Evolution of automobiles and their impact on society

TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

TOSHAN MAJUMDAR

INTRODUCTION:-

The anthropological viewpoint of society shows technology as not having its own intrinsic existence but being born out of certain socio-cultural requirements. This is true of the automobile also since no technological product or service cannot exist in vacuum and are impacted by the culture and society in which it exists.

Automobiles were born out of the socio-cultural need of man to gain mobility and remove the redundancies and problems associated with horse carriages. Horse carriages were the previous mode of transport but were slowly proving inefficient and limited human mobility. Thus the desire to make it less cumbersome led to the transformation of horse to horse power of engines.

The advent of the automobile evolution was impacted by prevailing social needs and it has evolved and transformed through the ages due to significant changes in society and mindsets and to stay relevant in the minds of the users. At the same time it has also impacted other socio cultural needs which led to other technological innovations. A major socio cultural factor influencing automobiles has been changing consumer preferences in addition to fulfilling more additional needs. Therefore the automobile has seen a lot of changes. Changes in morals, values, changing gender roles and fashion have dictated changes to which the automobile has responded with newer innovations.

FORD T MODEL : EXAMPLE OF CHAIN OPERATOIRE:-

The successful implementation of the assembly line production technique by Henry Ford in 1914 to produce the Ford T- Model car was one of the main reasons for the incredible growth of the automobile industry worldwide and the subsequent rise of oil and gasoline companies. It also dramatically revolutionized the concept of manufacturing worldwide as various departments as seen in shipbuilding and aircraft industries during the world wars even though the assembly line production technique existed during the industrial revolution.

Principles of production:

Henry Ford perfected the production model by implementing the following principles:

(1) Place the tools and the men in the sequence of the operation so that each component part shall travel the least possible distance while in the process of finishing.

(2) Use work slides or some other form of carrier so that when a workman completes his operation, he drops the part always in the same convenient place

(3) Use sliding assembling lines by which the parts to be assembled are delivered at convenient distances.

(Principles of 'Fordism' , noted by Antonio Gramsci, in his essay "Americanism and Fordism", 1934)

Henry Ford posing with the first Ford T Model

Assembly Line Chain Operatoire:

The inspiration behind the assembly line concept came in the form of a visit to the Swift & Company's slaughterhouse in Chicago by William Klann and Henry Ford who noticed the efficiency of the butchering process as meat moved along the conveyor. Ford established a new production plant exclusively for the Ford T model in Highland Park, Michigan in 1910 and installed gravity slides that facilitated the movement of parts from one work area to the next. The construction of the plant was also done in such a way so as to incorporate and expand newer methods of production.

The moving assembly line was a continuous belt of chains and links which allowed the model T parts to move seamlessly through the assembly process. The manufacturing process was divided into 84 steps were specialized workers would individually deal with each process and then the product would be passed on to the next process. Parts were created in mass quantities and then brought directly to the workers who were trained to work at that specific assembly station. One of the main strengths of the T model production was the use of interchangeable parts which meant that that every Model T produced on that line used the exact same valves, gas tanks, tires, etc. so that they could be assembled in a speedy and organized fashion. Thus all parts were created in mass quantities and then provided t the workers who were specifically trained in a particular task such as screwing bolts, painting, etc. Other workers brought additional parts to the assemblers to keep them stocked; this reduced the amount of time workers spent away from their stations to retrieve parts. Thus the repetitive tasks of the workers significantly decreased the assembly time per vehicle and increased the profit margins.

Ford T Model assembly line as an example of chain operatoire

Impact of Production Technique on Workers:

Due to Ford's visionary production technique, the T model cars were being produced at three minute intervals. This was the fastest production time as compared to previous existing methods and by 1914 Ford produced more cars than all other automakers combined .As the production time decreased to 93 minutes (by a factor of eight), the amount of manpower also decreased which drastically reduced the price of the product. Ford also implemented a useful strategy of increased worker wages so that they would in turn buy the cars and have a significant impact on auto sales. This ensured their loyalty towards the company as well as a growing consumer base.

