TERRORISM

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE

I. WHAT IS TERRORISM?

A. There is no single, universally accepted definition of

“terrorism,” nor is there ever likely to be.

1. Key aspects of terrorism such as political or ideological motives, violence, targeting noncombatants, the aim of terrorizing, and the goal to modify behavior are relatively clear.

2. Formulating them in a clear, compact, definition has proven to be an enormous challenge.

a. The term "terrorism" is bound up in political controversy because

it is a concept with a very negative connotation.

3. Terrorism implies the killing and maiming of innocent people and no country wantsto be accused of supporting terrorism or harboring terrorist groups.

4. At the same time, no country wants what it considers to be a legitimate use of force

to be considered terrorism.

a. An old saying goes, "One person's terrorist is another person's freedom fighter."

5. Terrorism is not a new concept.

a. It has been a traditional tactic of the weak and has been with us almost since the beginning of recorded history.

(1) In 50 B.C. , Julius Caesar advocated the taking of

hostages to ensure the

obedience of the conquered tribes.

6. The word terrorism actually comes from a Latin word meaning "fear."

7. The word terrorism first came into widespread use during the French Revolution.

a. During the Reign of Terror in 1793-94, over 300,000 people

were arbitrarily arrested and 17,000 were executed without trial.

b. Originally, the leaders of this systematized attempt to weed out "traitors" among the

revolutionary ranks praised terror as the best way to defend liberty. c. As the French Revolution

soured, the word soon took on grim echoes of state violence and guillotines.

B. Terrorism has been used since the beginning of recorded history and yet it can be relatively hard to define.

1. Terrorism has been described variously as:

a. a tactic and strategy; b. a crime and a holy duty; c. a justified reaction to

oppression, and d. an inexcusable outrage.

2. Terrorism has often been an effective tactic for the weaker side in a conflict.

3. Due to the secretive nature and small size of terrorist organizations, they often offer opponents no clear organization to defend against or to deter.

4. In some cases, terrorism has been a means to carry on a conflict without the adversary realizing the nature of the threat, mistaking terrorism for criminal activity.

5. Terrorism has become increasingly common among those pursuing extreme goals throughout the world.

C. Today, there is no universally accepted definition of terrorism. Countries define the term according to their own beliefs and to support their own national interests.

1. Within the United States Government, agencies responsible for different functions in our current fight against terrorism use different definitions.

a. The United States Department of Defense defines terrorism as “the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political religious, or ideological.”

b. The FBI uses: "Terrorism is the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives."

c. The U.S. Department of State defines "terrorism" to be "premeditated politically - motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended

to influence an audience.

2. Outside the United States Government, there are greater variations in what features of terrorism are emphasized

in definitions.

a. United Nations: "acts intended to cause death or serious bodily

harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international

organization to do or abstain from doing any act."

b. Albania: "Terrorism is a scourge that takes innocent lives, threatens values

of humanity, human rights and freedoms and impedes

development and world progress.

c. Israel: "The indiscriminate murder of innocent civilians to advance political or religious objectives is terrorism, not matter how its apologists seek to label

it.

D. Terrorism does not attempt to challenge government forces directly, but acts to change perceptions as to the effectiveness or legitimacy of the government itself.

1. This is done by ensuring the widest possible knowledge of the acts

of terrorist violence among the target audience.

2. Rarely will terrorists attempt to "control" terrain, as it ties them to identifiable locations and reduces their mobility

and security.

3. Terrorists as a rule avoid direct confrontations with government

forces.

a. They can and will target military or security forces, but that they will not engage in anything resembling a "fair fight", or even a "fight" at all.

4. Bombings and mortar attacks on civilian targets where military or security personnel spend off-duty time, ambushes of undefended convoys, and assassinations of poorly protected individuals are common tactics.

E. Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate victim.

1. The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that

draws the attention of the local populace, the government, and the world to their cause.

2. The terrorists plan their attack to obtain the greatest publicity, choosing targets that symbolize what they oppose.

3. The effectiveness of the terrorist act lies

not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s reaction to the act.

a. In 1972 at the Munich Olympics, the Black September Organization killed 11 Israelis. (1) The Israelis were the immediate

victims.

