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Alfred Thayer Mahan

Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry

More about President Millard Fillmore, including a picture

clickable map of Japan

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, theUnited States pursued an aggressive policy of expansionism,extending its political and economic influence around theglobe. That pivotal era in the history of our nation is thesubject of this online history.

ContentsExpansion in the Pacific

A Letter to an EmperorFootholds in the Pacific

The Spanish-American WarRemember the MaineYellow JournalismA Splendid Little WarA Gift from the Gods

The Boxer RebellionSpheres of InfluenceFists of Righteous Harmony

The Panama CanalPresident RooseveltJoining the Waters

U.S. Intervention in Latin AmericaTeddy's LegacyThe End of an Era

Image CreditsBibliography

Teacher's Guide now available

Expansion in the PacificAfter temporarily resolving the problems of Reconstruction and Industrialization, Americansbegan to resume the course of expansion. The horrors of the Civil War had interrupted theoriginal Manifest Destiny that began in the 1840s. Now, as pioneers settled the last westernfrontiers, expansionists looked yet farther to the west—toward Asia and the Pacific.

A leading expansionist, Captain Alfred T. Mahan, cautioned that the Pacific could "be enteredand controlled only by a vigorous contest." As head of the Naval War College, Mahan believedthat America's survival depended upon a strong navy. He argued that a strong navy wouldrequire island possessions to serve as naval bases. The time had come, Mahan wrote, forAmericans to turn their "eyes outward, instead of inward only, to seek the welfare of thecountry."

American ships had long been active in the Pacific. The New Englandwhaling fleets scoured the ocean in search of their prey. The Chinatrade had been enriching Yankee merchants since 1784. Japan,however, had effectively closed its doors to outsiders, and it restricted

foreign ships to a small part of Nagasaki.

Commodore Matthew C. Perry, commander of the United States naval forcesin the China seas, was a staunch expansionist. Back in 1852 he warnedPresident Fillmore that the British, who had already taken control of HongKong and Singapore, would soon control all trade in the area. Perry

recommended that the United States take "active measures to secure a number of ports of refuge"in Japan. President Fillmore agreed with Perry. In 1853 he ordered the Commodore to opennegotiations with the Emperor of Japan.

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A Letter to an EmperorKayama Yezaimon, daimyo of Uraga, raced to the battlement, the clash of the warning gong still

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(Note: Edo Bay is located near Tokyo.)

Brief history of the samurai (including definitions of daimyo, shogun, etc.)

Abe Masahiro, headof the Roju (governingcouncil) under ShogunIeyoshi

Part of the U.S. Japanese Squadron under Commodore Perry's command

Toda Izu, governor of Uraga

Hawaiian Islands Overview

(Note: Click on Map ofHawaiian Islands for maps and Hawaiian Islands Pictorial for photos.)

Images of Hawaii from space

ringing in his ears. Stopping beside the brass cannon that guarded the entrance of Edo Bay, hescanned the horizon. The summer sun flashed high above the blue Pacific, and beneath it fourships approached with the tide.

As the ships sailed closer, the daimyo, his samurai, and their retainers watched in silent awe. Twohuge steam frigates spouted thick black clouds as they maneuvered against the wind. With theirpaddle-wheels churning the water, the frigates came about, bringing their gun-decks to bear uponthe shore defenses. Two sailing ships waited downwind in support. Bright signal flags fluttered

from halyards.

Kayama scowled. Through a telescope he studied the ships, which were well beyond the range ofhis small shore batteries. The ships bristled with cannon much more formidable than his own.Identical flags flapped at the stern of each vessel—red and white stripes, with white stars on apatch of blue. Kayama barked out an order. A samurai ran forward and dropped to one knee. Thedaimyo instructed the samurai to ride to the castle of Abe Masahiro, and to inform the shogun thata barbarian fleet blocked the mouth of Edo Bay.

From the fo'c'sle of the sloop of war Saratoga, Lieutenant John Goldsborough watched as dozens ofJapanese galleys approached the American fleet.

They were all fantastically decorated with flags and banners. They were propelled byfrom ten to twenty oars each with generally two or three men at each oar. None of theboats were permitted to come alongside any ship in the Squadron, though they allappeared quite anxious to go alongside the Flagship. Still none were permitted until wewere fully convinced that a high officer was in one of the boats. Then he alone, with aninterpreter who spoke Dutch, was allowed to come over the Susquehanna's side.

On board the Susquehanna, Commodore Perry's aide, Lieutenant Contee, informed the official thatthe Commodore carried a letter from the President of the United States to the Emperor of Japan.The Commodore intended to deliver the letter personally to an official representative. Since theCommodore was of the highest rank in the United States Navy, Contee said, he would meet onlywith a Japanese official of equal status.

Two days later, Kayama Yezaimon visited the Susquehanna. He informed Captain Adams that theAmericans must take their message to Nagasaki. Perry refused to meet with Kayama, but he wrotea message.

"The Commodore will not go to Nagasaki," Adams read. "If this friendly letter of the President tothe Emperor is not received and duly replied to, he will consider his country insulted, and will nothold himself accountable for the consequences."

After several more days of haggling, a suitable representative, "Prince"Toda, arrived in Uraga. With cannon salutes and a marching band, Perry

led a parade of marines to meet the Japanese delegation. He presented Toda with the president'sletter, enclosed in a rosewood box trimmed with gold, and announced that he would return for theemperor's answer in the spring.

Perry impressed the Japanese officials with his diplomacy and with the technological superiority ofhis ships and weapons. The Japanese shogunate decided to grant the minor trade concessions thatPresident Fillmore asked for in his letter. Forming a treaty with the Americans, they reasoned,would prevent another European power from imposing even greater concessions.

