00

Introduction

This section is designed to provide a briefguide to the range of techniques relevantto archaeological and historical research inthe Orkney WHS. Space allows for only acursory introduction to individualtechniques and information will quickly goout of date as new techniques aredeveloped and existing ones refined. Inorder to keep up to date readers shouldrefer to the Institute of FieldArchaeologists who provide excellent up-to-date information on professionalstandards and health and safety issues forall archaeological work. Their standardshave been carefully developed to provideguidelines for professional archaeologistsand any work related to the WHS shouldbe undertaken according to theirrequirements. In addition to theirStandards and Policy Statements, the IFAproduce a series of technical papersoutlining new developments (seewww.archaeologists.net for information,visited Dec 2003). Alternatively, readersmight contact the specialist below directly.

DatingPatrick Ashmore and David Sanderson

Background

This section assumes a basic knowledge ofthe dating techniques most commonlyapplied to archaeology, or underdevelopment. Dating information providedfor the period of the WHS monuments isambiguous for a number of reasons.Radiocarbon dates suffer from a plateau inthe calibration curve between about 3400and 3100 BC, the dating of variousdifferent types of samples from tombs andsettlements, and the large errors associated

with many of the available 14C ages, manyof which were obtained several years ago.Tephra layers have been exploited toprovide dates only at a fewpalaeoenvironmental sites. The results ofthermoluminescence (TL) dating are fewand can be difficult to interpret because ofthe errors involved. Optically stimulatedluminescence (OSL) dating has not beenused until very recently; nor haspalaeomagnetic dating.

Radiocarbon/AMS dating

Increasing opportunities exist for obtaininglarger numbers of 14C dates on a widervariety of materials than hitherto possible,partly as a result of recent investment inthe UK laboratory resource by the researchcouncils, and partly as a result of the useof smaller, more precise samples. This canbenefit both our understanding of thearchaeological communities and ourinterpretation of the world in which theylived. A range of stable isotopeinvestigations can be added to thegeneration of systematic data sets fromhuman and animal remains associated withrelevant archaeological monuments, inorder to provide information on aspectssuch as diet and economy, as well as onthe context of the monuments. In thisrespect, the increasing use of specificbiomolecules for dating and dietary studiesis very relevant. At a wider level, highresolution dating should be applied,wherever possible, to reconstructions ofsedimentary and vegetational records.Another field of study involves the AMSdating of residues, eg on sherds of pottery.While the precise relationship between thearchaeology and the date may (and onlymay) be more direct here, this technique isstill being refined.

PART

4

96

Techniques

97

However, the precise relationship betweena 14C date and the specific activity ofarchaeological interest needs to becarefully considered (Fig 68). All too oftenthe date provides an age that is only aproxy for the archaeology, as when old, orheart, wood is used to date the human useof that wood. Bone may be an exception,but despite recent advances by Groningenit is possible that poorly preserved bonesamples may include carbon from sourcesother than the animal concerned. Withregard to the dating of environmentalsamples, it is vital to understand thepotentially complicated taphonomicprocesses that led to the formation ofparticular sedimentary basins or peatlandsbefore samples are taken.

Luminescence dating

The luminescence dating of heatedmaterials provides an opportunity to placeceramics and burnt stones in theirchronological setting. As such, it is of greatvalue both to further analysis of existingmaterial and to study newly excavatedmaterial. Specific projects of interest herehave been listed in the strategy (below).Work should take advantage of recentinstrumental and procedural developmentsto improve overall dating precision wherethis is critical to archaeologicalinterpretation. Less well contexted materialis still relevant as dosimetric reconstructioncan be used to look at the environments ofcritical settings.

The OSL dating of sedimentary materialshas the potential to provide an absolutechronology for a wide series ofsedimentary material associated with thearchaeological deposits. This is of primeimportance and there are key opportunitiesfor its application, such as in anexamination of the environmental historyof blown sand in the Bay of Skaill, at SkaraBrae and its hinterland. New OSL datingopportunities associated with ditches, cutfeatures and other prepared surfaces couldalso be explored. Developments in theextension of OSL methods to datingoptically bleached lithic surfaces should bemonitored. It is of considerable importanceto successful use of this method toestablish early contact with theluminescence laboratory.

Palaeomagnetic dating

Opportunities for palaeomagnetic dating ofhearths and other heat-affected contexts,and silts in ditches, should be identifiedand investigated. This is particularlyimportant for those periods when there areplateaux in the 14C calibration curve.

Tephra

Different ash fall-outs from separatevolcanic eruptions have specificsignatures. As the ash tends to bedistributed across a wide area, theexistence of minute ash layers can providedateable markers within sedimentarysequences, peat and possibly within sandand colluvium accumulations. At a mostbasic level, the tephra layers may be usedto establish contemporaneity of eventsover wide areas. At a more detailed level,as the dating of the eruptions is refined,refined dates can be applied to the resultsfrom previous studies. The potential oftephra in Orkney is illustrated by theSaksunarvatn ash layer recorded byBunting (1994) in pollen columns fromWest Mainland, which coincides with thearrival of Corylus avellana in the islands ataround 9,200 BP. Tephra dating is bestused in conjunction with other datingmethods to ensure that the correct tephralayer has been identified.

68. Hazelnut shellsprovide a goodsample forradiocarbon dating © C R Wickham-Jones.

Cosmogenic nuclides

The potential rôles of cosmogenic nuclides(3He, 10Be, 27Al, 32Si, 36Cl) insupplementing an understanding oflandscape formation history, sedimentaryrecords and the origins and utilisation ofarchaeological materials in the WHS andits surroundings, should be considered.

Radiogenic chronometers

Radiogenic chronometers (eg 40Ar/39Ar,86Rb/86Sr, etc) may have potential instudies of the origins and use of lithicresources by early communities associatedwith the monuments of the study area.Specifically, they can be used to pin thevarious lithic materials down to particularsources, which has important implicationsfor the study of technology, mobility andsocial cohesion in the islands.

GeophysicsJohn Gater

Background

Geophysical techniques are but one toolavailable to fieldworkers and geophysicalwork should never be viewed in isolation, afact that is often overlooked. Geophysicsuses techniques of remote sensing in orderto provide an idea of survivingarchaeological remains. It is of particularvalue because it is non-invasive and avoidsthe need to disturb and possibly destroymaterial. Despite the range of geophysicaltechniques available, magnetometry (largelyfluxgate gradiometers) and resistivitysurvey (normally twin probe, with selectiveelectrical imaging) are the tried and testedtechniques that are most suited to the firststage of geophysical investigation (seeDavid 1995; Gaffney et al 2002). Groundpenetrating radar (GPR) andelectromagnetic methods (EM), andperhaps caesium magnetometers, are likelyto play important supporting rôles, buttechniques like seismic and gravity surveysare unlikely to feature highly in Orkneygiven the existing archaeologicalquestions/criteria.

