculpture exemplifies early Africanuse of the lost-wax process for creating sculp-tures. Artists in Ife developed this metal-casting process to perfection. Their cast metalsculptures were probably made collabora-tively, with women creating the clay formsand men casting them in metal. This is thestandard division of labor for artists workingthroughout the Yoruba region today.

Western scholars did not discover theselifelike terra-cotta and bronze sculptures(Figures 12.3 and 12.4) until 1910. Theseworks are now recognized as a reflection ofYoruba aesthetic values, grounded in theirreligion and philosophy.

Yoruba Religion and PhilosophyAccording to Yoruba beliefs, the world con-

sists of two realms: aye, the world that can beseen and touched; and orun, the supernaturalworld of ancestors, gods and goddesses, andspirits. Works of art created for the visibleworld, aye, tend to be realistic, whereasworks of art created for the invisible world,orun, tend to be more abstract.

The Yoruba have a related belief about ori,or head, and ori inu, or inner head. A Yorubaprayer states, “May my inner head not spoilmy outer head.” The value the Yoruba placeon sound states of mind—inner calm, self-confidence, and dignity—is reflected both inthis prayer and in the serene faces of the terra-cotta and bronze sculptures from ancient Ife.

As memorial portraits of Yoruba royalty, theserefined sculptures celebrate the lives and accom-plishments of individuals. They encourage livinggenerations to match or surpass the culturalaccomplishments of previous generations.

Chapter 12 The Arts of Africa 267

■ FIGURE 12.3 Thevertical lines on the faceof this figure probablyrepresent ornamentalscars made to indicateethnic identity and toenhance physical beauty.How did the artist usethe principles of balanceand variety in creatingthis portrait of a king?

Ife, Nigeria. Portrait of a king. 11th–15th century. Copperalloy. H: 36.2 cm (141⁄4�).Museum of Mankind, London, England.

■ FIGURE 12.4 This is a portrait of a Yorubaqueen wearing an elaborate beaded crown. In this work, is the queen depicted idealistically orrealistically?

Ife, Nigeria. Portrait of a queen. 12th–13th century. Terra-cotta. 25 � 17 cm (93⁄4 � 63⁄4�). National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Ife, Nigeria.

Yoruba Masquerade■ FIGURE 12.5

To the Yoruba, masquerade means a full cos-tume, including a face covering, or mask. InYoruba communities today, masqueraders wearegungun ensembles (Figure 12.5), or cloth mas-querades that include beads and other materi-als. Egungun ensembles are worn to honorancestors during public dances. Associated withthe spirit world, these costumes are abstractcreations. When performing, dancers whirl andtwirl in circles. These movements symbolicallyshow how the past, present, and the future areintertwined in a continuous cycle encompass-ing birth, life, departure, and return. These per-formances are considered a form of play andare fun for all involved. They also have a pro-foundly serious purpose. They are designed toinfluence the way people think and to takeaction to improve world conditions.

Art and Architecture of the Empire of Mali

Works of art made centuries ago in Ife andelsewhere in West Africa document the rise ofcity-states throughout the region. The terra-cotta sculptures of cavalrymen (Figure 12.6)and foot soldiers from the Inland Niger Delta,near the ancient city of Jenne, date to the earlythirteenth century, when the empire of Maliwas founded by a powerful military leader andking named Sundiata. These figures revealproud profiles, with jutting chins and headsheld high atop sturdy necks. Their bodiesappear straight and tall whether shown stand-ing or seated upright on stallions. The figuresrepresent members of the well-outfitted andwell-organized army described in the epic thatrecounts Sundiata’s life history.

The strength of Sundiata’s great cavalryand army of foot soldiers enabled him to gain

268 Unit Four Art of Asia, the Americas, and Africa

■ FIGURE 12.5 Many different materials were used to create thiswork. Describe the different colors and textures you see.

Yoruba people, Nigeria. Egungun costume. 19th–20th century. Fabric, glass beads, cowrieshells, leather, synthetic leather, plant fiber, string. 173 � 52 � 43 cm (68 � 201⁄2 � 17�). UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, Los Angeles, California. Museum Purchase. X96.3.7.

■ FIGURE 12.6 Because wet clay is malleable,artists can easily add texture to the overall forms of clay sculptures. How many different kinds oftexture can you identify in this work?

Inland Delta region, Mali. Equestrian figure. c. 13th century. Ceramic.70.5 cm (273⁄4�). National Museum of African Art, SmithsonianInstitution, Washington, D.C. Museum purchase, 86-12-2.

political power. Under his leadership, the empireof Mali became one of the largest and wealthiestkingdoms the world has ever known. The epicof Sundiata is passed on by griots, (gree-oh)oral historians who are also musicians and per-formers, throughout West Africa to this day.

The Sundiata epic is filled with stories ofhunter/warriors accomplishing supernaturalfeats. Sundiata himself is described as a hunter/warrior-king. His alliance with Mande black-smiths, men skilled in making iron weaponsand tools, enabled Sundiata to build an empire.

