RHETORIC

The art and study of using language effectively

Letitia Hughes

AP Language

Barren County High School

Defining “Rhetoric”

Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.”

Rhetoric is “the art of communicating ideas”

What are rhetorical strategies?

Rhetoric may be described as “persuasive

use of language” and rhetorical strategies are

techniques by which writers persuade readers.

Anything a writer does is a rhetorical

strategy— any choice at all.

THE RHETORICAL TRIANGLEThe art and practice of rhetoric dates to the

Greeks—to Aristotle in particular.

Essentially, rhetoric addresses the relationship/conversation among audience,

purpose, and speaker/writer.

Speaker or writer

audience

subject

The speaker/writer adopts a persona, which is not a negative term, but rather refers to the role he or she

deems most effective for purpose and audience.

Audience, purpose, and persona affect the appeals that the speaker/writer

uses.

Speaker or writer

(Ethos)

Audience(Pathos)

Subject(Logos)

ARISTOTLE’S LOGOS, ETHOS, PATHOS

A writer’s primary responsibility in a text is to appeal to logos—to the audience’s inherent need for a meaningful, purposeful, and effective text. In appealing to logos, writers establish and support their

character and credibility (appeal to ethos) and invigorate the audience’s emotions and interests (appeal to pathos)

Note the language the author uses to appeal to pathos, ethos, and logos.

Persuasive Appeals in Rhetoric

Ethos (Ethical Appeal)Appeal to character

Emphasizes shared values between the speaker and the audience

Purpose: demonstrates speaker is credible and trustworthy

Speaker’s ethos include expertise and knowledge, experience, training, sincerity, etc.

Persuasive Appeals in Rhetoric

Logos (Logical Appeal)Appeal to reason (“logos”=“embodied thought” [Greek])

Emphasizes main idea using specific details, examples, facts, statistical data, expert testimony, etc.

Purpose: supporting point(s) on the basis of logic

Sophisticated appeals will acknowledge a counterargument and either concede or refute the opposing argument

Persuasive Appeals in Rhetoric

Pathos (Emotional Appeal)Appeal to emotion

Purpose: engage the emotions of the audience

Usually include vivid, concrete description, figurative language, and visual elements

Appeals to pathos are rarely effective in the long term. Why? It’s usually…Propaganda- a negative term for writing designed to sway opinion

rather than present informationPolemic- an argument against an idea, usually regarding

philosophy, politics, or religion

Not always separate sections.

oThe rhetor does not necessarily make these appeals in separate sections of a text.

oA single sentence can appeal to logos, the audience's interest in a clear cogent idea;

ethos, the audience's belief in the credibility and good character of the writer; and pathos, the audience's emotions or interests in regard

to the topic at hand.

In analysis…

Remember to address ethos, logos, pathos as

appeals!Say…

ethical appeal instead of ethos

emotional appeal instead of pathos

logical appeal instead of logos

SOAPSTONE

Who is the Speaker?What is the Occasion?Who is the Audience? What is the Purpose?What is the Subject?

What is the Tone?

SOAPSTONE

Speaker: the individual or collective voice of the text

Occasion: the event or catalyst causing the writing

of the text to occurAudience: the group of

readers to whom the piece is directed

Purpose: the reason behind the text

Subject: the general topic and/or main idea

Tone: the attitude of the author

Can you describe the rhetorical

triangle to someone else?Consider what you would say to a classmate who

could not attend the prep session today, write down one or two major points you would use to explain the

rhetorical triangle.

How would you compare this to SOAPSTONE?

Putting it all together…

Writers always write in response to a rhetorical situation—a

convergence of time, place, and circumstances that leads them to

make decisions about who their audience is, what purpose their

text might accomplish, and what genre it would be most

appropriate for them to produce.

Putting it all together..

All of these goals and appeals—everything writers do to identify an audience, accomplish a purpose, create an

appropriate genre, embody a reasonable and convincing set of ideas, establish their character and credibility, and enliven

the audience’s emotions and interests—all of this work is accomplished simultaneously by choosing to write or speak the words, phrases, and sentences, and by creating textual

structures that are appropriate and effective for the rhetorical situation at hand.

Rhetorical Modes: Patterns of

Development Narration

Telling a story or recounting a series of events

Narrating for a purpose

Process Analysis Explaining how something works, how to do something,

or how something was done

Rhetorical Modes: Patterns of

Development Description

Providing sensory details; describing by emphasizing the senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, feeling

o Closely allied with narration because it provides specific details. However, description emphasizes the senses.