Impact of Production Technique On Society and Economy:

The Model T was a great commercial success, and by the time Henry made his 10 millionth car, 50 percent of all cars in the world were Fords. Introduced in 1908, The ford T model accounted for 56 percent of global automobile production by 1927. Initially the Ford was priced at 850$ but reduced to 365$ in 1925 on perfection of the production system. Thus Henry Ford was able to fulfill his promise of producing practical, affordable transportation for the common man and it quickly became prized for its low cost, durability, versatility, and ease of maintenance by the middle class. In a way Henry Ford freed the common people from the limitations of geography as now the car was being used to bridge various socio-economic disparities and helped overcome the limitations of the horse drawn carriages. Thus society became more interconnected as the car provided people with freedom and mobility to visit their relatives, go to work and further expand their businesses.

SYTLE AND DESIGN:

Automobile designing and styling had been greatly impacted by the work of Harley Earl, who was the chief automobile stylist for General Motors from 1927 to 1957.Earl was already famous in the 1920's for modifying and redesigning cars of the rich and famous in Hollywood. He was immensely inspired by the designs of world war fighter planes and used creative colors and futuristic body designs. There was a radical shift in the tone of car body designs from the drab colors of black, brown, dark green, and occasionally navy blue which represented the great American Depression to bright dazzling colors in the form of two tone paint jobs and the addition of tail fins in cars such as the 1948 Cadillac which were supposedly inspired by the P-38 fighter plane. Thus according to Earl," The cockpit of an airplane could serve as the conceit for the car’s instrument panel; air scoops could be dummied up to conjure the speeds that were then threatening to surpass the sound barrier and every man could be his own fighter pilot !". It was this initial vision and the positive reception to Earl’s Cadillac that began the automotive culture movement.

After the 1948 Cadillac’s enormous success, Earl increased the fin size and other designers and divisions of General Motors followed suit: the Oldsmobile in 1949, the Buick in 1952. In 1955, Chrysler added fins on its quarter panels followed by Ford in 1957.

This design revolution became apparent by the late 1950's where assembly lines rolled out cars after cars with distinctive features such as 'frenched headlights', 'toothy chrome grilles' and use of cubic zirconium as a physical adornment. American designers portrayed the automobile as 'the car of the future' with many of their inspirations centered around the combination of military and sex as seen by the designs which were in “full regalia of fantasy bullets and bombs, breasts, portholes and jets, spears and wings.” These stylish features were

Left 1 (1946): Ford, "Drab, Pre War Design"

Right 2: P-38 Airplane upon which Earl based his fin design

Left 3: Harley Earl's 1948 Cadillac

Right 4: The Evolution of the Tail Fin under Harley Earl

Left 5: The "Garish" Tail Fins of a 1959 Chevrolet

actually cheaper carbon copies of wealthier car models and were available at reasonable prices to the middle class public.

VOLKSWAGEN CASE STUDY (REINTRODUCTION OF FAMILIAR DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY)

The Volkswagen 'Bug' Beetle is a classic example of a rise and subsequent fall of an economically feasible technological product followed by its re introduction into society based on popular socio- cultural demands. Adolf Hitler envisioned the concept of the common man's car that would be mass produced and could carry a German family of five at 100kph along the country’s new autobahns. It was estimated to cost 990 Reich Marks, which represented 31 weeks’ pay for the average German worker in 1936, making it cheaper than the £100 Fords being made in England. To implement his vision for a family friendly, cost efficient as well as technologically safe car, Hitler contacted Ferdinand Porsche in April 1934 to develop a prototype working model for the "Volkswagen' which when translated in German means 'people's car'. The final working prototype Volkswagen V3 entered final testing stages under the guidance of Dr. Porsche as the Fuehrer publicly announced its existence at the Automobile Exhibition in 1938. Interestingly no British car manufacturer was interested producing the Volkswagen model. An official report summed up their fears: "the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car ... it is quite unattractive to the average buyer ... To build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise." The iconic car model was set to take the automobile industry by storm but its popularity was hindered by the events of world war II. Factories built for producing the Volkswagen were diverted for wartime production and the sale of Volkswagen steadily declined. It soon became a relic of Nazi propaganda and was forgotten.