Fluxgate gradiometry has workedextremely well on a number of sites inOrkney and for this reason it has becomethe preferred technique in recent projectsaround the WHS. Since 2002, some 61hectares of magnetic survey has beencarried out within the Brodgar IBZ(WHAGP) by GSB Prospection Ltd(GSB 2002; 2003a; 2003b). In 2003David Griffith of the University of Oxfordinstigated the first phase of the Birsay/Skaill Bay Landscape Project (Griffith2003). This work included geophysicalsurvey around Skara Brae, partiallycovering the same area surveyed in 1973(Bartlett and Clark 1973a).

Prior to 2002, the use of geophysicaltechniques at the WHS in Orkney waspiece-meal and unco-ordinated. Only in2003 were records compiled of all thegeophysical work that has been carried outin the Islands (see Appendix 4). Theearliest investigations, in the 1970s, wereperformed by the late Tony Clark andother members of the Ancient MonumentsLaboratory, at English Heritage (Bartlettand Clark 1973a; 1973b; Clark 1973).Bradford University also carried outpioneering surveys in the wider WHSlandscape, led initially by Arnold Aspinall.However, these surveys were largelyexperimental in nature and little waspublished, except as footnotes or asisolated images, for example the survey atthe Stones of Stenness (in Clark 1996).This site was re-surveyed in the 1990s byJohn Gater (Fig 69; GSB 1999a) but,apart from this work, none of the mainmonuments had been investigatedgeophysically using moderninstrumentation until 2002. Extensiveresistance surveying has been carried outin the vicinity of the Barnhouse settlementnear Stenness (Challands, in Richards (ed)forth), but the location or extent of othergeophysical surveys, in the buffer or widerzone has not been previously documented.

Compared to the WHS of Stonehenge andAvebury (see David and Payne 1997;David 2000) geophysics in Orkney, upuntil 2002, had a very poor profile, despite

98

the largely favourable geological andpedological conditions. It is worth noting,however, that the majority of geophysicalsurvey work at the English WHS sites hasonly been carried out in the past decade orso; Stonehenge itself was surveyed for thefirst time in 1993-4 (Payne 1994).

Perhaps of greater interest, though, is thefact that most of the geophysical work atStonehenge and Avebury has beendevelopment-led: for example, in advanceof the upgrading of the A303 trunk roadand prior to the construction of a newvisitor centre. Most of the surveys werecarried out prior to the establishment, byEnglish Heritage, of local researchagendas. By contrast, following theResearch Agenda meeting in April 2001, amajor geophysical project (the WHAGP)has been instigated by the OrkneyArchaeological Trust (funded by HistoricScotland and Orkney Islands Council) andthis has already dramatically increased theamount of geophysical work on theOrkney WHS.

In discussing the potential of geophysicaltechniques at the Stonehenge WHS, Davidand Payne (1997, 107) stated: ‘Ourassumption is that the entire surveyablearea should be covered in as much detailand by as many compatible and relevanttechniques as possible…but it is necessaryto be more selective.’ While compromisesmust also be true for the Orkney WHS,there is no reason why total coverageshould not be an ultimate goal. In fact thenew project already goes a long waytowards realising this aim.

The World Heritage Site andInner Buffer Zones - summary ofresults

◆ Ring of Brodgar Both the interior ofthe monument and the numerousmounds in the immediate vicinity havebeen surveyed magnetically (though thesteep slopes and overgrown vegetationprecluded survey on the largermounds), and the work has beenextended across the fields to the northof the Ring of Brodgar (GSB 2002).Perhaps the most exciting result is thediscovery of an extensive settlementcomplex surrounding the pair ofBronze Age houses (HY21 SE18),north of the Dyke of Sean (Fig 45;GSB 2003b).

◆ Stones of Stenness Apart from aspectacular complex of igneous dykescrossing the landscape, magnetic surveyhas provided more information on thepossible extent of the settlement atBarnhouse, mapped the site of the BigHowe Broch (Fig 48) and discoveredanother dense concentration ofarchaeological activity, indicative ofprehistoric settlement, on the Ness ofBrodgar (GSB 2002; 2003a).

◆ Maeshowe The area north ofMaeshowe is badly affected by 20th-century war activity, though a numberof archaeological features have beenmapped (GSB 2003a; 2003b). Thearea south, west and east of themonument needs investigation.

◆ Skara Brae At Skaill Bay the Castle ofSnusgar has been surveyed and, inaddition, a trial area adjacent to Skara

99

69. The results ofgeophysical survey atthe Stones ofStenness (the ditchof the henge – thedark annular feature– is about 55m inexternal diameter) © GSB Prospection.

Brae PIC was covered (Griffith 2003).Although an igneous dyke dominatedthe results, some potentiallyarchaeological anomalies were located.

The landscape surrounding themonuments of the WHS containsnumerous ‘mounds’ of potentialarchaeological interest that would clearlybenefit from geophysical investigation. Therecent results at the mound opposite theStanding Stones Hotel are a testament tothis (Challands 2001). It would be arelatively easy to establish the origin ofthese mounds, whether man-made ornatural, and also assign a tentative function(eg burial, occupation, burnt mound orbroch) that would help our understandingof the archaeological landscape.

Development

All proposed developments with the widerWHS zone should be preceded bygeophysical investigation, or at least astudy to assess the suitability of techniquesin individual cases. This principle appliesregardless of the scale of the project: theerection of display boards and rabbit-prooffences, for example, can have a markedeffect on geophysical investigations. This isseen as a prerequisite to any grounddisturbance.

Prospecting

Geophysical techniques have been widelyemployed in helping to locate newarchaeological sites using a combination ofmagnetic scanning, magnetic susceptibilitysampling and detailed sample surveyblocks. These strategies were largelyformulated to investigate development-threatened sites, but they could be adaptedto carry out exploratory surveys in thesame way that fieldwalking exercises arecarried out.

Database

Following the Research Agendasymposium, a compilation has been madeof all fieldwork, including geophysical

survey, carried out within Orkney since1945 (Appendix 4). This will now serve asa database of surveys in Orkney as awhole.