In February 1854, Perry returned to Edo with eight ships. He accepted the favorable reply toFillmore's letter and visited several Japanese ports before beginning the long voyage home. Hisdiplomatic mission had officially established the United States' presence in Asia. Still, theAmericans never realized that they had been negotiating with a mere shogun. For the emperor toconsult with barbarians was unthinkable.

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Footholds in the PacificAs ships crossed the vast ocean to trade in Asia, islands in the Pacific became important stops forcoal, provisions, and repairs. In the South Pacific, the American navy negotiated with awestrucknatives for the rights to build bases on the islands of Midway and Samoa. The Hawaiian Islands,which lie closest to the American mainland, had long been an important stop for the Pacific fleet.Pearl Harbor, on the island of Oahu, offered one of the most attractive natural bases in thePacific.

In the early 1800s, missionaries from New England made the arduous voyage to Hawaii andsettled there. They sent back news of fantastic economic possibilities in the islands. Soon other

Americans followed to become sugar planters and to establish profitable businesses.

To the native Hawaiians, or Kanaka, their island was a paradise. The sea, the abundant fruit trees,and the rich, fertile soil provided the Kanaka with all their necessities. Because of the perfect year-round climate, their simple shelters were adequate and comfortable. To the Americans, however,the Kanaka behaved like foolish children, as one early visitor described:

The ease with which the Hawaiians on their own land can secure their food supply hasundoubtably interfered with their social and industrial advancement. . . . [It] relieves the

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Detail from King's Palace, Toward Waikiki, Oahu, in 1826

Treaties between the United States and Hawaii: 1826, 1849, 1875, 1884

Biography ofQueen Liliuokalani

Background information about the Hawaiian monarchy

Sanford Ballard Dole

U.S.S. Boston

Text of the Constitution of 1887, which gave Queen Liliuokalani the right to rule Hawaii

(See especially Articles 21 and 22.)

Biography and photo of Grover Cleveland

Text of a speech by President Cleveland in which he expresses his "desire to aid in the restoration of the status existing before the lawlesslanding of the United States forces at Honolulu on the 16th of January [1892]"

Biography and photo of William McKinley

Excerpts from the 1993 Apology Resolution signed by President Clinton

native from any struggle and unfits him for sustained competition with men from otherlands. The fact that food is supplied by nature takes from the native all desire for theacquisition of more land. Today's food can be had for the picking, and tomorrow's aswell. Instead of grasping all he can get, he divides with his neighbor, and confidentlyexpects his neighbor to divide with him.

While the Kanaka were content to live in their traditional, idyllic ways, Americans were busy buildinghuge plantations, warehouses, railroads, drydocks, banks, hotels, and stores. They soon dominated theisland's economy, and they were able to influence its government as well. Americans created andcontrolled Hawaii's legislature and cabinet, and they limited the power of the native king.

As the nineteenth century drew to a close, disputes arose between the Kanaka and those of foreigndescent. "Hawaii for Hawaiians" became the slogan of people who sought to restore the traditional ways of the kingdom.Others called for the annexation of Hawaii by the United States. Annexation would eliminate the recent trade restrictions onsugar and revive the island's faltering economy. Secret organizations, such as the Annexation Club, plotted revolution.

In the midst of this unrest, Queen Liliuokalani assumed the throne upon thedeath of her brother, King Kalakaua. At age fifty-two, Liliuokalani had alreadygoverned the islands as regent during her brother's long absences. She waswell qualified to take control of the government. An American newspaperreporter who interviewed the new queen described her as "strong and resolute. Her manner wasdignified, and she had the ease and authoritative air of one accustomed to rule." Educated in Americanschools, Liliuokalani's voice "was musical and well modulated, and she spoke remarkably pure andgraceful English." Islanders who favored annexation hoped that the new queen would support theirinterests.

Liliuokalani, however, was determined to eliminate American influence in thegovernment. She tried to create a new constitution that would strengthen thetraditional monarchy, but her cabinet refused to cooperate. The American

residents were outraged. They organized the Committee of Safety and appointed members of theAnnexation Club as its leaders. On the morning of January 17, 1893, armed members of thecommittee attacked. They took over the government office building. From its steps they read aproclamation abolishing the monarchy and establishing a provisional government. The provisionalgovernment "would exist until terms of union with the United States of America have been negotiatedand agreed upon." Sanford B. Dole, an elderly judge with a flowing, white beard, became itspresident.

Hawaiians who were loyal to their queen tried to come to her defense andstop the revolution. When they arrived in Honolulu, however, Americantroops confronted them. The United States' minister, John L. Stevens, had sent for a battalion ofmarines and an artillery company from the cruiser Boston. They were ordered to protect theprovisional government. For the Hawaiians, resistance was hopeless.

Queen Liliuokalani sadly surrendered her throne. She wrote a document in which she "yielded tothe superior forces of the United States." She pleaded with the U.S. government to "undo theactions of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority I claim as the ConstitutionalSovereign of the Hawaiian Islands." Meanwhile, the Provisional Government sent fiverepresentatives to Washington to apply for annexation. They quickly drew up a treaty, andPresident Harrison signed it and submitted it to Congress.

Before the Senate could approve the treaty, however, a new presidenttook office. This president, Grover Cleveland, had reservations about taking over an independentcountry. He withdrew the treaty and sent a special commissioner to Hawaii to investigate therevolution. The commissioner reported that Minister Stevens had conspired with a small group ofrevolutionaries to overthrow the government. Cleveland replaced Stevens with a new minister andtried to restore Liliuokalani to the throne.

President Dole flatly refused to give the government back to the Hawaiians. He told PresidentCleveland that the United States had no right to meddle in Hawaii's internal affairs. Congressagreed, and it adopted a "hands off" policy toward the island. Dole's new government then createdan army and held a constitutional convention. On July 4th, 1894, the government unveiled thecompleted constitution and declared an independent Republic of Hawaii.