The Great Friday Mosque■ FIGURE 12.9

The architecture of the city of Jenne alsoreflects an emphasis on the vertical. In Jenne,the oldest city in sub-Saharan Africa, the corner

pinnacles of house façades are made tall andstraight, “like a man.” The Jenne mosque(Figure 12.9, page 270) amplifies this principlethrough repetition. The façade and sides of themosque feature rows of tall, narrow columnsthat give the structure its impressive appearance.

The mosque is made of hand-moldedadobe brick, a sun-dried mixture of clay andstraw. Because heavy rains erode its outerwalls, an army of men must climb themosque every year to refinish its surfaces.Wooden beams project from the sides of themosque to provide permanent supports forscaffolding. The mosque’s proportions aremonumental, making even more impressivethe accomplishment of workers who built itby hand. Rebuilt in 1907, this mosque retainsthe style of the thirteenth-century original.


InfluencingStyles Styles

■ FIGURE 12.7

Bamana peoples, Mali. Bamana iron figure. Iron,string, cowrie shells. Indiana University Art Museum, Bloomington, Indiana. Gift of Ernst Anspach.

■ FIGURE 12.8

African-American, Virginia.Iron figure. Eighteenth cen-tury. Iron. 36.8 � 11.4 � 8.9 cm(141/2 � 41/2 � 31/2”). CollectionJasper Johns.

IRONWORK IN MALI AND THE UNITED STATESJust as Mande blacksmiths helped build the empire ofMali, ironworkers helped build the United States ofAmerica in its early years.

This solid iron figure showsthe strong vertical lines thatcharacterize Mande sculpture.

This eighteenth-century ironfigure, very similar in form tofigures made by Mandeblacksmiths in West Africa,was found during excava-tions at the site of a black-smith shop in Alexandria,Virginia. It was probablymade by a Mande blacksmithwho was either born inAfrica and a survivor of theAtlantic passage, or a first-generation African-American.

The Kingdom of BeninThe Benin kingdom, situated in what is

now southern Nigeria, was a society of manyclass levels, with an oral tradition that goesback seven or eight centuries. The kingdomreached the peak of its power in the sixteenthcentury. Like earlier artists in nearby Ife,Benin artists excelled in creating sculptures ofmetal, specifically a copper alloy with manyof the same qualities associated with bronze.

For centuries in the West, European mas-ters had reserved bronze for the most impor-tant works. Imagine, then, the excitementcreated in 1897, when a huge shipment ofAfrican metal castings arrived in England.These cast pieces were brought back toEngland by the leaders of a British expeditionthat had attacked Benin City earlier that sameyear. European scholars and artists alike wereastounded by the technical proficiency andbeauty of the Benin sculptures.

Benin SculptureAmong the most ambitious of the Benin

castings are the high-relief sculptures thatonce covered the walls and pillars of the royalpalace. One of these contains the figure of theoba, or king, flanked by two chiefs bearing

shields, sword bearers and palace attendants.(See Chapter 2, Figure 2.23, page 45.)

In Benin art the most politically powerfulperson is represented as the largest figure.This representation reflects the central organi-zation of the kingdom. Less powerful individ-uals are smaller.

Here four social ranks are depicted. Theking, or oba is placed in the center and is thelargest figure. The two chiefs are almost as largeas the king. Two sword bearers, one a child, areeven smaller. Three tiny figures, one supportingthe king’s foot and two in the top corners, rep-resent the least powerful members of the court.

The oba wears a patterned wrapper, orwaist cloth, a six-ringed coral necklace, andsits side-saddle on a horse. In Benin culture,horses are symbols of political power.

Without question, the Benin artist who cre-ated this relief was in complete command ofmetal-casting techniques. Notice how the armsand shields are thrust forward in space, com-pletely free of the background. This not onlyadds to the three-dimensional appearance ofthe figures but also creates an interesting pat-tern of light and dark values. A variety of con-trasting textures and a symmetrically balanceddesign help tie all parts of this complex com-position together to form a unified whole.


■ FIGURE 12.9The wall with thethree tall towersestablishes thebuilding’s orien-tation to Mecca.How does theplay of light andshadow empha-size the deeplyrecessed formsof the mosque’swalls?

The Great FridayMosque. Jenne, Mali.Earth, wood, ostricheggs. 1907 recon-struction of original13th-century building.

The Asante KingdomThe Akan people lived in city-states in cen-

tral and coastal Ghana. In the first half of theeighteenth century, these people joinedtogether to form a powerful confederation ofstates, that included many cultural groups.The largest of these groups was the Asante.

Gold was the measure of wealth for theAkan, and kings, whose power was thoughtto come from God the Creator, tightly con-trolled its use. Items fashioned from the pre-cious metal were made to be worn by thesekings as a sign of their divine authority andabsolute power.