The Volkswagen model was re introduced in the United States by the New York agency Doyle Dane Bernbach who launched the very innovative and creative ‘Think Small’ advertising campaign. Eventually , the Beetle

became the biggest selling foreign-made car in America throughout the ’60s even overtaking the production rate of Henry Ford’s Model-T when the 15,007,034th Beetle rolled off the line at Wolfsburg in 1972. The car which began as Furher's pet project that would revolutionize the automobile industry and establish the strength of the Nazi regime was quickly adopted by Californian surfers, college kids and free hippies and also became an iconic symbol of fun, creativity and personal freedom as shown in a string of Hollywood movies such as Herbie, The love Bug etc.

Dr Ferdinand Porsche showcasing the Volkswagen Beetle design to Hitler

CAR RACING HISTORY AND CULTURE

Racing culture is very prominent among the present generation and society and is widely depicted in popular forms of art and media such as movies, TV shows, race broadcasts, etc. The development and consolidation of car racing culture closely mirrors the advancements in car manufacturing technology. Racing cars are explicitly associated with the idea of progress, because the novelties tested on the track are supposed to be the makings of tomorrow’s car. In the late 1960s, sports cars were supposed to attract girls, but they also epitomized several of the ideas or myths then associated with cars: speed, freedom, technological ability, muscle power and male chauvinism. (Shakleford 1999)

The world's first motor racing competition was held in France, 1894 by the chief editor of Le Petit Journal, Pierre Giffard. It was advertised as a reliability test for the various cars produced by car manufacturers such as Peugeot, Panhard and De Dion. The race consisted of 69 cars racing a distance of 50 km that began from Porte Malliot and ended at Bois de Boulogne. The winning racer Jules-Albert de Dion completed the race in 6 hours and 48 minutes at an average speed of 19 km/h. The audience enjoyed the exhibition and slowly auto racing ,as a recreational sport, entered the global stage.

There was also a noticeable shift in the car manufacturing and designing process. Multiple car manufacturing companies saw the market potential and started investing in the racing industry. Before the 1920's, since racing was an experimental trend or an engineering hobby, modified passenger cars and stripped production models were mostly used by drivers to conduct the racing events. As popularity grew during the 1920's (also referred to as the golden age of American race cars) and dedicated racecar models began to outperform other models and proved superior , car companies established separate divisions to focus primarily on producing race cars having distinct characteristics such as streamlined bodies, powerful engines and specialized tires. Race tracks with oval curves were being built throughout the world to conduct racing events and attract audiences. Race cars were

now viewed as amalgamations of art and world-class engineering and slowly a large global fan base for car racing grew everywhere. Since racing pushed the limits of the cars as well as their drivers, various safety regulations were introduced such as seat belts, improved chassis design, protective head gear and gloves, etc. to prevent serious injuries and damage.

Nowadays race cars are built by competing multinational car companies such as Lamborghini, Ferrari, Bugati using latest engine technology and aerodynamically engineered car models built with the help of computer aided designs and tested in wind tunnels. The materials used to build racecars include carbon fiber composite for the chassis for lightweight and flexibility. The average weight of race cars has reduced from 2500 pounds to 1600 pounds within 75 years while average maximum speeds has increased from 6- mph to 100-140 mph.

TYPES OF RACING:

1)Open Wheel Racing

Also known as formula one racing, it is the most popular form of automobile racing worldwide. Specially designed cars with single seater capacity, exposed wheels and aerofoil front and rear wings (to produce downward adhesion) along with powerful engines are used by drivers who compete with each other in oval curved race tracks known as 'circuits'.