Despite Liliuokalani's pleas for help, other governments quickly recognized the new republic. In desperation, supporters ofthe queen began to collect weapons and to make secret plans to overthrow the republic and restore the monarchy. Theyplanned to strike on the morning of January 7, 1895, but informers told the government about their plot.

At dawn, as the queen's supporters slipped silently ashore on Waikiki, government soldiers opened fire. A few of the rebelsfell dead or wounded; others surrendered. The government declared martial law. During the next few days, governmenttroops defeated the disorganized rebels in a series of brief but deadly skirmishes. Within two weeks, they completelysuppressed the uprising and captured its followers, including Queen Liliuokalani. The prisoners were tried for treason.Liliuokalani was forced to sign a document in which she finally renounced all claims to the throne.

Now secure in its power, the republican government turned its attention to international relationsand trade. In 1896, however, the election of a Republican, William McKinley, as president of theUnited States, rekindled Hawaiian hopes for annexation. President McKinley, like manyRepublicans, favored expansionism, and he welcomed the new annexation treaty. A jointresolution of Congress annexing Hawaii passed both houses, and the islands became American

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to acknowledge the 100th anniversary of the overthrow of Kingdom of Hawaii

January 25, 1898—The U.S.S. Maine enters Havana harbor, about three weeks before it was blown up.

Cuba in 1898Provides background information about the Cuban insurgency against foreign control both before and just after the Maine incident

Map of Cuba(This is an interactive map—for example, click on Havana for a more detailed view of the city.)

For a wider view of the region: Map of Caribbean regionMap of Latin America

Captain Sigsbee in the captain's cabin aboard the Maine

General Fitzhugh Lee

Capt. Charles D. Sigsbee, 1898

The Spanish-American War Centennial's photo of the Maine, photos of pieces of the Maine, reputed photo of explosion, accounts of the destruction, New York Times report, crew roster and much more.

Stereoscopic view of the disaster

More photos of the wreckage and salvage effort

possessions.

While Congress was considering the annexation treaty, an American fleet was steaming acrossthe Pacific to attack the Philippine Islands. The United States had gone to war.

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The Spanish-American WarRemember the Maine

The battleshipMaine driftedlazily at itsmooring.Although theHavana nightwas moonless,the Maine'sgleaming whitehull—longerthan a football

field—contrasted against the blackness of the sea and sky. Smoke wisped from its twomustard-colored funnels. Random lights sparkled from its portholes and its bridge.

In the captain's cabin, Charles Sigsbee sat at a table writing aletter to his wife. The trouble in Cuba, he wrote, would soon beover. The new Spanish governor of the island seemed to havethe situation under control. During the three weeks that theMaine had been in Havana, Captain Sigsbee had seen no signof Cuban rebels. He'd entertained the Spanish officers in hismess, and he and his staff had been entertained lavishly by thelocal officials. Although Sigsbee found the bullfights to whichhe'd been invited somewhat barbaric, the Spanish officersbehaved as perfect gentlemen.

Even Fitzhugh Lee, the Americanconsul, seemed optimistic. A monthearlier the old general (Lee hadcommanded a cavalry division underhis uncle Robert E. in the Civil War)

had summoned a battleship to "protect American interests." Although the Maine was only asecond-class battleship, it was the largest ship ever to enter Havana harbor. To the Cubans, it wasa floating American fortress right in their capital city.

Aboard the Maine, "taps" sounded at ten minutes past nine. Captain Sigsbeedescribes what happened next.

I laid down my pen and listened to the notes of the bugle, which were singularly beautiful inthe oppressive stillness of the night. . . . I was enclosing my letter in its envelope when theexplosion came. It was a bursting, rending, and crashing roar of immense volume, largelymetallic in character. It was followed by heavy, ominous metallic sounds. There was atrembling and lurching motion of the vessel, a list to port. The electric lights went out. Thenthere was intense blackness and smoke.

The situation could not be mistaken. The Maine was blown up and sinking. For a momentthe instinct of self-preservation took charge of me, but this was immediately dominated bythe habit of command.

Captain Sigsbee managed to reach the deck, now slanted down sharply toward the submerged bow.He climbed aft toward the only part of the ship that was not awash. Fires had broken out all over the

vessel, and they lit the harbor in an eerie red glow. In Havana lights began to shine from windows that had just beensmashed by the blast. Most of the crew had been asleep in their berths at the forward part of the ship, which was already atthe bottom of the harbor. The stern sunk more slowly.

Crews from nearby ships manned lifeboats to rescue the surviving crewmen of the Maine."Chief among them," Sigsbee wrote, "were the boats from the Alfonso XII. The Spanishofficers and crews did all that humanity and gallantry could compass." Reluctantly, CaptainSigsbee abandoned the Maine, which continued to burn and explode throughout the night.

The twisted, burnt wreckage of the Maine's stern and bridge was still above water in themorning. It remained there for years. Two hundred fifty-four seamen were dead, and fifty-nine sailors were wounded. Eight of the wounded later died. The navy conducted aninvestigation into the cause of the disaster, but it never discovered who was responsible forthe explosion.

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Joseph Pulitzer

Drawing of "The Yellow Kid"

Delivering the WorldThe film shows a one-horse paneled newspaper van arriving to deliver the "New York World" to a crowd of newspaper carriers. The location is presumed to be Union Square in New York.

Puck magazine published this cartoon depicting Cuba's difficult situation in the 1890s.

The wreck of the U.S.S. Maine

Chronology of the war (from the NYPL's Online Exhibition of the Spanish-American War)

World map showing location of the Philippine Islands

Yellow JournalismThe American press, however, had no doubts about who was responsible for sinking the Maine. Itwas the cowardly Spanish, they cried. William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal even publishedpictures. They showed how Spanish saboteurs had fastened an underwater mine to the Maine andhad detonated it from shore.