Field SurveyGraeme Wilson

Many of the monuments within the WHSexhibit complex relationships with eachother, as indicated, for example, bysimilarities in design and art work seen atSkara Brae and at Maeshowe. Even now,the major monuments remain visible,although there is much still to bediscovered about their wider context.Where, today, these monuments inhabit alandscape divided by modern roads andfields, they were once surrounded andlinked by numerous settlements, burialsites, field systems and boundaries. Tracesof past landscapes have already beenrecognised in and around the WHS, butundoubtedly many more await discovery.New investigation of the wider hinterland,using field survey, offers the potential tolocate and map previously unrecognisedsites, thereby enhancing our understandingand appreciation of this rich landscape.

Optimum results are obtained from fieldsurvey when a concentrated programme ofwork is carried out. This might consist of arapid programme of walk-over surveywithin a designated area, immediatelyfollowed by topographical survey to mapthe findings. More localised and intensivesurvey, for example post-ploughing orartefact scatter collection, could follow onfrom this. Coastal survey is instrumental tolocate sites which are being uncovered bythe sea.

Field survey techniques are rapid and cost-efficient and they produce results quickly.Walk-over survey (Fig 27) is a good firststage of work, comprising a methodicalvisual examination of every parcel of landwithin a designated area. Probable findingsinclude structural remains and earthworks,concentrations of artefacts, buildingmaterials and midden deposits; they may

100

also include evidence of past land use inthe form of cultivation marks or soils. Theresults of an initial walkover and coastalsurvey are best presented at a scale of1:25,000. At this scale the locations of allmonuments, findspots, artefactconcentrations, etc, within the study areacan be shown in relation to one another.Smaller scale mapping may also be usefulin order to illustrate the outlines of sitestogether with larger landscape features,such as field systems. Both levels of surveyare suitable for inclusion on a GIS system(see below).

More detailed topographical survey canthen take place, at a level of detailsufficient to generate plans at smaller,more useful scales, appropriate to theneeds of the survey. The survey ofindividual monuments should be carriedout using a grid, with measurements atregular distances. The results should bedigitised, so that they can be used in avariety of formats, including contourplans, 3D models of landscape andinteractive presentations. A digital archivehas other advantages in that it can bereused and re-manipulated as the projectrequirements change.

In addition to conventional mapping andsite description work, survey should alsoinclude provision for comprehensivephotographic recording. The examinationof the wider hinterland and the location ofnew sites will provide new foci of interestwithin the landscape and the connectionswithin it can then be better appreciated. Avisual record will greatly enhance theexploration of intra-site relations and theplace of sites within the surroundingnatural landscape.

Although much of the WHA lies awayfrom the sea, coastal and lochside surveyhas an important rôle to play with regardto the investigation of the wider landscape.Work already undertaken near to SkaraBrae and around the mouth of the Loch ofStenness has revealed a number of hithertounknown prehistoric sites. The importanceof the uncultivated coastal edge, asopposed to the farmed hinterland, for site

survival is demonstrated (eg Moore andWilson 1998).

Survey work related to the WHS shouldaim to be as inclusive as possible and notrelated to one specific period. While thereis much to be understood about themonuments in their original setting, it isequally important to appreciate theinfluence of both earlier activity and laterexperience and use. The remains of allperiods should be recorded in order toprovide a comprehensive history of landuse. Close analysis and interpretation ofthe results will be needed to decode thepalimpsest of landscape features andunravel individual strands of evidence.This may be most effectively carried out using a programme of GIS and intandem with a dedicated series of 14C dates.

Field survey should be regarded as a firststep or baseline from which further workcan develop. The results will be mostuseful if they are integrated with otherstrands of work such as excavation,geophysical survey and historical research.GIS is a useful way to do this. Field surveyis also an essential tool for the monitoringof sites and the landscape within whichthey are sited, and thus it is a vital part ofsite management.

Underwater explorationIan Oxley with Bobby Forbes

Background

Most, but not all, land-basedarchaeological techniques can be adaptedfor use underwater, though they may takea bit longer and thus be more expensive.This includes both an initial appraisal andmore detailed work. A wide variety ofroutine evaluation methods are availableand these include geophysical and otherremote techniques. More detailedtechniques include intrusive investigationmethods such as coring and excavation.Recent interest in underwater archaeologymeans that the techniques are rapidlydeveloping.

101

Archaeological investigation ofsubmerged environments inOrkney

Landscapes in general have undergoneconsiderable changes due to long-termclimatic changes and also in the short termdue to changing agricultural practices.Consequently, there have been significantchanges in both coastal and freshwatershorelines with either a correspondingexposure or submergence of the adjacentlandmass. Remote sensing studies for theEuropean Marine Energy Centre off thewest coast of Orkney have revealed theexistence of the submerged coast lineformed during the last glacial period.Studies in other areas have shown that theunderwater environment can provideconditions ideal for the preservation ofmaterials that may have long sincedeteriorated in a terrestrial context.

The WHS is bordered by two of the mainlochs in Orkney. Harray Loch, a body offresh water, and the Loch of Stennesswhich, at present, has a brackish waterenvironment (Fig 70; see also Fig 14).Remote sensing techniques used in themapping of the submerged culturalheritage of Scapa Flow (ScapaMAP) areequally applicable to the shallower

environment of the lochs. The greatpotential of submerged archaeologicalremains is now acknowledged. With regardto the WHS, it is important that anyresearch agenda include an underwaterstrategy.

Standards

As with land-based archaeology, all workmust take place subject to stringent qualityand health and safety controls. These canbe found through the professional channelsof the Institute of Field Archaeologists(IFA) and the standard Health and Safetyregulations for Diving.

Collecting known information

Compared to terrestrial sites, the availableinformation on submerged sites in Orkneyis sadly scant. Preliminary site surveys atVoy, a relatively short length of loch shoreat the western end of the Loch ofStenness, has revealed upstanding sitesfrom a variety of periods previously notrecorded. Increasing information onmarine archaeological sites is becomingavailable as greater resources aredeveloped. Information on known sites can be obtained by consulting the nationaland local inventories (the Orkney SMR

102

70. The lochs ofHarray and Stenness,with the Brodgaristhmus between,from Bookan © Crown Copyright

reproduced courtesy of

Historic Scotland.

and the National Monuments Record ofScotland (NMRS)), though there areinconsistencies in these records.Information may also be available fromlocal maritime interest groups andOrkney’s museum service (The NauticalArchaeology Society; Dive Boat OperatorsGroup, Orkney; and Orkney Heritage).Information held locally in private or semi-official hands should not be forgotten

Information on the location of areas ofseabed protected under the Protection ofWrecks Act (1973) can be obtained fromHistoric Scotland. The presence orabsence of these designated historic wrecksites does not necessarily mean that othersites do not exist which require (or merit)attention. It is important to considercircumstantial evidence which mayindicate whether such remains are presentand whether they might be affected by anydevelopment proposals.