2)Rallying

Rallying, also known as rally racing, is a form of auto racing that takes place on public or private roads with modified production or specially built road-legal cars. This type of racing is distinguished from other forms by its point-to-point format in which participants and their co-drivers drive between set control points (special stages), leaving at regular intervals from one or more start points. Distinct race terrains vary from asphalt mountain passes to rough forest tracks, from ice and snow to desert sand, each chosen to provide an enjoyable challenge for the race crew and a test of the car's performance and reliability. Some of the world famous car annual rallies are DARPA Grand Challenge, Dakar Rally, which traditionally runs from Paris through the North African desert to Dakar, Senegal, and Daytona 500.

3)Drag Racing

In drag racing a maximum of two racers compete against each other in specially built car models known as 'dragsters' to complete a

straight line distance traditionally being ¼ mile (400 m) or ⅛ mile (200 m) in the shortest interval of time. Drag car racing was introduced by CJ Hart who established a drag circuit in The Mojave Desert, California in 1950. The race usually lasts for about 4 - 5 seconds with the cars accelerating to a maximum speed of 333mph.

CAR DESIGNS INSPIRED BY NATURE (NATURFACT)

Nature provides a constant source of inspiration for artists and engineers to create new designs which are both functional as well as artistic as in the case of Leonardo Da Vinci who observed the working of birds and insects and tried to invent flying machines. Millions of years of evolution has meant that the plants and animals we see today have perfectly adapted to their environment, diets, and lifestyles. Engineers can greatly benefit from observing and recording how the natural world adapts to its surroundings. Using nature’s techniques to improve technology and design will mean that human engineering can go above and beyond nature’s limitations.

The following cars are a few examples of such experimental endeavors in automobile engineering were engineers have based their car designs on natural inspirations to either overcome structural constraints or for inspirational designs:

Stout Scarab (1930-1936)

The Stout Scarab was a U.S automobile manufactured and produced in small numbers by Stout Engineering Laboratories and later by Stout Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan. The car was named after its creator William Bushnell Stout who was a motorcar and aviation engineer and journalist. He envisioned his traveling automobile to be an office on wheels and based the car on beetle-inspired aerodynamics of the scarab beetle and also used the ancient Egyptian Scarab hieroglyphic as an ornament between its headlights. The Scarab was a revolutionary model and was the world's first car with a fiberglass body shell and air suspension and is credited with being the inspiration behind the minivan with characteristic features such as very short, streamlined nose and tapering upper body at the rear. However due to high costs and the contemporary tastes of people calling it 'ugly', only 9 models were built.

Chevrolet Mako Shark Car(1962-1968)

The XP-755 also known as the Chevrolet Shark Car was a concept car built by Chevrolet in the 1960's by designer Bill Mitchell. The car design was based on a shark of the same name, using the streamlining and distinctive pointed snout as inspiration. The car was a tremendous success on the auto show circuit, and despite not going into production, inspired similar design elements in other cars like the 1963 Chevrolet Corvette.

Porsche 911 Classic (1964-1989)

The original Porsche 911 was a luxury sports car made by Porsche AG of Stuttgart, Germany specifically for racing, rallying and other types of automotive competition. The famous, distinctive, and durable design introduced in autumn 1963 included headlights which were inspired by the eyes of the Panamian red-eyed Tree

Frog.

Mercedes Benz bionic (2005)

The Mercedes-Benz Bionic was a concept car created by DaimlerChrysler AG under the Mercedes Group. It was first introduced in 2005 at the DaimlerChrysler Innovation Symposium in Washington, D. C. The aerodynamically efficient cube-shaped structure of the car was inspired by the boxfish. The unusual-looking boxfish is extremely aerodynamic and can therefore swim underwater using a minimal amount of energy. It is also able to withstand high pressures and, thanks to an outer skin consisting of hexagonal bone plates which provides the fish with rigidity, protection and maneuverability. By mimicking this boxy shape, Mercedes Benz engineers were able to achieve a record-breaking drag coefficient and also managed to lower fuel consumption by 20%, and lessen nitrogen oxide emissions by 80%.