As one of the few sources of public information, newspapers hadreached unprecedented influence and importance. Journalistic giants,such as Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer of the World, viciously competedfor the reader's attention. They were determined to reach a dailycirculation of a million people, and they didn't mind fabricating storiesin order to reach their goal.

They competed in other ways as well. The World was the firstnewspaper to introduce colored comics, and the Journal immediatelycopied it. The two papers often printed the same comics under

different titles. One of these involved the adventures of "The Yellow Kid," a little boy whoalways wore a yellow gown. Since color presses were new in the 1890s, the finished productwas not always perfect. The colors, especially the Yellow Kid's costume, often smeared. Soonpeople were calling the World, the Journal, and other papers like them "the yellow press.""They colored the funnies," some said, "but they colored the news as well."

A minor revolt in Cuba against the Spanish colonial government provided a colorful topic. Formonths now the papers had been painting in lurid detail the horrors of Cuban life underoppressive Spanish rule. The Spanish had confined many Cubans to concentration camps. The press called them "deathcamps." Wild stories with screaming headlines—Spanish Cannibalism, Inhuman Torture, Amazon Warriors Fight For Rebels—flooded the newsstands. Newspapers sent hundreds of reporters, artists, and photographers south to recount Spanishatrocities. The correspondents, including such notables as author Stephen Crane and artist Frederick Remington, found littleto report on when they arrived.

"There is no war," Remington wrote to hisboss. "Request to be recalled."

Remington's boss, William Randolph Hearst,sent a cable in reply: "Please remain. Youfurnish the pictures, I'll furnish the war."Hearst was true to his word. For weeks afterthe Maine disaster, the Journal devotedmore than eight pages a day to the story.Not to be outdone, other papers followedHearst's lead. Hundreds of editorialsdemanded that the Maine and Americanhonor be avenged. Many Americans agreed.Soon a rallying cry could be heardeverywhere—in the papers, on the streets,and in the halls of Congress: "Rememberthe Maine! To hell with Spain."

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A Splendid Little WarIn the wake of the Maine incident, Congresshurriedly appropriated $50 million to prepare thenation for war. "Big navy" supporters, includingthe Assistant Secretary of the Navy, TheodoreRoosevelt, appropriated the lion's share of themoney. Next, President McKinley insisted thatSpain agree to a cease-fire with the Cuban rebelsand negotiate a permanent settlement with them.After a slight delay, Spain agreed to the Americandemands. Two days later, McKinley askedCongress for authority to use military force to endthe Cuban conflict. Essentially, this was adeclaration of war.

The United States Army was not prepared for war. After the Civil War, the country had drastically reduced its army. Mostarmy units had been scattered throughout the west, where they had fought and confined Native Americans. Volunteer andNational Guard units quickly assembled in Tennessee. Regular-army divisions, filled with new recruits, rushed to Florida toawait the invasion of Cuba.

Back to the Pacific The navy, however, needed little preparation. The Pacific fleet was visiting Hong Kong when the newsof war arrived. Commodore George Dewey quickly provisioned his ships and set off to attack the Spanish colony in thePhilippine Islands.

Once at sea, Commodore Dewey had his men paint all the ships. Once a bright white,the ships were soon covered with a dull gray to make them less visible to the enemy.

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Map of the Philippine Islands

Another Philippines map

Philippine History

Chronology of Events Leading to the Philippine-American War

Photo of the U.S.S. Olympia

Photo and biography of Captain Gridley

Photos of the U.S.S. Boston

Photo of Commodore George Dewey.

Commodore George Dewey is depicted here commanding the battle of Manila Bay. He does so from his flagship Olympia.World front page announcing the victory

The Spanish-American War in Motion Pictures. This presentation features 68 motion pictures produced between 1898 and 1901 of the Spanish-American War and the subsequent Philippine Revolution.

Photobiography of Teddy Roosevelt

A brief biography of TR

Next, Dewey ordered that everything made of wood, including the piano on his flagshipOlympia, be tossed over the side. Splintered wood presented a greater danger to hiscrews than enemy shells. Then with chests, chairs, and tables bobbing in the waterbehind them, the ships went after the Spanish fleet.

After searchingthroughout an oppressivetropical night, Deweyfound the Spaniards in theshallows of Manila Bay. Atdawn on the first of May,the Olympia led the fleetin single file toward itsenemy. The Spanish

opened fire long before the Americans were within range. TheOlympia moved still closer. When it reached effective range, itturned sharply to the west, bringing all its guns to bear uponthe Spanish fleet.

"You may fire when ready, Gridley," Dewey told his executiveofficer. With a deafening roar, the huge cruiser's guns erupted.The flagship swung around in a wide circle, and each shipfollowed, guns blasting as it passed. "We made five trips pastthe fleet," a gunner on the Boston wrote.

Just two hours after the beginning of the battle wehauled out and, withdrawing a few miles, the orderwas given for breakfast. I was exhausted from theheat, loss of sleep, and lack of proper food. I went upon deck. Below the thermometer was at 116°, andthe fresh air was a great relief. From this vantagepoint, I could see the destruction we had wrought.

When the thick, blacksmoke that had obscuredthe battle cleared, hesaw the Spanish fleet, battered and afire. The battle had been won. Eight seamensuffered wounds aboard the Boston (the same ship that had helped "liberate" Hawaii).One man died from the heat before the battle began. They represented the totalcasualties for the fleet.

When the news of the stunning victory reached home, Americans cheered ecstatically.Dewey, "the conqueror of the Philippines," became an instant national hero. Stores soon filled with merchandise bearing hisimage. Few Americans knew what and where the Philippines were, but the press assured them that the islands were awelcome possession.

Rough Riders Despite Dewey's early victory, the war in the Caribbean was getting off to a slowstart. More than 250,000 soldiers rushed enthusiastically into the service. The army'squartermaster corps, however, had only fifty-seven men to supply the army with equipment.Soldiers gathered in Florida and waited impatiently for supplies and transportation. Someindividuals organized and outfitted their own regiments. One such individual, the AssistantSecretary of the Navy, resigned his post and formed a volunteer regiment of cavalry. TeddyRoosevelt did not intend to miss his chance at glory.