Assessing archaeologicalpotential

There are a number of strategies that canbe employed in order to assess thearchaeological potential of an area underwater. Inferences can be made fromhistorical evidence and reference to thepresence of sites and features on land inadjacent areas. Some idea of the area’spast can generally be gained fromevaluating known evidence of maritimeactivity and occupation prior to rises in sealevel (Firth et al 1997). The concept of a‘maritime cultural landscape’ encouragestaking a broad view of sources ofinformation which may indicate thepresence of sites, for example early mapsand charts, place-names and folklore(Hunter 1994).

The possible presence of submerged landsurfaces has to be considered and the useof predictive survey in areas of potentiallygood preservation should be assessed.Certain combinations of chemical, physicaland biological characteristics are known toindicate the good preservation ofarchaeological material (Oxley 1995). Inmany places information on known sites is

poor and there is a high potential forpreviously undiscovered sites. In thesecases assessment of potential is vital, bothas a research tool and as a part of themanagement process. There are, as yet, noformal guidelines for assessing marinearchaeological potential.

Evaluation techniques

The importance or significance of sitesmust be assessed before any intrusive(archaeological or geotechnical)evaluations are permitted because suchactivities may unwittingly damagearchaeological deposits. Visual evaluation,or seabed inspection of identified features,is often the only effective way to estimatearchaeological importance. Intrusivemethods which involve the disturbance ofthe archaeological context may benecessary to evaluate the date, nature,extent, condition and preservation of thearchaeological evidence, but they shouldonly be undertaken after the developmentof an acceptable project design.

Excavation

Excavation is the most damaging form ofintrusive investigation. Although it is avalid technique on land, trial trenching bydivers is usually time-consuming andexpensive. Specific small-scale excavationsmay be necessary (and more practical) totest deposits. There are many differenttechniques for underwater excavation, andmost are similar to land excavation, butthey employ different tools and takeadvantage of the unique properties of theunderwater environment. Techniques ofunderwater excavation are described invarious texts (eg Green 1990; Dean et al1995).

Underwater methodologies

Not all land-based archaeologicaltechniques can be directly transferredunderwater, but it is fair to say that agreater standard of archaeological work isachievable underwater than is commonlybelieved. A comprehensive description ofthe techniques and methodologies

103

commonly used in the practice ofarchaeology underwater can be found inother publications (ibid). It should benoted that there is often a considerabledifference in effectiveness between atechnique which is common practice andone which is still in the experimentalstages.

Aerial surveyKenneth Brophy

Aerial survey allows the recovery ofinformation about new sites and newinformation about existing sites. The viewfrom the air gives a wider picture than thatfrom the ground (Fig 71) and this helps to

104

71. Aerialphotograph of theBrodgar peninsula in1946. Aerialphotographs give auseful overview ofsites in thelandscape Crown copyright MoD.

make sense of the archaeologicallandscape. Aerial survey not only looks atupstanding remains, it can also indicatesub-soil remains through a variety offactors, such as variations in crop growthwhich reflect variations in soil moistureover buried walls or ditches (known ascropmarks), or the visibility of shadowsfrom depleted mounds in low sunlight.Aerial photographs can be either obliqueor vertical and existing archives of materialfrom previous flights can be a valuablesource of information in addition to new,purposely directed flights.

In contrast to the rest of Scotland, Orkneyhas suffered from a lack of concentratedaerial reconnaissance. In parts of lowlandScotland aerial survey has caused arevolution in our understanding of theprehistoric landscape, but other areas havebeen neglected. This has been largely dueto logistics – RCAHMS flights leave fromEdinburgh airport, so journeys to Orkneytake several long 'steps' northwards, oftenlasting a few days and, once there, they aredependent on good weather, somethingthat is not easy to predict. There are alsono suitably equipped, or qualified,sponsored or local flyers operating inOrkney as in, for instance, HighlandRegion or Aberdeenshire.

Nevertheless, limited aerial reconnaissancehas been carried out in Orkney, partlythrough private flyers like John Dewar(who provided spectacular colour imagesof WHS sites during flights in the 1970sand 1980s) and also some limitedreconnaissance by RCAHMS since 1976.This has tended to concentrate on known,upstanding monuments, especially relatingto rural architecture, WWI and WWIIdefences and the oil industry.

Neolithic Orkney has benefited from theabove-ground survival of traces of pastmonuments in the form of earthworks andstanding stones. However, there is goodreason to believe that sub-surface tracesawait discovery, as shown by remnantartefact scatters on field surfaces and thediscovery of new sites such as Barnhouse.The concentration of agriculture on

Mainland and some islands of Orkney,including much of the WHS, has almostcertainly resulted in the degrading andflattening of earthworks; and, of course,other more ephemeral constructions, suchas timber-works, are impossible to pick upabove ground surface. Orkney thus hasgreat potential to yield cropmarks. This isaided by the state of the land: Orkney isrelatively flat and covered in a fairpercentage of arable land with cerealcrops.

A programme of concentrated aerialreconnaissance should be one of theresearch priorities in the WHS, not only todiscover cropmarks of new sites, but alsoto look for new elements to familiar sites.As well as oblique aerial photographytargeted to archaeology, it is vital to assessthe archaeological potential of the existingvertical photographic record: eg Royal AirForce and Ordnance Survey coveragesince the 1940s. Aerial photography hasproved itself to be a powerful andeconomical tool of prospection that cancover large areas relatively quickly.Importantly, in an area of such familiararchaeology as the WHS, it allows a newperspective. The WHS provides an area ofgreat archaeological potential, but it is adiminishing resource and it is essential thataerial photography be utilised to the full.

Geographical informationsystemsAngus Mackintosh

Geographical information systems (GIS)are a form of spatial database used toseamlessly integrate and analyse large anddisparate digital data sets. They thereforehave great strengths for archaeology.Conventionally, the data might comprisedigitised topographic data, the results ofgeophysical survey, aerial photographs etc,but it can also include extended textualrecords, other forms of digital images, aswell as audio and video files (Fig 64 hasbeen produced from a GIS-based system).

A GIS to meet the needs of the WHSshould be flexible enough to embrace a

105

broad range of data related to a variety ofthemes and interests. One theme would beto look at issues relating to culturalresource management, such as aninvestigation of the visual impact of newbuildings on the fringes of the WHS. Theintegration of the local SMR and NMRSwith the results of current and futurearchaeological fieldwork would be another.The modelling of sea-level changes and theeffect of these on the archaeological recordit also important, as are cultural historyinterviews with members of the localcommunity. It is important to rememberthat a GIS can hold written, taped andvideoed information.