Asante Gold Jewelry■ FIGURE 12.10

Asante necklaces, bracelets, and ankletswere crafted by stringing cast-gold beads withgold nuggets, glass and stone beads, and otheritems. In one example, a pendant in the formof a crab is used. This necklace (Figure 12.10)was probably designed for a queen mother,because the crab was widely recognized by theAsante as a symbol for a person of this rank.

The work of goldsmiths in Kumase, theAsante capital, was regulated by the king.Only with his permission were people allowedto commission works of art from these highlyskilled craftsmen. Items obtained through theking’s court included gold ornaments andgold leaf-covered staffs and swords.

Kente Cloth■ FIGURE 12.11

The Asante king also controlled the use of special cloth. During the 1600s, weavers created the first kente (ken-tay) cloth, a brilliantly colored and patterned fabric thatbecame the royal cloth. Kente cloth is woven in narrow strips that are then stitched togetherto form large pieces with complex patterns(Figure 12.11). By the 1720s, Asante weaverswere unraveling imported silk fabrics andreweaving them into cloths featuring their ownunique designs. Silk cloths woven with specialsymbolic patterns, such as the gold-dust design,were reserved exclusively for kings.


■ FIGURE 12.11 Weavers of kente cloth have inventedmany different patterns. These patterns often have namesthat are immediately recognized by members of Akan soci-eties. What elements of art have been used to create thepatterns in this cloth?

Asante people, Ghana. Man’s cloth (kente cloth). Rayon. L: 314 cm (1235⁄8�),W: 217 cm (857⁄16�). UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, Los Angeles,California. Anonymous Gift.

■ FIGURE 12.10 Works of art made using the lost-waxcasting technique often show finely textured details. Whatelements of art are especially important in this work?

Akan people, Asante kingdom, Ghana. Necklace. 19th century. Gold. 2.5 � 40 cm (1 � 153⁄4�). Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia. The Adolph D. and Wilkins C. Williams Fund.

The Ancient Kingdom of Ethiopia

In the fourth century, as Christianity wasbeginning to gain followers in westernEurope, the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia, thenknown as Aksum, was already a center ofChristianity. In fact, Ethiopia is the oldestChristian nation in the world. A Moorish inva-sion in the seventh century, however, drovethe Ethiopian Christians to mountain strong-holds in search of safety. They remained therefor 800 years, forgotten by the world. WhenPortuguese explorers arrived in the fifteenthcentury, they thought that they had discov-ered the kingdom of Prester John, a legendaryChristian king of fabulous wealth.

Ethiopian Crosses■ FIGURE 12.12

In the fifteenth century, an Ethiopian kingdecreed that all his Christian subjects wear across around their necks. Early examples ofthese crosses were made from iron or bronze,but starting in the nineteenth century, silverwas used to create a variety of delicatelycrafted crosses (Figure 12.12).

The art of Christian Ethiopia included large ceremonial crosses as well. These weremade of wood, bronze, or silver in a variety of decorative styles and were used in religious

processions. In addition, a great deal of silverjewelry dating from ancient to recent timesconstitutes an important part of the Ethiopianart heritage.

272 Unit Four

■ FIGURE 12.12 Ethiopian crosses are made inmany different shapes and sizes. Why are so manycrosses found in Ethiopia?

Ethiopian orthodox style, Ethiopia. Pendants. Silver alloy. 7.6 � 4.4 cm (3 � 13⁄4�). National Museum of African Art,Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Donald F. Miller, 71–23 mn.

Reviewing Art Facts1. Describe When were sculptural por-

traits of the first Yoruba kings made?What technique was used to makethem?

2. Describe What materials were usedin the construction of the mosque inJenne? Describe the features of themosque.

3. Explain How is kente cloth assembled?4. Recall What was the measure of

wealth for the Akan people? Who controlled its use?

Exploring Media The vast continent of Africa containsmany different cultural groups. The diversity and complex-ity of the arts of Africa demonstrate both cultural beliefsand variety of media, resulting in unique art objects fromdifferent parts of the continent.

Activity Research the major areas of Africa using the mapin Figure 12.2 or available resources. Collect examples andimages of art from each area that you investigate.Emphasize the similarities and differences of each region.Working in small groups, combine your collective informa-tion to create a multimedia presentation for your class.

LESSON ONE REVIEW

Visit art.glencoe.com for study tools and review activities.

http://www.art.glencoe.com

Vocabulary■ adze

Artist to Meet■ Olowe of Ise

DiscoverAfter completing this lesson,

you will be able to:■ Identify the medium and the

technique used in the produc-tion of most African sculptures.

■ Name and describe the differenttypes of figures created byAfrican artists, and explain theirfunctions.

■ Explain how works of art serveas a link between generations,living and deceased.

■ Discuss the purposes of Africanmasks.

uch of Africa’s contribution to world art is in the form of sculp-tures made of wood. These sculptures include powerfully expres-

sive figures, highly stylized masks (Figure 12.13), symbols of royalty, andhousehold furniture. Works of this kind have been admired by artists outside Africa since 1905, when Maurice de Vlaminck, a French painter,was impressed by three African figures displayed in a French café. Otherartists, including Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, and Ernst Ludwig Kirchner,were subsequently fascinated by African art and borrowed features from itto incorporate in their own work. (See Chapter 23.) In this way, the art ofAfrica has had an impact on the course of modern art in the West.