(2) The true target was the estimated one billion people watching the

televised event.

F. There are three perspectives of terrorism: the terrorist’s, the victims, and the general publics.

1. The phrase “one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter”

is a view terrorists themselves would accept.

a. Terrorists do not see themselves as evil.

(1) They believe they are legitimate combatants, fighting for what they believe in, by whatever means

possible.

2. A victim of a terrorist act sees the terrororistas a criminal with no regard for human life.

3. The general public’s view is the most unstable.

a. Terrorists take great pains to foster a “Robin Hood” image in hope of swaying the general public’s point of view toward their cause.

II. TERRORISM IN THE 20TH CENTURY

A. The first half of the 20th century saw two events that influenced the nature of conflict to the present day.

The effects of two World Wars inflame passions and hopes of nationalists throughout the world, and severely damaged the legitimacy of the international order and governments.

1. Nationalism intensified during the early 20th century throughout the world.

a. It became an especially powerful force in the subject peoples of various colonial empires.

b. Although dissent and resistance were common in many colonial possessions, and sometimes resulted in open warfare, nationalist identities became a focal point for these actions.

2. Gradually, as nations became closely tied to concepts of race and ethnicity,

international political developments began to support such concepts. a. Members of ethnic groups whose

states had been absorbed by others or had ceased to exist as separate nations saw opportunities to realize nationalist ambitions.

(1) Several of these groups chose terror

as a method to conduct their struggle and make their situation known to world powers they hoped would be sympathetic.

B. The "total war" practices of all combatants of World War II provided further justification for the "everybody does it" view of the use of terror and violations of the law of war.

1. The desensitization of people and communities to violence that started in World War I accelerated during World War II.

2. New weapons and strategies that targeted the enemies' civilian population to destroy their economic

capacity for conflict exposed virtually every civilian to the hazards of combatants.

3. The major powers' support of and resistance organizations using terrorist tactics partisan was viewed as an acceptance of their legitimacy.

C. Throughout the Cold War, the Soviet Union provided direct and indirect assistance to revolutionary movements around the world.

1. Many anti-colonial movements found the revolutionary extremism of communism attractive.

a. Leaders of these "wars of national liberation" saw the advantage of free weapons and training.

2. Many of these organizations and individuals utilized terrorism in support of their political and military objectives.

3. The policy of the Soviet Union

was to support revolutionary struggles against democracy everywhere.

a. They exported revolution to non-communist countries.

b. They provided extremists willing to employ violence and terror the means to realize their ambitions.

D. The age of modern terrorism might be said to have begun in 1968 when the

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine hijacked an El Al airliner en route from Tel Aviv to Rome.

1. While hijackings of airliners had occurred before, this was the first time that the nationality of the carrier (Israeli) and its symbolic value was a specific operational aim.

a. Also a first was the deliberate use of the passengers as hostages for demands made publicly against the Israeli government.

b. The combination of these unique events, added to the international scope of the operation, and gained significant media attention.

2. Another aspect of this internationalization is the cooperation between extremist

organizations in conducting terrorist operations.

III. TERRORIST BEHAVIOR

A. There is clearly a wide choice of definitions for terrorism, however there are elements in common among the majority of useful definitions that identify terrorism as:

1. POLITICAL: A terrorist act is a political act or is committed with the intention to cause a political effect.

a. "War is a continuation of policy by

other means" is a belief supported by terrorists.

b. Terrorists merely eliminate the intermediate step of armies and warfare, and apply violence directly to the political contest.

2. PSYCHOLOGICAL: The intended results of terrorist acts cause a psychological effect ("terror").

a. Terrorists acts are aimed at a target audience other than the actual

victims of the act.

b. The intended target audience of the terrorist act may be the population as a whole, some specific portion of a society, or decision-making elites in the society's political, social, or military populace.

3. COERCIVE: Violence and destruction are used in the commission of the act to produce the desired effect. a. Even if casualties or

destruction are not the result of a terrorist operation, the threat or potential of violence

is what produces the intended effect.

(1) For exampleFor example, a successful hostage taking operation may result in all

hostages being freed unharmed after negotiations and bargaining.

(2) The terrorist bargaining chips were nothing less than the raw threat of applying violence to maim or kill some or all of the hostages.