ExcavationJane Downes and C R Wickham-Jones

Excavation is, perhaps, the best known ofarchaeological techniques. Excavationtechniques are many and diverse and theyare well covered in the archaeologicalliterature (eg Roskams 2001). Excavationis only one stage of any project –excavation produces materials which haveto be analysed and reported upon, and theresults as a whole must be disseminated.The archaeological resource is

irreplaceable, and government policy seeksto protect the resource with guidelines andadvice (Scottish Office 1994a; 1994b)which advocate in situ preservation, ifpossible. If not possible, all aspects ofexcavation should be undertaken with aview to sustainability (see pp 120-21).

Conditions of survival and types of siteswithin the WHS and surroundings varytremendously and still continue to surprise.Those proposing excavation should ensurethey undertake as much assessment aspossible in advance (desk-basedassessment, remote sensing, sampling andevaluation as necessary and appropriate),in order to minimise the occurrence ofunforeseen circumstances. As in anyproject, specialists should be involved at anearly stage in project planning. Samplingstrategies should be detailed to include aswide a variety of specialisms as isappropriate to incorporate the researchaims of those specialists (Fig 72).

Because of the destructive nature ofexcavation, consideration should be givenbefore the inception of any excavationproject as to whether the researchquestions could be answered by looking ata site elsewhere in Orkney. Projects

106

72. Shovel-pitting inadvance ofexcavation onStronsay © C R Wickham-Jones.

undertaken in the WHS, and relatedprojects elsewhere in Orkney, should bedesigned with wider applications in mind,whether that be methodological,geographic, heritage management or otherapplications.

Any excavation that is undertaken in theWHS or the immediate environs (IBZs)will have enhanced management,interpretation and public access issues.Excavation may be required ahead ofactions in the Management Plan, inparticular those concerning improvementof visitor access, visitor management anderosion at the WHS monuments. Researchexcavations undertaken should incorporaterelevant management issues and widerapplications for management, and mayalso provide opportunities for long-termmonitoring following reinstatement ofsites.

Excavations in the WHS and immediateenvirons will be inevitably high profile andhighly visible because of the status of theWHS and the large amount of visitors toit. It is important that opportunities forpublic access, display or leaflets at the timeof excavation are considered early inplanning stages and are maximised.Prompt dissemination in an accessibleform to inform both heritage managersand the public is essential.

Any excavation undertaken in the WHS,no matter what the impetus or source offunding, should be carried out by thosewho have a knowledge of the history ofresearch of the WHS, and of the broadaims of the research framework (thisResearch Agenda) for the WHS. That wayall archaeological investigations, includingthose ahead of developer/managementactivities, can be designed to maximiseopportunities to contribute to overallresearch aims, and can be placed withinthe research framework that this documentprovides.

Excavation projects must adhere to thehighest professional standards (eg IFAStandards: www.archaeologists.net) andwork from the formulation of a robust

research design, through fieldworkmethods and recording to disseminationand archiving. Importantly, excavationprojects must be properly resourcedthrough all these stages of work.

Soil and sediment analyses Ian A Simpson

Background

Analyses of site formation processes,historic and prehistoric land resources,utilisation and palaeoenvironmentalcontexts are key research themesassociated with the Orkney WHS. Oneapproach to these issues is through soiland sediment analyses. Previous soil andsediment analyses in the Northern Isles,and the North Atlantic region moregenerally, have developed and tested anumber of methods that have potential forapplication within the Orkney WHS. Theuse and potential of these methods issummarised below.

Field survey

High quality soil survey and geologicalsurvey maps and descriptions for Orkneyalready exist at a scale of 1:50,000, andthese provide a foundation from which todesign land resource assessments (SoilSurvey for Scotland 1981; BritishGeological Survey 1936-1994). Soilsurveys have, for example, identifiedsignificant areas of relict ‘deep top’ soils inWest Mainland Orkney, and these havebeen demonstrated to be ‘plaggen’ soilscontaining significant information on earlyarable land management practices and therelationship between arable activity andlivestock husbandry (Simpson 1997).

Thin-section micromorphologyand associated techniques

Thin-section micromorphology allows themicroscopic examination of undisturbedsoils and sediments (Davidson andSimpson 2001; Courty et al 1989),permitting formal description of soil andsediment components (Bullock et al 1985).

107

The use of experimental and ethno-historical approaches to validation,combined with chemical microprobeanalyses of key features (Davidson andSimpson 2001; Macphail and Cruise2001), means that the interpretation ofthin-section components is becomingincreasingly robust. As a result, thistechnique contributes information to anincreasing range of archaeologicalquestions.

In a North Atlantic context,archaeological midden stratigraphies inOrkney have been examined to elucidatedistinctions between specialised fishingcommunities and farm-fishing sites overvarious time periods (Simpson et al 2000;Simpson and Barrett, J H 1996). Protoninduced X-ray emission microprobeanalyses with associated micro-focussynchrotron X-ray scattering analysis hasbeen used to establish the origin ofcrypto-crystalline products of bonedecomposition at these sites, providingthe potential to retrieve archaeologicallysignificant information from sites withpoor preservation (Simpson et al 2000;Adderley et al forth). Fuel residues incomplex midden stratigraphies can alsobe identified using thin-sectionmicromorphology, and quantified in twodimensions using image analysestechniques, and in three dimensions usinghigh resolution X-ray computedtomography (Adderley et al 2001;Simpson et al 2003). Similar analysescould be applied to the study ofoccupation surfaces, and these wouldprovide information on the in situ spatialpatterning of micro-artefacts and ecofactsin three dimensions, allowing new insightsinto the functions of archaeological sites.Currently, and of direct relevance to theOrkney WHS, thin-sectionmicromorphology analyses are beingapplied to midden stratigraphies at SkaraBrae (Simpson, forth). There is furtherscope to consider fossil soils beneath amonument as a way to assess theenvironmental conditions prior tomonument construction (Barclay, G J etal 1995; Simpson and Davidson 2000).Thin-section micromorphology can also

be applied to the study of ‘offsite’ soilsand sediments, contributing in particularto the identification of manuring andcultivation practices associated with earlyfield systems. Fuel residue inputs, the useof turf and intensities of cultivation, haveall been identified in early arable soils,which range from the Neolithic to theearly modern period. These observations,when integrated with biomarker analyses,provide powerful new insights into earlyland management strategies (Simpson1997; Simpson et al 1998a; Simpson et al1998b).