African Wood CarvingsMost wood sculptures from Africa in Western museum collections date

from the late nineteenth or early twentieth century, the period of Europeancolonization of Africa. Much of the essential information about objects collected during this colonial era—including geographic origin, function,and artists’ names—is incomplete or nonexistent. More recent research,consisting primarily of information gathered in Africa since the 1960s, hasincreased our understanding of these works.

In their original African settings, sculptures made of woodoften did not survive beyond several generations of use. Wood-eating white ants and damp climates contributed to the destruc-tion of sculptures. This meant that each new generation of artistshad to produce new carvings to replace those that had been dam-aged or destroyed. Although the lack of early examples makescomparison to more recent works impossible, it can be assumedthat artists profited from the efforts of their predecessors. Ratherthan merely copying earlier models, innovative artists attemptedto improve upon them. They continuously revitalized the imagesand forms used in religious rituals and ceremonies.

Variety of Artistic StylesThe African artworks most familiar to Western viewers are

sculptural figures and masks. These vary in style from one ethnicgroup to another. Because nearly 1,000 cultural groups are dis-tributed throughout the vast continent, there is a large variety ofartistic styles. These styles are influenced by cross-cultural con-tact and exchange. Like artists everywhere, African artistsrespond to works created by other artists within their own cultureand beyond. Artistic traditions often cross geographic boundariesto link different peoples. Thus, the relationship between artisticstyles and ethnic identities in Africa is dynamic and complex.

African Sculpture

273

M

■ FIGURE 12.13 Replicas of African masks of alltypes are mass-produced as decorative items. Howare masks made for tourists different from onesmade for traditional use?

Bwa people, Burkina Faso, village of Ouri. Bomavay Konaté carving a sun mask for sale to tourists. 1984.

LESSON TWO

Carved FiguresThe carved-wood sculptures of Africa have

many different forms, although the most com-mon are based on the human figure. To createthem, the carver relies on the adze, an axliketool with an arched blade at right angles to thehandle. Usually, a figure is carved from a singlesection of wood and, when finished, reflectsthe shape of the log from which it is made.

Figurative sculptures, or figures, from dif-ferent parts of Africa share certain commoncharacteristics. These include:

• proportions that reflect cultural prefer-ences rather than natural proportions;

• frontal symmetrical poses;• disproportionately large heads, signifying

the importance of the head as the centerof reason and wisdom;

• little or no suggestion of movement.

African figurative sculptures are made for a variety of purposes. They promote the

well-being of individuals, families, socialgroups, and larger communities. Africansculptures address themes that reflect the concerns of the living, as well as the concernsof ancestors and spirits—including spirits ofthose yet to be born.

The wood carvings of Africa reflect a widevariety of forms and functions. These includeancestors and cultural heroes, guardian fig-ures, and spirit spouse figures.

Ancestors and Cultural HeroesIn many African societies, death is not con-

sidered the end of life. Rather, death initiatesan individual’s spirit into the world of ances-tors. When the soul separates from the body,it joins its ancestors and remains nearby toinfluence the living.

Figurative sculptures serve as pleasant rest-ing places for ancestral spirits. These sculp-tures are created to contain the spirit of thedeceased. Although such figures are not


THE MEANING OF AN AFRICAN CARVING

If you study the carving of Chibinda Ilunga closely, youwill note a mature, sturdy figure that seems to commandattention.• Identify. The treatment of the face shows a notable

attention to detail. Each feature is carved with great care. The wide-open eyes suggest the vigilance of thehunter/warrior, and the mouth is firmly fixed to showdetermination. A beard made of animal hair adds an airof wisdom, suggesting that this person’s strength is tem-pered by good judgment.

• Compare. The powerful torso and limbs lack the detailthat might divert attention away from their strength.

• Examine. The royal headdress and an animal horn held inthe left hand are carved with exacting precision.

• Interpret. The right hand bears a staff to aid ChibindaIlunga in his journeys. The most impressive of these maybe the journey spanning more than three centuries—thelength of time this idealized ruler’s reputation and influ-ence was felt by the Lunda and Chokwe peoples.

LOOKING Closely ➤

■ FIGURE 12.14 Chokwe, Northeastern Angola. Chibinda (The Hunter), Ilunga Katele.

Mid-19th century. Wood, hair, hide. H: 40.6 cm (16�). Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas.

intended to be realistic portraits, they mayinclude identifying features in their details. Toassure that the spirit inhabits the figure, offer-ings and sacrifices are made in ritual cere-monies. The spirit remains within the sculptureuntil it decides to leave or is summoned to thehereafter. Because the spirit dwells in the fig-ure, members of the family talk to it, especiallyto discuss difficult situations and ask for assis-tance. In this way, the sculpture serves as aneffective link between the past and the present,the living and the dead.