4. DYNAMIC: Terrorist groups demand change, revolution, or political movement. a. The radical worldview that justifies

terrorism mandates drastic action to destroy or alter the status quo.

b. The goals of a terrorist movement require

action to "turn back the clock" or restore some cherished value system that is

extinct.

(1) Nobody commits violent attacks on strangers or innocents to keep things

"just the way they are."

5. DELIBERATE: Terrorism is an activity planned and intended to achieve

particular goals. a. It is a rationally employed,

specifically selected tactic, and is not a random act.

b. The victim or target selection can appear random or unprovoked butis not a random act.

c. The target will contain symbolic value or be capable of eliciting emotional response according to the

terrorists' goals.

b. The victim or target selection can

appear random or unprovoked butis not a random act.

6. MEDIA EXPLOITATION: Terrorism's effects are not necessarily aimed at the

victims of terrorist violence. a. Victims are usually objects to be

exploited by the terrorists for their effect on a third party.

(1) In order to produce this effect, information of the attack must reach the target audience.

b. Terrorist organizations plan to exploit available media to get their message to the right audiences.

c. Victims are simply the first medium that transmits the psychological impact to the larger target audience.

(1) For the victims of a terrorist attack, it is a certainty that the impact

on the survivors (if there are any) is of minimal importance to the terrorists.

d. Terrorists often provide names and details of individual victims to control the news media through its desire to humanize or personalize a story.

(2) What is important is the intended psychological impact that the news of their death or suffering will cause in a wider audience.

IV. GOALS AND MOTIVATIONS OF TERRORISTS

A. Ideology and motivation strongly influence the objectives of terrorist operations, especially regarding the casualty rate.

1. Groups with secular ideologies and non-religious goals will often attempt highly selective and discriminate acts of violence to achieve a specific political aim.

a. This often requires them to keep casualties at the minimum amount necessary to attain the objective.

b. This is both to avoid a backlash that might severely damage the

organization, and also maintain the appearance of being a rational group that has legitimate

grievances.

B. Religiously oriented groups typically attempt to inflict as many casualties as possible. 1. Because of the apocalyptic frame

of reference they use, loss of life is irrelevant, and more casualties are better.

2. Losses among their co-religionists are of

little account, because such casualties will reap the benefits of the afterlife.

3. Non-believers, whether they

are the intended target or collateral damage, deserve death, and killing them may

be considered a moral duty.

4. Fear of backlash rarely concerns these groups, as it is often one of their goals to provoke overreaction by their enemies and hopefully widen the conflict.

C. The type of target selected will often reflect motivations and ideologies.

1. Groups professing secular political or social motivations, select targets that are highly symbolic of authority;

a. government offices,

b. banks,

c. national airlines, and d. multinational corporations with

direct relation to the established order.

2. They conduct attacks on representative individuals whom they associate with economic exploitation, social injustice, or political repression.

D. Another common form of symbolism utilized in terrorist targeting is striking on national holidays or commemorative dates.

V. THE INTENT OF TERRORIST GROUPS

A. A terrorist group commits acts of violence to:

1. Produce widespread fear.

2. Obtain worldwide, national,

or local recognition for their cause by attracting the

attention of the media.

3. Harass, weaken, or embarrass government security forces so

that the government overreacts and appears repressive.

4. Steal or extort money and equipment,

especially weapons and ammunition vital to

the operation of their group.

5. Destroy facilities or disrupt lines of communication in order to create

doubt that the government can provide for and protect its citizens.

6. Discourage foreign investments, tourism, or assistance programs that can affect the target country’s economy and support of the government in power.

7. Influence government decisions, legislation, or other critical decisions.

8. Free criminal, political or religious prisoners

9. Satisfy a desire for vengeance.

B. The most common types of terrorist incidents include: 1. Bombings are the most common

type of terrorist act. a. Typically, improvised

explosive devices are inexpensive and easy to make.

b. Modern devices are smaller and are harder to detect.

c. They contain very destructive capabilities.

(1) On August 7, 1998, two American embassies in Africa were bombed.

(2) The bombings claimed the lives of over 200 people and injured over 5,000 civilians.

d. Terrorists can also use materials that are readily available to the average consumer to construct a bomb.