Roosevelt had been born forty years earlier to a wealthy New York family. He described himself as"a sickly, delicate boy" who "suffered much from asthma, and frequently had to be taken away ontrips to find a place where [he] could breathe." Determined to overcome his physical limitations,Roosevelt embarked on a grueling program of body building. He practiced boxing, hunting, andriding, and after college he spent three years as a working cowboy in the wild Badlands of Dakota."It was still the Wild West in those days," he wrote. "The West of the Indian and the buffalohunter, the soldier and the cow-puncher." There he "led a free and hardy life with horse and rifle."

Roosevelt's political career began in the New York legislature. Next, after running unsuccessfullyfor mayor of New York, he served as that city's police commissioner. A loyal Republican, hecampaigned tirelessly for McKinley in the 1896 election, and the president rewarded him with an appointment to theDepartment of the Navy.

Now, seeking again the "hardy life with horse and rifle," Roosevelt waited in Tampa withhis men. His regiment, which called itself the Rocky Mountain Riders, consisted mostlyof cowboys from the West, although it contained a few Indians and wealthy polo playersfrom the East as well. The papers called the regiment "Teddy's Terrors," but itscommander was Leonard Wood, a physician who was also a colonel in the regular army.Roosevelt served as lieutenant colonel.

"Tampa was a scene of the wildest confusion," Teddy remembered. "There was nosemblance of order." Thousands of men, horses, mules, and supply wagons werescattered about haphazardly in the tropical heat. Somehow the expedition reached

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TR and his Rocky Mountain Riders, or "Rough Riders"

Cuban Soldiers Read more about the role of Cuban soldiers, who had nearly won their island's independence from Spain by the time Teddy Roosevelt arrived

San Juan Hill

Print depicting an African American soldier during the march toward San Juan Hill

Captain-General Ramon Blanco

Photos of Spanish wrecks after the battle

Painting of the Battle of Santiago de Cuba

Commemorative poster from the Spanish-American War

Cuba. Still, "different parts of different outfits were jumbled together. . . . For instance,one transport had guns, and another had the locks for the guns. Soldiers went here,provisions went there, and who got ashore depended upon individual activity."

Roosevelt, always active, got his regiment ashore quickly. "We disembarked with our rifles, our ammunition belts, and notmuch else," he remembered. "I carried some food in my pocket, and a light coat which was my sole camp equipment for thenext three days."

With the July temperature climbing above 100°, the soldiers plodded off through thethick jungle toward the city of Santiago. Wearing uniforms made of wool, the menstruggled against the heat. Those who managed to obtain rations often discovered thattheir food had spoiled. Soon the ranks were riddled with malaria, fever, and dysentery.(Before the war ended, 5,200 Americans would perish from disease.) General Shafter,the army's commander, realized that if he didn't capture Santiago soon, he might not

have an army left.

After a few brief skirmishes, the armies confronted each other. The Spanish defended the San Juan hills, a long ridge east ofSantiago. The Americans, arrayed in the valley below, sent up an observation balloon to study the city's defenses.

Roosevelt, who had managed to obtain a horse, rode up and down the lines anxiously. "I had cometo the conclusion," he said, "that it was silly to stay in the valley firing up at the hills. . . . The thingto do was to try to rush the entrenchments." Never a man to stand on ceremony, Teddy took itupon himself to order the charge.

With a pistol in one hand an a saber in the other, Teddy spurred his mount forward. His face grewflushed; his glasses clouded with steam; a wide grin covered his face. The rough riders followed onfoot, and the Ninth Cavalry, an African American regiment, rushed forth beside them. As hereached the crest of Kettle Hill, Teddy saw its defenders fleeing before him. He fired at one ofthem, and later remarked that the man fell "as neatly as a jackrabbit."

Atop Kettle Hill, the soldiers dined on captured Spanish provisions. Later Teddy left his men androde to the top of San Juan Hill, but the Tenth Cavalry, another African American regiment, hadalready stormed and captured it. That night the Americans repelled a Spanish counterattack. In themorning, General Shafter demanded that the Spanish commander surrender.

A Big Turkey Shoot Ramon Blanco y Erenas, governor general of Cuba, received Shafter'sdemand. He responded by ordering his fleet to attack the American ships blockading Santiagoharbor. If the Spanish could destroy the Americans' supply line, he thought, they could force theenemy to withdraw. His fleet commander, Admiral Cervera, disagreed. Attacking a force fourtimes the size of his own seemed like suicide. Nevertheless, Cervera obeyed his orders, and inthe hazy dawn the Spanish, led by the magnificent Maria Teresa, bravely steamed into battle.

The Americans were ready. Four first-class battleships (any one of them might have been amatch for the whole Spanish fleet), two cruisers, and several smaller ships enclosed the mouthof the harbor in a half-circle. Tugboats filled with reporters scurried in their wake. The Oregonfired the first shot of the battle, and soon black smoke blurred the bay.

"It was a big turkeyshoot," Seaman Crossof the Oregon said."The Fleet came outand went to DavyJones' locker."

By one o'clock the battle was over. The Spanishfleet was destroyed, and with it sank all hope ofvictory in Cuba. General Nelson Miles, the oldIndian fighter, led a force to Puerto Rico. Heconquered the island and its few Spanishdefenders easily. In effect, the war was over.

Spain agreed to anarmistice. In the fourmonths of fighting,Americans had lost a total

of 460 soldiers in battle. Compared to the CivilWar, in which tens of thousands were often killedin a single day, these casualties seemedinsignificant. "It's been a splendid little war," theambassador to England wrote to his friend, Teddy Roosevelt.