Even removed from their original contexts,African sculptures project a powerful pres-ence. This is especially true of a figure fromnortheastern Angola (Figure 12.14). Thiscarving represents an actual historical figurenamed Chibinda Ilunga, who became the ide-alized ancestor of the sacred royalty of theLunda, an agricultural and hunting people.Chibinda Ilunga became a hero to his peopleand to the nearby Chokwe people, who fur-nished many of the sculptors who createdcarvings for the Lunda royal court.

While the sculpture of Chibinda Ilunga hasan unmistakable sense of power and strength,another sculpture from central Africa projectsa different kind of presence (Figure 12.15).Kongo artists of Angola, Congo, and theDemocratic Republic of Congo producedsculptures called minkisi (singular: nkisi).These figures were used in elaborate rituals todeal with various social problems. They con-tain ancestral relics or clay from graves, aswell as medicines. The powerful forces con-tained within these carvings are activated by aspiritualist. Once activated, the nkisi sculpturedraws on these forces to aid those requiringassistance.

The spectacular figure illustrated in Figure12.15 is nearly four feet high and belongs to aspecial class of minkisi called nkondi, a namethat means “hunter.” Nkondi are consideredto be the most powerful of all minkisi. Nailsand iron blades were inserted into these fig-ures as part of a legal process that drew onKongo ancestral authority. The accumu-lation of metal blades inserted into these figures documents the history of their divine

intervention into human affairs. With itshands on its hips, a strong blade-studdedchest, and an open mouth, this figure standsalert as if ready to speak and act. As theembodiment of the Kongo system of law, thissculpture dealt with painful, complex issues.It oversaw oaths, treaty negotiations, the pun-ishment of criminals, issues of life and death,and other serious matters.


■ FIGURE 12.15Sculptures likethis one, bristlingwith metalblades, are oftenmisunderstoodby viewers unfa-miliar withAfrican art. Forwhat purposeswere figures likethis one made?

Kongo. Nkisi Nkondi(Nail figure).1875–1900. Woodwith screws, nails,blades, cowrie shells.H: 116.8 cm (46�). The Detroit Instituteof Arts, Detroit,Michigan. FoundersSociety Purchase,Eleanor Clay FordFund for African Art.

Guardian Figures■ FIGURE 12.16

Other sculptures from central Africa, bothfigurative and more abstract in form, were cre-ated to guard ancestral relics. Guardian figureswere placed on top of baskets or bundles con-taining the relics of the dead. Among the best-known guardian figures are the wood andmetal sculptures created by the Kota people ofGabon (Figure 12.16). These abstract sculp-tures have large oval faces and bodies reducedto open diamond shapes. They are made ofwood covered with thin sheets and strips ofmetal. The use of copper and brass indicatesthe importance attached to these figures, sincemetal was a form of wealth in central Africa.The sculpture’s penetrating, steady gazereflects its supernatural role in linking thisworld and the world of ancestors. When thissculpture was made, the Kota were known fortheir elaborate hairstyles, headdresses, andbody painting. The Kota people’s great con-cern for personal beauty is reflected in theinfinitely varied forms of their reliquaryguardian figures.

HEADDRESS. Shells, feathers, andanimal fur often adorn masks andheadpieces. They were designed toshield the identity of the wearerduring ceremonies.

Chumbanndu, Buluba, Africa. Face Mask.

TALKING DRUM. The soundscreated with the talking drum canimitate the sounds of spokenlanguage. The drummer plays ondifferent parts of the tightly-drawndrum skin to create different sounds.

■ FIGURE 12.16Form and func-tion are ofteninterrelated inAfrican works of art. How wasthis sculptureused?

Kota people, Gabon.Reliquary Figure. c. 19th–20th century.Wood, brass, copper, iron. 73.3 cm (287/8�).The MetropolitanMuseum of Art, NewYork, New York.Purchase 1983.(1983.18).

Diary Entry. Write a first-person narrative as a trader traveling to atrade center in Africa. On the streets yousee people wearing headdresses andmusicians with percussion instruments.Write a diary entry about your experiences.

Activity

African ArtSee more Time & Place events on theTime Line, page H11 in your Art Handbook

c. 1200 1800


Primordial Couples■ FIGURE 12.17

Sculptures representing primordial couples,made by the Dogon people of Mali, convey asense of harmony and balance. As images ofthe first man and woman described in Dogonmyths of creation, these sculptures serve asan inspiration to living generations. These fig-ures (Figure 12.17) are seated on a stool witha cylindrical support that symbolizes the linkbetween the earth below and the spirit worldabove. As a sign of affection and protection,the male figure’s arm wraps lightly around thewoman’s shoulder. Carved from a single pieceof wood, the interlocking forms effectivelyconvey Dogon ideas regarding the interdepen-dence of men and women and their comple-mentary social roles.