2. Terrorists use kidnapping and hostage taking to establish a bargaining position and to elicit publicity.

a. Kidnapping is one of the most difficultacts for a terrorist group to accomplish.

(1) If a kidnapping is successful, it can gain terrorists money, release of jailed comrades, and publicity for an extended period.

b. Hostage-taking involves the seizure of a facility or location and the taking of

hostages.

(1) Unlike a kidnapping, hostage taking provokes a confrontation with authorities.

(2) It forces authorities to either make dramatic decisions or to comply with the terrorist’s demands.

(3) It is overt and designed to attract and hold media attention.

(4) The terrorists’ intended target is the audience affected by the hostage’s confinement, not the hostage.

3. Armed attacks and assassinations.

a. Armed attacks include raids and ambushes.

b. Assassinations are the killing of

a selected victim, usually by use of a bomb or the use of small arms.

(1) Drive-by shootings is a common technique employed by unsophisticated or loosely organized terrorist groups. (2) Historically, terrorists have assassinated specific individuals for psychological effect.

4. Arson and fire bombing are easily conducted by terrorist groups that may not be as well-organized, equipped, or trained as a major terrorist organization. a. Incendiary devices are

cheap and easy to hide.

b. Committing arson or firebombing against a utility, hotel, government building, or industrial center portrays an image that the ruling government is incapable of maintaining order.

5. Hijackings and Skyjackings

a. Hijacking is the seizure by force of a surface vehicle, its passengers, and/or its cargo.

b. Skyjacking is the taking of an aircraft, which creates a mobile, hostage barricade situation.

(1) It provides terrorists with hostages from many nations and draws heavy media attention.

(2) Skyjacking also provides mobility for the terrorists to relocate the aircraft to a country that supports their cause and provides them with a human shield, making retaliation difficult.

6. Other types of terrorist incidents

a. Cyberterrorism allows terrorists to conduct their operations with little or no risk to themselves by relying on computer networks to relay information and provide connectivity to today’s modern

world.

(1) It also provides terrorists an opportunity to disrupt or destroy networks and computers.

(2) The result is interruption of key government or business-related activities.

(3) This type of terrorism isn’t as high profile as other types of terrorist attacks, but its impact is just as destructive.

b. Historically, terrorist attacks using nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons have been rare or not

attempted yet.

(1) Due the extremely high number of casualties that these types of

weapons may produce, they are also referred to as weapons of mass destruction (WMD).

(2) A number of nations are involved in arms races with neighboring

countries because they view the development of WMD as a key deterrent of attack by hostile neighbors.

(3) The increased development of WMD also increases the potential for terrorist groups to gain access to these weapons.

VI. TERRORIST GROUPS

A. The organizational structure of a group determines its strengths and weaknesses.

1. A general knowledge of the

prevalent models of terrorist organizations leads to a better

understanding of their capabilities.

2. The popular image of a terrorist group operating according to a specific political agenda and motivated by an ideology or the desire for ethnic or national liberation has dominated our understanding of

terrorism in the past.

a. While still true of some terrorist organizations, this image is no

longer universally valid.

B. The smallest elements of terrorist organizations are the cells that serve as building blocks for the terrorist organization.

1. One of the primary reasons for a cellular structure is security.

a. The compromise or loss of one cell should not compromise the identity, location, or actions

of other cells.

2. A cellular organizational structure makes it difficult for an adversary to penetrate the entire organization.

a. Personnel within one cell are often unaware of the existence of other cells and, therefore, cannot divulge sensitive information to infiltrators.

C. Terrorists may organize cells based on family or employment relationships, on ageographic basis, or by specific functions such as direct action and intelligence.

1. The terrorist group may also form multifunctional cells.

a. The terrorist group uses the cells to

control its members.

b. Cell members remain in close contact with each other to provide emotional support and to prevent desertion or breach of security procedures.

2. The cell leader is normally the only person who will communicate and coordinate with higher levels and

other cells.

D. A terrorist group may form only one cell or may form many cells that operate

locally or internationally. 1. The number of cells and their

composition depend on the size of the terrorist group.

a. A terrorist group operating within one country frequently have fewer cells

and specialized teams than does an international terrorist group that

may operate in several countries.