Roosevelt returned, the hero of the war. Because of his heroism on Kettle Hill, he'd been nominated for the CongressionalMedal of Honor. His popularity swept him to the governorship of New York. Like Dewey before him, Roosevelt memorabiliafilled shop windows. One of the more popular items was a cuddly stuffed animal wearing a bandana and glasses. Peoplecalled it the "Teddy Bear."

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A Gift from the Gods

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American troops on the ramparts at Manila, c. 1898-1901

More about Mark Twain's views on the Philippines

Excerpts from an anti-imperialist essay by Andrew Carnegie

A list of links to additional anti-imperialist essays, speeches, and pamphlets

Map of the Caribbean region(to locate Puerto Rico)

Large map of Guam (includes locator map)

Photo and short bio of Emilio Aguinaldo

Filipino-American history timeline

Biography and photo of William Howard Taft

Cartoon: "Civilization Begins at Home" (1898)

Canton, China: seawall and harbor crowded with sampans, c. 1895

Background of Ch'ing (Qing) Dynasty

Maps of China: Large one Smaller maps of China Another small map

In the months following the Spanish-AmericanWar, the winds of expansionism blew stronglyacross the United States. There was a lot of talkabout "Manifest Destiny," and many peoplesuggested that America should assume its role asa world power. In Congress, legislators called forthe annexation of all Spanish territories. Somenewspapers even suggested the annexation ofSpain itself. Expansionists such as Roosevelt,former President Harrison, and Captain Mahanargued for creating an American empire. Others,including Grover Cleveland, Andrew Carnegie, andMark Twain, opposed these ideas.

In October, representatives from Spain and theUnited States sat down in Paris to work out a treaty. President McKinley appointed a "peace commission" to represent theUnited States. A majority of the commission's members believed in expansionism. No representatives from the colonieswhose fates were being decided attended the Paris conference.

The Spanish delegates assumed that the United States would annex Cuba. They suggested thatthe United States also take over Cuba's $400 million debt. The Americans declined. After all, thewar had been fought in support of Cuban independence. However, they were glad to acceptPuerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

The American army already controlled the city of Manila, but it had not ventured into any otherareas of the Philippine Islands. After signing the treaty, President McKinley ordered the War Department to bring all theislands under military control. The people of the Philippines, he decided, were too "uncivilized" to govern themselves. TheFilipinos were shocked. For two years they'd been fighting for their independence from Spain. Since the United States hadsupported rebels in Cuba and Hawaii, they expected support for their independence as well.

Commodore Dewey wrote to his superiors and pointed out that the Filipinos seemed better prepared forself-government than the Cubans did. The War Department responded by sending more men andequipment to Manila. Emilio Aguinaldo, the wiry leader of the Filipino independence movement, feltbetrayed. Aguinaldo admired the United States. He liked to be called "the George Washington of thePhilippines." He had helped the Americans fight the Spanish. Now the Americans and the Spanishresidents of the islands were fighting him.

Aguinaldo led his bitter troops into the jungles, and for three years they foughta brutal war against the military government. In the end the overwhelmingpower of the American forces defeated them. The Americans confined manyFilipinos in concentration camps like the ones the Spanish had used in Cuba. William Howard Taft wasappointed head of the Philippine Commission, charged with replacing the military government with a

civilian legislature. Despite the plan to prepare the Philippines for independence, however, Americans continued to rule theislands until after World War II.

The war in the Philippines claimed four times as many American lives as the war with Spain did. Few Americans, however,rejoiced at the victory. There were no heroes. No parades greeted the returning troops. For many, this war seemed tocontradict some basic American values.

"I have been criticized a good deal about the Philippines," McKinley said, "but I don't deserve it. The truth is . . . they cameto us as a gift from the gods."

"Congratulations," Andrew Carnegie wrote to a leading expansionist. "You seem to have aboutfinished your work of civilizing the Filipinos. It is thought that about eight thousand of them havebeen completely civilized and sent to heaven. I hope you like it."

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The Boxer RebellionSpheres of Influence

Throughout the nineteenthcentury, China's emperorshad watched as foreignersencroached further andfurther upon their land.Time and again, foreignersforced China to make

humiliating concessions. Foreign regiments,armed with modern weapons, consistentlydefeated entire imperial armies. Now, as a newcentury was about to begin, Tsu Hsi, empressdowager of the Ch'ing Dynasty, searched for a way to rid her empire of foreign parasites.

Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia all claimed exclusive tradingrights to certain parts of China. They were dividing China into "spheres of influence." Some evenclaimed to own the territory within their spheres. By acquiring the Philippines, the United States

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John Hay

Text of John Hay's First Open Door Note

Empress Dowager Tsu Hsi

A "Boxer" in 1900

Artillery of International Relief Force to Beijing, 1900

Concise Political History of China, including more about the Empress Dowager and the Boxer Rebellion (Scroll about halfway down the page to get to the section about Tsu Hsi.)

became an Asian power too. Now, with a strong base of operations just 400 miles from China,American businesses hoped to take advantage of China's vast resources. The foreign spheres ofinfluence, however, threatened their ambitions.

So while the empress was hoping to close China to foreigners, Americans were looking for a way in.John Hay, now Secretary of State, had an idea. Since public opinion, strained by the Philippineswar, would never support the use of force, he decided to negotiate. He sent letters to all theforeign powers and suggested an "Open Door" policy in China. This policy would guarantee equaltrading rights for all and prevent one nation from discriminating against another within its sphere.

The nations replied that they liked the concept of the Open Door, but that they could not support orenforce it. Hay's plan had been politely rejected. Nevertheless Hay announced that since all of thepowers had accepted the Open Door in principle, the United States considered their agreement

"final and definitive."

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Fists of Righteous HarmonyWhile the outside powers bickered over who would control China, Tsu Hsi issued an imperial message to all the Chineseprovinces.