Spirit Spouse Figures■ FIGURE 12.18

Spirit spouse figures made by the Baule peo-ple of the Ivory Coast underscore the often com-plex relationships between men and women inanother African society. For the Baule, everyonehas a spirit spouse, a mate who lives in theinvisible realm. At birth, a child leaves his or herspirit mate behind in the invisible realm. Theinvisible realm mirrors the physical world. Spiritspouses usually do not interfere in the affairs ofthe physical world. If it becomes discontent orjealous, however, the spirit spouse may disruptthe life of the real-world mate.

To please a spirit spouse who desires mate-rial form, a sculpture is carved. This sculptureis then cared for in a private shrine in theowner’s bedroom. The sculptures help Baulemen and women imagine the existence of adifferent world that is experienced in night-time dreams. Through sculptures and dreams,people form closer relationships with theirspirit mates. This makes it easier to createmore harmonious real-world relationships.

Baule spirit spouse sculptures are stillbeing carved today. The sculpture in Figure12.18 was made during the 1950s.


■ FIGURE 12.17 This sculpture, like most Africansculptures, was carved from a single piece ofwood. What idea or feeling does this workcommunicate?

Dogon people, Mali. Seated Man and Woman. Wood. 76.2 cm (30�). Photograph © 1993 by the Barnes Foundation, Merion Station, Pennsylvania.

■ FIGURE 12.18Spirit spouse sculp-tures reflect Bauleideas regarding bothbeauty and goodness.Do you find this workto be visually appeal-ing? Why or why not?

Baule, Ivory Coast. Figure of an Other-World man. c. 1950. Wood, pigments. 25 cm (93⁄4�). NationalMuseum of African Art,Smithsonian Institution,Washington, D.C.Anonymous Gift, 93-1-2.

MasksLike African figurative sculptures, African

masks take different forms and serve differentfunctions. Many African masks cover only the face. Art historians refer to these as face masks (Figure 12.19).

In Africa, the concept of “mask” includesmuch more than just the mask itself. Masksare used in performances and are generallypart of a full costume. They often have theirown songs, dance steps, and sometimes even personal names. With few exceptions,African masks are worn only by men.

Masks are made to be seen in motion during ceremonies or religious rituals. Althoughthey are sometimes used in secular dances, theyare generally intended to facilitate communica-tion with the spirit world. Like figurative sculp-tures, masks can embody powerful forces andare believed to have supernatural abilities.When members of masking societies performwearing masks, they cease to be themselves.They become mediums, able to communicatedirectly with the spiritual realm. As sacredobjects, such masks should be viewed withhonor and respect.

Not all African masks served sacred pur-poses. Some were created and used purely forentertainment. Today, more and more replicasof African masks of all types are being mass-produced as decorative objects for urbanAfrican and Western consumers.

Masks of the Bwa People■ FIGURES 12.20 and 12.21

Although face masks and headdressescarved in wood are the most common, Africanmasks are constructed in different ways usinga wide variety of materials. For example, theBwa people of Burkina Faso make masks ofleaves, plant fibers, porcupine quills, andfeathers (Figure 12.20). Leaf masks are madeat the end of the dry season, before the rainsthat mark the beginning of the next agricul-tural cycle. The Bwa people consider leafmasks the most ancient mask form and closely associate them with nature and withlife’s regenerative power.


■ FIGURE 12.19In many Africansocieties, thecolor white isassociated withthe ancestral orspiritual realm.Masks like thisone are used inmourning cere-monies. What doyou think thelines that run ver-tically from theeyes represent?

Vuvi, Gabon. Mask.Wood, with white and pink pigments.38.1 � 24.4 cm (15 � 95⁄8�). TheUniversity of IowaMuseum of Art, Iowa City, Iowa. TheStanley Collection.

■ FIGURE 12.20African masksare generallymore than just aface covering.Imagine wearinga leaf mask likethis one. Howwould it feel?

Bwa people, BurkinaFaso, village of Boni.Leaf mask. 1985.

The Bwa people also produce woodenmasks. These masks are used during villagepurification ceremonies, initiations, funerals,harvest festivals, and now national holidays.The music of flutes, drums, and gongs accom-panies the dancers wearing these masks.These wooden masks take different forms—animal, human, and abstract. All are paintedwith black, white, and red geometric patterns.Plank masks are among the most abstract ofall mask forms made by the Bwa people(Figure 12.21).

Helmet Masks■ FIGURE 12.22

The Mende of Sierra Leone are one of sev-eral Guinea Coast people with a separate,exclusive women’s association responsible foreducating and initiating young women intoadult society. At ceremonies marking the endof the initiation process and on other festiveand ritual occasions, prominent women in the

society wear full costumes and helmet masks(Figure 12.22) that cover the entire head.

Features of this mask, particularly the elaborate hairstyle and the richly textured,lustrous black surface, represent the wealth,beauty, and social status desired for the initi-ates. These and other characteristics make themask irresistibly attractive to audiences. Thetiny, delicate face and high forehead are foundin most masks of this type.

Individual masks have personal namesand, like people, exhibit unique personalities.These personalities are expressed through the way dancers wearing the masks performand interact.