VII. CATEGORIES OF TERRORIST GROUPS

A. Categories of terrorism and terrorist groups serve to identify terrorist organizations according to specific criteria, which are usually related to

the field or specialty of whoever is selecting the categories.

1. Separatist. Separatist groups are those with the goal of separation from existing entities through independence, political autonomy, or religious freedom or

domination.

a. The ideologies separatists subscribe to include social justice or equity, anti-imperialism, as well as the resistance to conquest or occupation by a foreign power.

2. Ethnocentric. Groups with this view see race as the defining characteristic of a society, and therefore a basis of cohesion.

a. There is usually the attitude that a particular group is superior because of their inherent racial characteristics.

3. Nationalistic. The loyalty and devotion to a nation, and the national consciousness derived from placing one nation's culture

and interests above those of other nations or groups.

a. This can find expression in the creation of a new nation, or in

splitting away part of an existing state to join with another that shares the perceived "national"

identity.

4. Revolutionary. Dedicated to the overthrow of an established order and replacing it with a new political or social structure.

a. Although often associated with communist political ideologies, this is not always the case, and

other political movements can advocate revolutionary

methods to achieve their goals.

5. Religious. Religiously inspired terrorism on the rise, with a forty-five percent

increase of total international terror groups supporting religious motivation between 1980 and 2007. a. Islamic terrorists and

organizations have been the most active, and the greatest

recent threat to the United States.

b. All of the major world religions have extremists that have taken up violence to further their perceived religious goals.

c. Religiously motivated terrorists see their objectives as holy writ, and therefore infallible and non-negotiable.

6. Domestic. These terrorists are "home-grown“ and operate within

and against their home country.

a. They are frequently tied to

extreme social or political factions within a particular

society, and focus their efforts specifically on their nation's socio-political arena.

7. International or Transnational. Often describing the support and operational reach of a group, these terms are often loosely defined, and can be applied to

widely different capabilities.

a. International groups typically operate in multiple countries, but retain a

geographic focus for their activities.(1) Hezbollah has cells worldwide,

and has conducted operations in multiple countries, but is primarily concerned with events in Lebanon and Israel.

b. Transnational groups operateinternationally, but are not tied to

a particular country or even region. (1) Al Qaeda is transnational; being made

up of many nationalities and having been based out of

multiple countries simultaneously.

(2) Al Qaeda conducts operations throughout the world.

(3) Their objectives affect dozens of countries with differing political systems, religions, ethnic compositions and national interests.

VIII. THE EVOLUTION OF TERRORISM

A. While at the surface terrorism remains "the calculated use

of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate

fear…" it is rapidly becoming the predominant strategic

tool of our adversaries.

1. As terrorism evolves into the principal irregular warfare strategy of the 21st century, it is adapting to changes in the world socio-political

environment.

a. Some of these changes facilitate

the abilities of terrorists to operate, procure funding, and develop new capabilities.

b. Other changes are gradually moving terrorism into a different relationship with the world at large.

2. In order to put these changes into context, it will be necessary to look

at the historical evolution of terrorism, with each succeeding evolution building upon techniques pioneered by others. a. This evolution is driven

by ongoing developments in the nature of conflict and international relations.

b. It is also necessary to consider some of the possible causes of future conflicts, in order to understand the actors and their

motivations.

c. Finally, we examine how terrorism will be integrated into this evolution of conflict, and what that will mean for United States military forces.

3. When describing the evolution of terrorism and the use of terror through history, it is

essential to remember that forms of society and government in the past were significantly different than they are today.

a. The lack of central governments made it impossible to use terror as a method of affecting a political change, as there was no single dominant political authority.

IX. FUTURE TRENDS IN TERRORISM

A. As conflict flourishes in the modern information age, terrorism continues to adapt to meet the challenges of emerging forms of

conflict, and exploit developments in

technology and society.

1. Terrorism has demonstrated increasing abilities to adapt to counter-terrorism measures and political failure.

a. Terrorists are developing new capabilities of attack and

improving the efficiency of existing methods.

2. Terrorist groups have shown significant progress in escaping from a subordinate role in nation-state conflicts.

a. They are becoming more prominent

as international influences in their own right.

this concludes

Terrorism