The present situation is becoming daily more difficult. The various Powers cast upon uslooks of tiger-like voracity, hustling each other to be first to seize our innermostterritories. . . . Should the strong enemies become aggressive and press us to consent tothings we can never accept, we have no alternative but to rely upon the justice of ourcause. . . . If our . . . hundreds of millions of inhabitants . . . would prove their loyalty totheir emperor and love of their country, what is there to fear from any invader? Let usnot think about making peace.

In northern Shandong province, a devastating drought was pushing people to the edge ofstarvation. Few people there were thinking about making peace. A secret society, known as theFists of Righteous Harmony, attracted thousands of followers. Foreigners called members of thissociety "Boxers" because they practiced martial arts. The Boxers also believed that they had amagical power, and that foreign bullets could not harm them. Millions of "spirit soldiers," they said,would soon rise from the dead and join their cause.

Their cause, at first, was to overthrow the imperial Ch'ing government andexpel all "foreign devils" from China. The crafty empress, however, saw a way to use the Boxers.Through her ministers, she began to encourage the Boxers. Soon a new slogan—"Support theCh'ing; destroy the foreigner!"—appeared upon the Boxers' banner.

In the early months of 1900, thousands of Boxers roamed the countryside. They attacked Christianmissions, slaughtering foreign missionaries and Chinese converts. Then they moved toward thecities, attracting more and more followers as they came. Nervous foreign ministers insisted that theChinese government stop the Boxers. From inside the Forbidden City, the empress told thediplomats that her troops would soon crush the "rebellion." Meanwhile, she did nothing as theBoxers entered the capital.

Foreign diplomats, their families, and staff lived in a compound just outside the Forbidden City'swalls in the heart of Beijing. Working together, they threw up hasty defenses, and with a small

force of military personnel, they faced the Boxer onslaught. One American described the scene as 20,000 Boxers

advanced in a solid mass and carried standards of red and white cloth. Their yells were deafening, whilethe roar of gongs, drums and horns sounded like thunder. . . . They waved their swords and stamped onthe ground with their feet. They wore red turbans, sashes, and garters over blue cloth. [When] theywere only twenty yards from our gate, . . . three volleys from the rifles of our sailors left more than fiftydead upon the ground.

The Boxers fell back but soon returned. Surrounded, the foreigners could neither escape nor sendfor help. For almost two months, they withstood fierce attacks and bombardment. Things began tolook hopeless. Seventy-six defenders lay dead, and many more were wounded. Ammunition, food,and medical supplies were almost gone. Then, shortly before dawn, loud explosions rocked thecity. Weary defenders staggered to the barricades, expecting a final, overpowering Boxer attack.But as a column of armed men approached them, they began to cheer. Help had arrived at last.

After a month of no news from their diplomats, the foreign powers had grown worried. Theyassembled an international relief force of soldiers and sailors from eight countries. The UnitedStates, eager to rescue its ministers and to assert its presence in China, sent a contingent of 2,500sailors and marines. After rescuing another besieged delegation in Tientsin, the international forcemarched to Beijing, fighting Boxers and imperial soldiers along the way.

The international troops looted the capital and even ransacked the Forbidden City. Disguised as apeasant, the empress dowager escaped the city in a cart. She returned to the Forbidden City ayear later, but the power of the Ch'ing dynasty was destroyed forever.

Because it had participated in the campaign, the United States participated in the settlement that

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Panama Canal: Culebra Cut, c. 1910-1920

see President McKinley speaking at the Pan-American Exposition

Teddy Roosevelt's Inaugural Address

Maps of Panama: Access to information and maps about Panama

Large relief map

Abandoned French machinery in Panama, c. 1910-1914

Biographical info about Osmund Osmundsen, a Norwegian immigrant who worked as a ship rigger during the building of the canal. Includes historical photos

Steam shovels digging the Panama Canal

Smithsonian Institution's "Make the Dirt Fly" Panama Canal exhibition

TR Papers at the Library of Congress

followed. Hay called for an expanded "Open Door," not only within the spheres of influence, but in all parts of China. He alsorecommended that the powers preserve China's territory and its government. Other powers agreed, and the Open Doorpolicy allowed foreign access to China's market until World War II closed it once again.

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The Panama CanalPresident Roosevelt

The popular acclaim thatcarried Teddy Roosevelt tothe governorship of NewYork didn't stop there. In1900, Republicans nominated Teddy as PresidentMcKinley's running mate. McKinley won a secondterm, and Teddy was sworn in as vice-president.Six months later, an assassin's bullet killedMcKinley. At age 42, Theodore Roosevelt becamethe nation's youngest president.

Roosevelt assumed theoffice with the same vigor with which he charged up Kettle Hill. A long believer in Captain Mahan'stheory of sea power, Roosevelt began to revitalize the navy. Now that America's empire stretchedfrom the Caribbean across the Pacific, the old idea of a canal between the two oceans took on newurgency. Mahan had predicted that "the canal will become a strategic center of the most vitalimportance," and Teddy agreed.

"The canal," Roosevelt said, "was by far the most important action I took in foreign affairs duringthe time I was President. When nobody could or would exercise efficient authority, I exercised it."

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Joining the WatersIn 1878 Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer who built the Suez Canal, began to dig a canalacross the Isthmus of Panama, which was then part of Colombia. Tropical disease and engineeringproblems halted construction on the canal, but a French business (the New Panama CanalCompany) still held the rights to the project. Roosevelt agreed to pay $40 million for the rights,and he began to negotiate with Colombia for control of the land. He offered $10 million for a fifty-mile strip across the isthmus. Colombia refused.

"We were dealing with a government of irresponsible bandits," Roosevelt stormed. "I was preparedto . . . at once occupy the Isthmus anyhow, and proceed to dig the canal. But I deemed it likelythat there would be a revolution in Panama soon."