Biomarkers

Innovative organic geochemistrytechniques applied to soils and sedimentsare now making a major contribution tothe understanding of early landmanagement practices in Orkney and theNorth Atlantic region. These techniquesinclude the identification of free soil lipidswhich permits the identification oforganic materials used in manuringstrategies – human manures, omnivorousmanures and herbivorous manures -within arable and hay production systems(Bull et al 1999a; 1999b; Simpson et al1999b). These have now been verified inexperimental and ethno-historicalcontexts. Observations from the NorthernIsles suggest a focus on the use ofhousehold wastes in maintaining arableland fertility from the Neolithic throughto the early Iron Age, with a switch to theuse of animal manures from the late IronAge through to the early modern period.Advanced biomarker analyses usingcompound specific stable isotope analyses(δ15N on amino acids and δ13C on n-alkanoic acids) have further suggesteddifferentiation between manuredgrasslands, unmanured grasslands andcontinuous cereal cultivation, togetherwith the differentiation of terrestrial andmarine sourced organic inputs toarchaeological soils (Simpson et al 1997;1999a). These techniques can be appliedand developed further within the WHS toidentify the range and intensity of arableand grassland management strategies.

108

Modelling

Modelling is an essential tool for researchinto the historical and archaeologicaldimensions of land sustainability. Recentresearch using the CENTURY agro-ecosytem model has demonstratedaccurate predictions of crop yields and soilnutrient status in historical arable contextsin the Northern Isles (Adderley et al2000). This allows exploration of a rangeof arable land management strategies to bemade, in particular the levels of manureinput required to minimise loss of soilnutrient status and to maintain subsistenceor surplus levels of grain yield. Mostrecently, the CENTURY model has beenapplied in pre-modern Iceland to examinethe relative rôles of climate and manuringstrategies in determining arable cropyields, concluding that management of soilnutrient status was the primary limitingfactor (Simpson et al 2002). Grazingmodels which explore the relationshipbetween vegetation productivity, grazingpreferences and vegetation utilisation, have also been successfully used in theNorthern Isles and North Atlantic region(Simpson et al 1998b). Increasingly, thesemodels are being related to historicalpatterns of land degradation anddiscussions of early land managementstrategies (Simpson et al 2001). There is real potential within the Orkney WHSarea to use modelling to consider earlyland management strategies, theireconomic and environmentalconsequences, and to explore ‘what if…’management scenarios.

Artefact analysisAndrew Jones and C R Wickham-Jones

Background

The Neolithic sites contained within theWHS zone comprise some of the best-preserved Neolithic sites from westernEurope. They were, in some cases, in usefor over a millennium from a periodspanning the beginning of the Neolithicand into the Earlier Bronze Age. Theirinformation comprises not only unusualdetails of architecture but also, because ofthe remarkable preservation, much of thesuite of objects, everyday and otherwise,that made up daily life. This sort of detailis rare elsewhere in Europe. As such thesesites provide us not only with a series ofwindows into the daily life of differentpeople at various points over the period,but they also provide researchers with aunique picture of social change.

Using the material culture from these sites,archaeologists can examine the myriad ofways in which people conducted their dailylife (Fig 73). Studies include: how peoplerelated to their surrounding environment;how they interacted; how they expressedthemselves culturally and artistically; howthey dressed and made their tools; howthey farmed, hunted, fished and gathered;how they cooked and ate; and how theyarticulated a relationship with a wider,spiritual, world.

Artefact analysis includes many differentprocesses and specialisations and Orkneyprovides an ideal laboratory within whichto develop its varied applications. Theindividual techniques are too many to listin detail here, though some are mentionedbelow. The use of residue analysisprovides a good example of the way inwhich new techniques are constantly underdevelopment. In recent years much workon residue analysis has been developedoutside of Britain, but new research isbeginning to redress the balance andOrkney is well placed to play an importantrôle here because of the rich variety ofartefacts preserved in the Orcadianmiddens. Residue analysis comprises the

109

73. Post-excavationwork plays a vitalrole inarchaeologicalresearch © C R WIckham-Jones.

recovery and identification of traces thatare assumed to relate closely to the uses ofdifferent artefacts. It involves the study ofresidues (sometimes microscopic) thathave built up and been preserved onartefacts of various different materials.Bone, pottery and stone have all beenshown to harbour residues when thecircumstances are right. There are manyways in which residues can build up: burntremains on pottery; the incorporation ofstray grains and pollen into the fabric of apot; traces on stone and bone tools; andalterations of the actual fabric of tools. Notsurprisingly, residue analysis incorporatesmany different techniques in the quest torecord and identify these remains.Scanning electron microscopes, chemicalwork on lipids and starches, pollen analysisand more detailed work such as isotopestudies all have a part to play. Once theresidue work has been done, there areobvious benefits from the incorporation ofthe information into wider data sets so thataspects such as content might be playedinto the pottery research outlined above.

The following discussion is intended togive some idea of the wide range oftechniques involved in artefact analysis andto look at how some of the techniquesmight be applied, but it is not an attemptto be comprehensive.

Ceramics

Ceramics and community identities Ceramics are critically important forarchaeological interpretation because theyare used for the processing, consumptionand storage of food. While this activitymay seem mundane, it is fundamental toall human life and it has been shown to bevital to the expression of social dimensionssince in most cultures food plays a crucialrôle in the expression of affiliationsbetween people: at the household; kingroup; community; and inter-communitylevel. Not only this, but the production ofpottery using specific materials, indifferent styles and with distinctivedecoration, is generally associated with theexpression of social identity.

In Orkney, research into the use of theceramics as an expression of social identityis concerned with the relationship betweenthe production of early Neolithic bowlsand Unstan Wares, and that of lateNeolithic Grooved Wares. The materialsused in the production of the pottery canbe examined using petrological thin-sections. This technique has beentraditionally used to ask questionsconcerning the locality of potteryproduction and the nature of potteryexchange. However, work at the lateNeolithic settlement at Barnhouse hastaken a different approach (Jones inRichards (ed) forth). By using informationfrom multiple thin-sections derived frompottery from many locations within thesettlement, a more detailed picture ofpottery production could be produced.This indicated that each household wasmaking pottery from specific rawmaterials, suggesting that potteryproduction in the Neolithic was organisedby individual households. Using thistechnique, the Barnhouse analysis was ableto trace the life histories of the GroovedWare vessels from production to depo-sition. Petrological links were establishedbetween the locations of production andthose of deposition, not only within thesettlement, but further afield in Orkney, atsites such as the Stones of Stenness andthe Quanterness passage grave.

This research has provided importantevidence of the relationship betweenpeople and their environment. By taking itfurther, researchers can build up a pictureof the complex web of links betweenvessels deposited on the various differenttypes of site, so that material from thehenges and passage graves can be relatedto that deposited in the settlement sites.Furthermore, the links betweencontemporary settlements can beexamined.