Mc Laren P1 Prototype (2012)

The McLaren P1 is a limited production plug-in hybrid sport car produced by British automotive manufacturer McLaren Automotive. This concept car debuted at the 2012 Paris Motor Show. Its high speed and horsepower output is credited to its unique structural design being inspired from the sailfish which is known to be one of the ocean’s fastest creatures.

The sailfish is able to swim at recorded speeds of 68 mph. It's incredible swimming speed is attributed to its evolutionary adaptations of scales. Each sailfish is covered in scales in a specific pattern which creates lots of little whirlpools of air, encasing the fish in a small pocket or bubble. This bubble increases the fish’s aerodynamics by reducing drag, allowing the fish to swim quicker through the water.

The designers at McLaren Automotive incorporated this unique natural design into their cars by applying the same texture as the scales of the sailfish to the interior of the in the air intake ducts thus increasing the volume of air entering the engine by 17% and drastically improving the car's efficiency and making it more aerodynamic.

IMPACT OF CARS ON SOCIETY AND THEIR ROLE AS URBAN IDENTITY

With the advent of the twentieth century, from a mere status symbol of the rich, the car became a standard of transport in developed and developing countries. This introduced a lot of widespread changes. Urban planning was impacted drastically. In addition to infrastructure funding, automobile utilization also influenced zoning laws a and pre planned parking spaces in both business as well as personal domains. There was also an increased auto dependency where people used the car for travelling short distances instead of walking, cycling. improved transport encouraged the development of suburbs and reduced the disparities among urban and rural societies. factory workers now had a choice to live in residential areas instead of living near factory premises. Another change was that now modern urban pedestrians had to be more alert when walking than their ancestors. This led to the construction of cable cars, subways, separate pedestrian side lanes. This revolution in mobility continued as tourism started using cars as a mode of transport.

As cities became more interconnected and the length of the roadways increased, it became necessary to provide additional support for the automobiles as well as their human occupants. This is evident in the growth and establishment of roadside motels, privately owned restaurants and convenience stores where the car owners could relax and get refresh from their tiring road journey, as well as refueling gas stations and petrol pumps where car owners could find car maintenance services. Slowly people and companies started seeing this as a lucrative business venture which led to the growth of multipurpose fast food chains and franchised convenience stores such as Mc donell's , In and Out, Highway Inn which catered to the diverse needs of car owners. These companies employed various advertising strategies which targeted the car owners such as street side bill boards which would be visible while driving and broadcast advertisements on the radio which could be heard on the car radios.

As worldwide societies started adopted cars as the primary mode of transport facilitated by the reducing prices and the rise of government policies favoring the middle class, the need to include roadways and various other supporting infrastructure for auto mobiles became apparent. The world became witness to enormous engineering feats which defined the look of various modern cities such as Chicago, New York, Tokyo, Mumbai, London and included extensively connected flyovers, breathtaking bridges and unending expressways. A dramatic example of this transformation is the construction of the twin Marina towers in Chicago in 1959. The towers were constructed to accommodate 450 apartments with parking lots for 450 cars in the lower third of the building. Roadway construction reached a new high when automobile manufacturers, petroleum fuel suppliers, hotel chain operators, joint construction contractors lobbied the government to provide better infrastructure for their construction and maintenance. An example of this would be European social democratic governments who started the European Massive Freeway building programs to create job opportunities and make the car affordable to working classes. In 1989 Margaret Thatcher mentioned the development of a "great car economy" in a paper entitled roads for prosperity. The increasing levels of

traffic as well as connectivity requirements spawned a standardized system for traffic rules and regulations to be followed by every car owner.

DETRIMENTAL IMPACT OF CARS ON SOCIETY AND ENVIRONMENT

For more than a century, motor vehicles have provided people with reliable transportation but it has definitely impacted environment in a detrimental manner. The functioning of the automobile engine and its various processes such as combustion are one of the main sources of toxic fumes such nitrous dioxide and carbon monoxide responsible for air pollution and various respiratory health issues. In fact, the phenomenon of global warming is generally credited to automobile exhausts as it is being produced in large quantities by the ever increasing popularity of cars and dwindling process. The excessive use of horns by car owners are also a prominent reason of noise pollution and disturbing the harmony of family and personal life. Various automobile manufacturing plants are also known to violate numerous environmental norms by releasing untreated wastes into natural water bodies as well as utilizing large amounts of coal which produces harmful by products.