Teddy was right. The chief engineer of the New Panama Canal Company organized a local revolt.Roosevelt immediately sent the battleship Nashville and a detachment of marines to Panama to support the newgovernment. The rebels gladly accepted Roosevelt's $10 million offer, and they gave the United States complete control of aten-mile wide canal zone.

Roosevelt ordered army engineers to start digging. Thousands of workers sweated in the malarialheat. They tore up jungles and cut down mountains. Insects thrived in muddy, stagnant pools."Mosquitoes get so thick you get a mouthful with every breath," a worker complained. Themosquitoes also carried yellow fever, and many fell victim to the deadly disease before Dr. WilliamGorgas found a way to stop it.

Some Americans did not approve of Roosevelt's behavior."There was much accusation about my having acted in an'unconstitutional' manner," Teddy shrugged. "I took the isthmus, started the canal, andthen left Congress—not to debate the canal, but to debate me. . . . While the debategoes on, the canal does too; and they are welcome to debate me as long as they wish,provided that we can go on with the canal."

Work did go on. Despite lethal landslides, workers withdynamite and clumsy steam shovels cut their way across acontinent. They built a railroad, three sets of concrete locks,and a huge artificial lake. Nine years later the freighter Anconentered the new channel. Hundreds of construction workershopped aboard for the historic ride. A shiny towing locomotive

pulled the Ancon into the first lock. Bands played and crowds cheered as the ship slipped into the Pacific.

Roosevelt liked to repeat an old African saying: "Speak softly, and carry a big stick. You will go far." In Panama, Teddyproved to the world that he was willing to use his big navy as a stick to further American interests.

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U.S. Intervention in Latin America

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Main business street, Domingo City, San Domingo, c. 1901. The Dominican Republic was another site of U.S. intervention in the early 1900s.

Time line of U.S. intervention in Latin America

The Monroe Doctrine:

Text (plus some background information)

Brief analysis of doctrine

Roosevelt Corollary

Maps of Nicaragua:

Large map

Smaller map of Nicaragua with geographical facts

Another map

"Commodore" Cornelius Vanderbilt

More about William Walker, including a picture

Foreign Intervention in Nicaragua, 1850-68 (Library of Congress) (Index)

More about Adolfo Diaz.

General information about Nicaragua:

Nicaragua Profile (Library of Congress)

Background Notes: Nicaragua

Teddy's LegacyBetween the end of theSpanish-American Warand the dawn of theGreat Depression, theUnited States sent troopsto Latin Americancountries thirty-twotimes. It used theRoosevelt Corollary, oraddition, to the Monroe

Doctrine to justify intervention. In the corollary,Teddy Roosevelt proclaimed that the UnitedStates, because it was a "civilized nation," had the right to stop "chronic wrongdoing" throughout the Western Hemisphere.

"Any country whose people conduct themselves well can count upon our hearty friendship," he said. "Chronic wrongdoing,however, . . . may force the United States to exercise an international police power." Teddy didn't hesitate to use this"police power" to strengthen his country, but he was always careful not to upset the balance of world power.

William Howard Taft, former governor of the Philippines, followed Roosevelt into the White House. Taft believed in economicexpansion, and he introduced a policy called "dollar diplomacy." This policy used diplomacy to advance and protectAmerican businesses in other countries. Taft employed Roosevelt's corollary in Nicaragua and other Latin American countriesto protect American investments.

American businesses had been active in Nicaragua since the 1850s. The lushcountry attracted American fruit growers and mining companies. Others believedthat Nicaragua offered the best site for a canal, and they invested in land.Cornelius Vanderbilt started a company that transported passengers betweenNew York and San Francisco via the Nicaraguan jungle. Shortly afterCommodore Perry opened Japan, Vanderbilt plotted to take control ofNicaragua.

With Vanderbilt's help, a young adventurer named William Walker set out with fifty-seven followersto conquer Nicaragua. A short, freckled man with sharp green eyes, Walker formed an alliance witha group of local rebels and defeated the Nicaraguan forces. He proclaimed himself "commander inchief," and soon thousands of Americans rushed into the country. Many Americans wanted theUnited States to assume direct control of Nicaragua. The government, however, was afraid to upsetthe fragile balance between "free" and "slave" territories.

Walker eventually quarreled with Vanderbilt about the transit company, and soon another revolutiondrove him from power. In 1860 Walker died before a firing squad. American economic involvementin Nicaragua lived on.

Nicaraguans confidently expected the canal, and they gladly accepted loans and payments based onits eventual construction. By 1909 the United States-Nicaraguan Concession was largest Americancompany in Nicaragua. That year the Concession's chief legal counsel, Philander C. Knox, resigned tobecome Taft's Secretary of State. When Nicaragua's ruler cancelled an agreement with one Americanbusiness and threatened the Concession, the company organized another revolution. Adolfo Diaz, aConcession employee, became the new president. Taft quickly recognized the Diaz government.

When still another revolt threatened Diaz, Taft invoked the corollary and ordered American marinesto suppress the rebellion. Then he and Knox worked out a plan to collect the money that Nicaraguaowed to foreign investors. Under the plan, American banks took control of Nicaragua's customscollection. They applied the money they collected directly to the country's debt. The marinesremained in Nicaragua's capital to serve as "international police" and prevent any further revolts.Except for a short period in 1925, they stayed for 21 years.

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The End of an EraThe two decades that sandwiched the turning of the century enclosed a turning point in American history. Despite GeorgeWashington's advice to the contrary, the years saw American interests scatter across the globe. America had flexed itsmuscles, and the world had cowered. But the ease with which America gained its new possessions obscured theresponsibilities that came with them. Dollar diplomacy would soon drag a reluctant America into the muddy trenches of theWestern Front. The "Open Door" welcomed a series of squabbles that later erupted in a mushroom cloud. But few in thatinnocent era could foresee such extraordinary events. Most believed that America was simply following its natural order, itsdestiny.

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