Ceramic technology and settlementhistories Orkney has one of the best records ofNeolithic settlement in Europe.Furthermore, many of the earlierprehistoric settlements that have been

110

111

explanation. Sadly, the lack of basic work,including elementary publication, on allbut a few of the most recently excavatedassemblages, has limited the use of thissort of wider analysis. Work on lithicselsewhere, and on other artefact types inOrkney, shows the great benefits thatwould accrue from such work.

Provenance and exchange Other types of stone artefact include bothground and decorated stone, but onceagain there has been little work on thecharacterisation and analysis of groundstone tools in comparison to that on potteryproduction and circulation. There aremany stone tools of note from Orkney:including one of the major concentrationsof pestle maceheads in Britain; togetherwith a number of other macehead forms;carved stone balls; stone axes; and a varietyof coarse stone tools, such as Skaill knives.

There are many different aspects to theanalysis of stone tools, but one importantfacet would be to look at provenance andexchange through a detailed examinationof stone tool petrology and sourcing. Thishas wider application in terms of thenature of interaction networks both withinOrkney, and between Orkney and otherregions (Shetland and the Scottishmainland). Primary research ought tocommence with the construction of a localdatabase of sources, so that coarse stonetools and stone axes which are likely to beof local origin can be assessed. In thisrespect it is interesting to note thatpreliminary comparison of the rocksources for pottery production atBarnhouse with the sources of stone toolmaterials here suggest a close connection.Detailed analysis of the stone toollithologies is necessary to clarify thisconnection.

Social context The recovery of many ground anddecorated stone tools from settlement sitesand other excavations in Orkney providesanother opportunity: that of looking at theuse and deposition of these pieces. Thisshould include work on individual sites aswell as inter-site comparisons. Elsewhere

excavated are deeply stratified withsequences of remains that run from theearly Neolithic to the early Bronze Age. Asa consequence there are good sequences ofpottery for this period. However, thematerial record is not matched by ourunderstanding; there is still a poor grasp ofthe nature and periodicity of settlementhistories. How long were houses inhabitedfor? How did house and settlement historychange? How, and why, were settlementsabandoned? New research at SouthamptonUniversity is addressing this (Jones forth).

One approach is to combine theexamination of architectural history withan examination of the changes in ceramictechnology. Subtle changes in theproduction of pottery can be identifiedboth petrologically (see above) andtechnologically, and these can be definedin relation to changes in settlement history.In this way a detailed picture of the socialprocesses involved in the establishment,evolution and abandonment of settlementscan be drawn up.

Alongside the technological examination ofpottery in relation to settlement histories,will be a thorough assessment of the natureand quality of the existing 14C recordrelated to the Neolithic settlements. Ifnecessary, work will include thedevelopment of a parallel researchprogramme to obtain increased dates.

Stone tools

Flaked stone tools Flaked stone tools comprise one of themain sources of artefact information formuch of Neolithic Scotland. Their studyhas widened greatly in recent years withthe development and application oftechniques of analysis that take intoaccount the many fields of informationavailable, such as raw materials,procurement, technology, use and reuse,movement and deposition. Orkney offersan outstanding opportunity in this respectbecause the lithic record is derived from abackground of unique richness. In thisway, information from the stone tools canbe set into much wider contexts of social

in Scotland artefacts like these are oftenfound as stray finds with little or nocontext, so that social interpretation islimited. In this way, information fromOrkney could be used to amplify thepicture elsewhere.

Bone tools

The sites of the WHS and elsewhere inOrkney have provided a repertoire ofprehistoric bone tools that is unique inquality and context. Yet this strand ofevidence remains almost unresearched.Potential analysis ranges fromstraightforward investigations of speciesselection and technology related to thedifferent types of bone tool that were used,through stylistic comparisons of tool types,to contextual and spatial information thatmay be built up both at the level of anindividual site and between different sites.More complex research includes work onuse and residues. This is a new line ofresearch that is currently underdevelopment for lithic tools and promisesinteresting results when applied to othermaterials.

Haematite and ochre

Pieces of haematite and ochre have longbeen known from sites such as Skara Brae,but their analysis is only recently underdevelopment and it promises new, andexciting, information (Fig 74; Isbister perscomm). Ongoing work is looking at theuses of haematite as a pigment and itsrelation to prehistoric art as well as otheruses such as in medicines. Archaeo-logically, a major facet of this work is toensure that all excavators are aware of thepotential of these often apparentlyundistinguished finds.

Experimental archaeologyC R Wickham-Jones

Experimental archaeology has arespectable history (Coles 1973). It is auseful archaeological tool that assistsarchaeological interpretation at variouslevels from the analysis of the practicalitiesof building to that of tool manufacture anduse. It can also be applied to moredynamic situations, such as socialorganisation. Experiment can never showprecisely how things were done in the past,but it can help archaeologists tounderstand how they might have comeabout. It helps the archaeologist of the 21stcentury to step back and broaden theirunderstanding of the range of ways inwhich things might have been done.

A particularly valuable facet ofexperimental archaeology is the potentialthat it offers to broaden archaeologicalwork to include the wider community.Some experiments involve many people,others involve just a few individuals, butthe value of experiment is that it bringsdifferent specialisations and skills to bearupon archaeological interpretation.Builders, silversmiths, cooks and weavershave all played a vital rôle in recentarchaeological experiment in Orkney andthe list of potential skills is almost endless.

The value of experiment lies not just in itsuse of related expertise but also in its useas an interpretive tool (Fig 75).Archaeological sites and finds can bedifficult to relate to the everyday life of thepast. Nothing can beat the practicaldemonstration of ancient skills, the actualexperience of entering a reconstructedbuilding, or the fun of trying somethingout for oneself. Experiment, in the form of

112

74. Facetedhaematite fromSkara Brae © Arlene Isbister.

experience, is particularly valuable forchildren, but also, of course, of greatinterest to the adult community.

Experiment in Orkney is itselflongstanding, from the elucidation byPetrie of the manufacture of Skaill knives(Petrie 1868), to the Minehowe Knowhowevent in 2002. Despite this, Britisharchaeologists rarely include experiment asa valid part of their studies in the sameway that takes place elsewhere, eg inDenmark(http://www.english.lejrecenter.dk/ visitedDecember 2003). The introduction ofmore archaeological experiment toresearch related to the WHS would notonly benefit archaeological knowledge inthe WHS, but also the place of Orkneywithin the archaeological profession as awhole.