Personal safety of pedestrians as well as car drivers has become a pressing issue in today's time. The car revolution on urban societies has resulted in a dramatic increase in the rate of accidental death, social isolation, the disconnection of community, the rise in obesity.

According to the World Health Organization, road traffic injuries caused an estimated 1.24 million deaths worldwide in the year 2010 implying that one person is killed every 25 seconds worldwide.

The increased traffic congestions in urban highways and roads have had a detrimental impact on the behavior of the drivers. Various cases of high blood pressure, tension and breakdown of social relationships have been attributed to the frustrating conditions of frequent traffic jams. Thus the development of city architecture including roads, parking lots etc. To accommodate automobile traffic has become insufficient due to the exponential growth of car drivers due to the growing human population. In 1997, Leon James, a social psychologist at the University of Hawaii explained the modern phenomenon of road rage as, " Automobiles are powerful and obedient. They respond instantly and gratifyingly to our command, giving us a sense of well being that comes with achieving control over one's environment. Inhibition or frustration of this control leads to road rage in the form of anger at the anonymous driver whose slow or careless driving is viewed as an impediment to the on-the-road progress." According to reliable government statistics, the percentage of drivers having experienced some form of road rage is 80% in The United Kingdom ,77% in Greece, 66% in Austria and 65% in Ireland.

CONCLUSION

The expression "car culture" encompasses the impact of the automobile on individual and collective behavioral changes in society as a whole. Invented as an American passion, the car culture has rapidly spread around the world with surprisingly common effect. The automobile has evolved drastically from its humble image of an

100 car pileup in Seoul, South Korea

alternate, faster mode of transportation to an extension of personality, a cherished possession, an art form and a successful industry. Advertisements and media coverage in television, newspapers and popular magazines such as Top Gear, Hot Road, Motor Trends seldom make allusions to car as a mode of transportation instead emphasizing the appearance and agility of the car and its ability to provide tangible expressions to the driver's desires. The car has become an integral part of our society's identity and has been altered and modified by being impacted by various socio-cultural needs and requirements

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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History Channel case study: ' Henry Ford and the Model T '

Pierre Lemonnier. Auto-anthropology, Modernity and Automobiles. P. Graves-Brown, R. Harrison and A. Piccini. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Contemporary World, Oxford University, Press., pp.741-755, 2013.

The VW Beetle: How Hitler’s idea became a design icon, BBC online article by Jonathan Glancey, posted on september 4th, 2013

Armi, E. (2006) The Art of America Automobile Design. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.

Foster, Mark S. A Nation on Wheels: the Automobile Culture in America Since 1945. 1st ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thompson Learning, 2003., 71

Veitch, Jonathan. "Angels of the Assembly Line: The Dream Machines of the Fifties." Southwest Review 79, no. 4 (Autumn 1994): 650. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost

Cohen, L (2003) A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar

Websites:

http://www.customresearchcenter.com/samples/effects-of-automobiles-on-society.html

http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2013/04/the-nazi-origin-of-the-volkswagen-beetle/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Beetle

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto_racing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_the_car_on_societies

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Model_T

http://www.topgearroadtrips.com/5-crazy-mould-breaking-cars-inspired-by-nature/

Books:

A History of Popular Culture: More of Everything, Faster, Brighter by Raymond F. Betts and Lyz Bly

Interviews/ Videos / Documentaries:

Frank Stephenson chief executive of McLaren interview by Top Gear Magazine, Paris Motor Show 2012

History Of Race Cars - The Quest for SPEED! - National Geographic Channel Documentary Film, link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lG-1HgijRrA

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