Rhetorical Modes: Patterns of

Development Exemplification

Providing a series of examples-- facts, specific cases, or instances– to turn a general idea into a concrete oneInduction=a type of logical proof in which a series of specific

examples lead to a general conclusion (triangle)Deduction= a generalization relating many pieces of information is used to

draw a conclusion about a specific piece (inverted triangle)

Types of Exemplification: (1) Multiple examples (many examples)(2) Extended examples (one example examined in depth)

Rhetorical Modes: Patterns of

Development Comparison and Contrast Juxtaposing two things to highlight their similarities and

differences

Types of Comparison and Contrast: (1) Subject-by-subject: writer discusses all elements of one subject,

then turns to another (2) Point-by-point: writer organizes analysis around specific points of

a discussion

Rhetorical Modes: Patterns of

Development

Classification and Division Sorting materials or ideas into major categories

Answering the question, “What goes together and why?”

Sometimes categories are ready-made, sometimes writers must develop their own

Rhetorical Modes: Patterns of

Development

DefinitionDefining a term crucial to an idea or argument

Often the first step in a debate or disagreement

May take only one sentence or paragraph, although sometimes it is the purpose of an entire essay

Rhetorical Modes: Patterns of

Development Cause and Effect

Analyzing the causes that lead to a certain effect or, conversely, the effects that result from a cause

Depends on crystal clear logic

Often signaled by a “why” in the title or opening paragraph (Ex: “I Know Why the Caged Bird Cannot Sing” by Francine Prose)

Shift and Contrast Every piece, regardless of the

mode used, will contain either a SHIFT or a CONTRAST.

To accurately analyze the rhetoric, you have to find the shift

or contrast.

Finding Shifts

A shift is a change in the author’s tone (attitude). A change or shift in tone is often signaled by the

following: Transitions (e.g., but, yet, nevertheless, however, although)

Note: Transitions may serve to… Provide alternativeAddCompareContrastShow result Summarize Emphasize Provide an exampleIntensify Show time

Punctuation Stanza and Paragraph divisions Changes in line and stanza or sentence length

Finding Contrast

Contrasts usually boil down to…

THE ROMANTICS vs. THE REALISTS

- the ideal world - how it really is

- the perfect world - the seedy, gritty, mechanized

- the beautiful - the ugly

- the true - falsehood

- the pure - the exploited

- the innocent - the experienced

- the pastoral - the urban

Author’s Style

Style is the way someone writes as opposed to what he/she writes. It results from things like word choice/

diction, tone, use of figurative language, imagery, detail and allusions, and syntax.

Even something as simple as a grocery list can show an author’s writing style

So how do you analyze writing?

Consider the following: (1) Context and purpose

(2) Interaction between the subject, speaker, and audience (Aristotelian triangle)

(3) Persuasive appeals (Ethos, Logos, Pathos)

(4) Rhetorical Mode (pattern of development)

(5) Style (rhetorical devices-tone, sentence structure/syntax, diction/vocabulary, use of detail and figurative language, allusions, etc.)

So how do you analyze writing?

Think about the big umbrella of Rhetoric

Focus on the EFFECT… SO WHAT?????

Theme

Tone

Purpose

Writing Thesis statements for

Rhetorical Analysis

Thesis Framework: In (title of work ), (author/persona/speaker) uses

(rhetorical devices, mode, appeals, etc) to (action verb - show, reveal, explore, portray, convey, emphasize,

suggest, etc.)

(direct object - theme, tone, purpose).

Tip: This is only to get started until you are confident enough to develop a thesis on your own. Think of the framework as training wheels on your AP Language bike.

Developing the Essay…Now take your thesis and make each rhetorical

strategy you selected (preferably two or three) be a section of your essay.

Make a claim about the strategy and its effect on something under the big umbrella

Carefully select data from the passage that supports your claim.

Offer warrant/commentary/insight on how the data illuminates the claim you are making about the

effect on the area you chose from the big umbrella.

L i t e r a r y A n a l y s i s

Th es is S ta tem en tTop ic S en ten ces(W h at you w is h

to p rove .)

C la im

D irec t Q u o tesS u m m ary

P arap h ras eD eta ils

D ata

op in ion , in s ig h t,an a lys is , reac tion

exp lica tion , fee lin g s ,re flec tion

W arran t O RC om m en ta ry

C h u n k

Rhetorical Analysis

Let’s Practice with a real AP Language question!

Read and annotate the 2003 Form B AP Language Rhetorical Strategies Question

John Downe’s letter to his wife

As you annotate look for the things we have discussed… like SoapsTONE, shift, appeals, diction, etc.

Afterwards, we will share our findings and look at some sample essays that earned upper level scores on the AP

scale.