■ FIGURE 12.21 Though large, plank masks are made of light-weight wood. To help steady the mask, the performer holds a stickbetween his teeth. This stick projects through a hole at the back of the mask. How do you think a person wearing a plank mask is able to see?

Bwa people, Burkina Faso, village of Pa. Plank masks entering performance area, harvest celebration, 1984. Wood, mineral pigments, fiber.

■ FIGURE 12.22 Mende women commis-sion helmet masks from male carvers,often stipulating exactly how they wantthe work to be carved. How is the principleof variety used in this mask?

Mende, Sierra Leone. Bundu Society mask. Late 19th cen-tury. Wood. 43.18 � 19.69 � 22.23 cm (17 � 73⁄4 � 83⁄4�).Denver Art Museum, Denver, Colorado.

African ArtistsAlthough no individual artists’ names

have been associated with works discussed sofar, this does not mean that the artists werenot well known within their own societies.Information regarding works collected duringthe colonial era, from the late nineteenth cen-tury to the 1960s, is often incomplete. Still,individual styles identify works of art madeby particular artists, even though artists’names might not be known.

Sometimes the purpose artworks servedwas considered more important than the iden-tity of the artist. In the case of some sacredworks, the identity of the artists has been suppressed, and the artworks are described as having descended miraculously from thesky. In other cases, an artwork might be more closely associated with the person who commissioned it, rather than the artistwho created it.

Olowe of Ise (1875–1938)Olowe of Ise (oh-low-eh of ee-say), was an

innovative Yoruba artist who lived in Nigeriaduring the colonial era. During his lifetime,Olowe enjoyed much fame. He was invited byYoruba kings from throughout a wide regionto come to their palaces to carve variousobjects. Between 1910 and 1914, Olowecarved posts for a veranda in the inner court-yard of a palace in Ikerre, in the Ekiti region ofNigeria (Figure 12.23).

As Olowe worked to honor the aesthetic traditions of Yoruba art, he also developed hisown artistic vision. His unique style of carvingis recognized by the forcefulness of its fullythree-dimensional forms, richly textureddetails, and painted surfaces. His sculptures of figures in active poses appear energetic and fully animated. Like the veranda posts inFigure 12.23, his works are often large-scale.

Luba Neckrest■ FIGURE 12.24

The name of the Luba artist from theDemocratic Republic of Congo who made thisneckrest is not known, but he has been called


■ FIGURE 12.23 Many of Olowe of Ise’s works have only recentlybeen identified. Why is it sometimes difficult to identify the names ofAfrican artists?

Olowe of Ise, Yoruba, Nigeria. Veranda Post of Enthroned King (Opo Ogoga). 1910–14.Wood, pigment. 152.5 � 31.7 � 40.6 cm (60 � 121/2 � 16”). The Art Institute of Chicago,Chicago, Illinois. Major Acquisitions Centennial Fund, 1984.550.

the “Master of the Cascading Hairstyle.” Thesmall neckrests he carved share similar fea-tures; all figures wear the same elaboratehairdo. While this artist’s style is easily identi-fied, no two works are exactly alike. In eachwork, he experimented with new combina-tions of symmetrical and asymmetrical forms.In Figure 12.24, for example, the sculpture’soverall zigzag profile is interrupted by theasymmetrical position of its arms, with onehand caressing the edge of the hairdo.

When this neckrest was made, Luba aristocracy wore very elaborate hairdos as a sign of social rank and marital status.Molded over a frame of cane and shapedwith oil and clay, such hairstyles took daysto create and were meant to last for months.To avoid crushing these elaborate hairdos,neckrests elevated people’s heads as theyslept. Finely carved neckrests made by master carvers were highly prized objects of daily use.

Today, African art has taken its rightfulplace among the art traditions of the world. Itwas once dismissed for its frequent departuresfrom realism. Regarded as novelties byWestern travelers in the eighteenth and nine-teenth centuries, African artworks were col-lected as souvenirs. Now African art is wellrepresented in the collections of many majormuseums all across the United States.

A great deal has been written about the influ-ence of African art on European artists, whoadmired its emotionally charged, abstract styles.More recently, African art has begun to beunderstood and appreciated on its own terms.

Chapter 12 281

■ FIGURE 12.24 This neckrest was made by an artist whose name isunknown but who developed an easily identified personal style. Howare symmetrical and asymmetrical balance exhibited in this work?

“Master of the Cascading Coiffure,” Zaire, Luba. Neckrest with female figure. 19th century.Wood, beads. 16.2 cm (63⁄8�). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York. Giftof Margaret Barton Plass in honor of William Fagg, C.M.G., 1981. (1981.399).

Reviewing Art Facts1. Identify What tool did African artists

rely on when creating their woodcarvings?

2. Explain What does the use of metal in Kota reliquaries indicate?

3. Explain In what ways does the con-cept of “mask” include more than justa face covering in African societies?

4. Recall What do leaf masks of theBwa people represent?

Recognizing Cultural Influences It is necessary to under-stand the particular African culture that produced eachsculptural work in order to interpret the symbols used inthe sculpture. The art of Africa is intricately tied to life,nature, family, and animals. Throughout all the works, ahighly developed sense of design is evident. Activity List three regions of Africa in your journal. Sketch,examine, and make notes on the uses and meanings of thesymbols used by each culture. After your investigation, trycreating some design motifs of your own. Share your find-ings with your class or work group.

LESSON TWO REVIEW

Visit art.glencoe.com for study tools and review activities.

http://www.art.glencoe.com

22

TIME to Connect

Xenobia Bailey says,“Duke Ellington is one of the main inspirationsfor my style. He captures the African sound, the African beat, theAfrican rhythm in his music.”

• Listen to a recording of Duke Ellington’s work, such as “Take the A Train.” Next, describe in a paragraph how you think Bailey’svibrant work reminds you of the energy and movement in Ellington’s music.

• Listen to another recording by Ellington.Then study a photo of Bailey’s work on this page.Write a poem inspired by either hismusic or her fiber art.Try to incorporate expressive images andrhythms suggested by their artworks.

282 Chapter 12 The Arts of Africa

TOP: Xenobia Bailey. Sistah Paradise Great Wall of Fire Revival Tent. 1999.The 10-foot-tall tent was made from cotton and acrylic yarns.BOTTOM: Bailey sits in the midst of her brilliant circular wall hangings.

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For one artist, weavings are a celebration of a culture.

T raditional African and contemporary African American cultureinspire artist Xenobia Bailey’s unique fiber art. Using colorful

yarns and plastic beads, Bailey has weaved everything from hatsand wall hangings in concentric circles to a circus ringmaster’s

costume and doll’s clothes. Her work has appeared on TheCosby Show and in a Spike Lee movie, as well as in museumsand galleries. Bailey bases her art on the richly adornedbeaded crowns, elaborate headgear, and geometric patterns inbraided hair seen in Africa.

Born in Seattle in 1958, Bailey learned decorative hairbraiding from African women at the University of Michigan.In the 1970s, she moved to New York City “to have access toAfrican art…and for the color, and the community of artists.”The vivid mix of colors and patterns at bustling African festi-vals, parades, and other celebrations echo in her work.“Watching [the] groups go by [was] like a living kaleido-scope,” Bailey says. “Moving around different cultures I sawhow others could celebrate themselves and be proud of theirculture… I wanted to be proud of my own culture and heritage too… I wanted to look beautiful. I wanted to create beautifulAfrican American culture.” Bailey’s pieces, like those thatinspire her, firmly declare her own African American identity.

Standardized Test PracticeStandardized Test Practice

Examine Figure 12.1 on page 265, including the credit line.Then read the paragraph below and answer the question.

12 REVIEW

Reviewing the FactsLesson One1. How does art function in the lives of African

peoples, both past and present?2. List at least three dominant themes of African art.3. What material was used in the production of

Benin relief sculpture?4. Describe two ways that gold was used by the

Asante artists.Lesson Two5. Name two common forms of African wood

carvings.6. Describe the forms and functions of three differ-

ent types of figures created by African artists.7. Why are nails or other pieces of metal driven into

figures carved by the Kongo people?8. Name the culture in which a politically powerful

women’s association uses masks.

Thinking Critically1. ANALYZE. Look at the mask in Figure 12.22,

page 279. Describe the art elements. Then discusshow the artist used these elements according tothe principles of harmony, variety, and balance.

2. EXTEND. Imagine that you are a noted aestheti-cian writing a newspaper article. In this article,you hope to teach readers with little art back-ground how to understand and appreciate art cre-ated in Africa. Identify one work illustrated in thischapter that you feel proves your point. Whatwould you say about this work to show that it hasartistic merit? What arguments could you expect tohear in letters from readers who disagree withyou? How would you answer those arguments?

Create an artwork that shows the influenceof African art. First, choose an object, place, oranimal that interests you. Then select a mediumand use the images in this chapter as yourinspiration. When you are done, explain in abrief paragraph how African art influencedyour final product. Put your name and date onthe work and keep it in your portfolio. If yourwork is three-dimensional, take a digital pic-ture of it, label the photo with the date andtitle, and store it in your electronic portfolio.

(1) The making of kente cloth dates backto the 1500s. (2) At that time, silk was theonly material used. (3) The color scheme waslimited to blue and white—colors associatedwith royalty. (4) In the centuries that followed,the wearing of kente was opened to com-moners, though the cloth remained a statussymbol. (5) The more complex the design,the higher the person’s standing in the

community. (6) Nowadays, anyone may wearkente, and the colors are brighter than ever.(7) The most highly prized kente continue tobe handmade and have the designs wovenright into the fabric.

Which sentences in the paragraph relate mostdirectly to the object in Figure 12.1?

1 and 2.

4 and 5.

2 and 3.

6 and 7.

Chapter 12 Review 283

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