Skeletal studies: humanorigins, diet and lifestyleC R Wickham Jones

Recent scientific advances have producedexciting results from the study of humanskeletal material. This is wide-rangingresearch that incorporates many differentskills, and much of it is still underdevelopment. Orkney contains one of thebest collections of human bone fromNeolithic Scotland as well as skeletalmaterial from more recent periods. Thequality of the human bone record fromOrkney including, as it does, both isolatedbones and well-stratified skeletons from arange of periods, provides great potentialfor the development and testing of thesemethods. This would not only benefitarchaeology, but also our knowledge ofOrkney. Likely information includesvarious different aspects of mobility andorigin (the birthplace and movements ofindividuals, as well as possible DNA links),as well as information on diet, such as therelative importance of fish versus meat. Inaddition, studies of disease and life-stylethrough the bones are undergoing rapidadvances and this should be applied to theOrcadian material.

Ecofactual analysisC R Wickham-Jones

Complementing the rôle of artefact studiesin archaeological interpretation is the rôleof ecofactual analysis. Ecofacts comprisethe natural finds from a site, includingshells and animal and fish bones,unworked antler and so on. Though theyhave been collected, and influenced, byhumans, ecofacts are not worked. They arenot tools per se, and their relationship withthe human community is complex. Thehigh quality of preservation in Orkneymeans that many sites have a good rangeof ecofacts and their analysis has a lot tooffer. Many different strands of ecofactualanalysis are under development andOrkney offers an ideal ground to test andfurther these studies.

113

75. Pre-heating aGrooved Ware-typevessel at Stonehall © Bill Brown and Richard

Jones.

Ecofacts have much to tell us, not onlyabout the world in which the people of thepast lived, but also about the ways inwhich they manipulated and harvested thatworld (Fig 76). They tell us about theenvironment and about economy. Shellfishstudies, for example, can throw light onthe specific coastal conditions in the areasthat were harvested. They tell us about theharvesting techniques and preferences ofthe people and they may give usinformation on diet and other activitiessuch as medicines and the extraction ofdye. Studies of animal and fish bonesprovide information on climaticconditions, husbandry practices, butcherytechniques and diet. They help us tocompare the relative importance of wildand farmed foods and this in turn may betied in to years of environmental difficulty.There are also deeper ways in which theseresources may have been embedded intothe life of the community, such as in theapparently ritual importance of red deer orother animals, and birds, at some Neolithicsites, and it is important to recognise this ifwe are to get a full picture of life in thepast.

PalaeoenvironmentalstudiesC R Wickham-Jones

Palaeoenvironmental evidence provides awhole suite of information whichcomplements that from the archaeologicalsite. It may be obtained from the site itselfor from its surroundings, and it helps toflesh out the picture of the world in whichour ancestors lived. Palaeoenvironmentalinformation is derived from many sourcessuch as pollen, charcoal, beetle andmollusc remains, and it runs alongside thestudy of the ecofactual material. There aremany specialised publications on thedifferent strands of palaeoenviromentalevidence (Dincauze 2000; Simmons2001).

Palaeoenvironmental evidence is importantbecause it does not only touch upon theworld in general, but also upon the specificrelationships between people and thatworld. For example, anthropogenicburning episodes may be seen in thecharcoal record, woodland managementcan be shown through pollen studies, andbeetle remains have been used to inferperiods of disuse and abandonment atsettlement sites.

114

76. Articulated animal bone atTofts Ness, Sanday © S J Dockrill.

The palaeoenvironmental record fromOrkney is a rich one, wherein there isevidence both for the WHS in particularand the rest of Orkney. It is important toinclude it in any archaeological work thattakes place. This should not only apply totried and tested methods, but also to theapplication and development of newavenues of research.

Historical and cartographicsourcesSarah Jane Grieve

Historical and cartographic sourcesprovide a basis for understanding theevolution and development of the medievaland modern landscape and thereforesignificantly enhance our understanding ofthe WHS and its context.

Although these sources are not withoutproblems, a critical appreciation of theagendas and biases allows them to be usedto further knowledge at a landscape-holistic level as well as a more site-specificlevel.

Historical sources

There are very few early historical sourcesrelating to Orkney. The first major sourceis the Orkneyinga Saga written AD c1200in Iceland and detailing, in typical sagaprose, the lives and exploits of theNorwegian earls of Orkney (Taylor 1938).The importance of this source should notbe underestimated; it not only providesinformation on the settlement patterns of12th-century Orkney, but it was also thebasis for a number of influential studies inthe early 20th century in Orkney whichdeveloped the concept of a Viking ‘GoldenAge’. Other Scandinavian sources withreference to Orkney include Hakonar Saga,The Icelandic Annals and HistoriaeNorvegiae (Dasent 1894; Storm (ed) 1880;Storm (ed) 1888).

The first indigenous sources are a series oftaxation rentals, the earliest dating from1492, which detail the earldom andbishopric lands of Orkney (Peterkin 1820;Thomson 1996). These provide useful

information on townships and farms(especially the place-names and rentalvalues) from which it is possible torecreate much of the 15th-centuryagricultural landscape of Orkney. Previousscholars have used these Rentalsretrospectively to postulate land settlementpatterns for the Norse period, andalthough the medieval taxation system wasrelatively static, this is now considered tobe a misapplication of the rentalinformation.

There are a number of medieval sourcessuch as Decrees, Dispositions, Sasines andCharters as well as estate papers, some ofwhich were collected and published asRecords of the Earldom of Orkney (Clouston(ed) 1914). Other papers are to be foundin the Old-Lore Miscellany series (1892onwards) and the Orkney Archive, and allof these provide further information on thenature of: land division; the emergence,development and dissolution of estates;boundary delimitations; and other issuespertaining to settlement and land. Thesesources provide a wealth of informationwhich has not, as yet, been systematicallyor critically assessed to any great extent,though scholars such as Clouston ((ed)1914; 1927; 1932a), Marwick (1929d),and especially Thomson (1996), haveshown the potential of these sources forstudying the development of the medievallandscape of Orkney.

Later sources, more readily available,include the Old and New StatisticalAccounts, which in many instances providethe first recorded description ofmonuments and sites. The level of detail inthese was very dependent on the particularinterests of individual parish ministers,however, for example they give only verybasic descriptions of the monuments inStenness, though there is more detail ofthose in Sandwick (OSA vol 14, 134-5;OSA vol 16, 451-2, 458-61; NSA vol 15,68; NSA vol 15, 53-8). There are severalTours of the Northern Isles andDescriptions such as those by Ben (1529),Wallace (1693), Brand (1883), Low(Cuthbert 2001), Barry (1805) and Tudor(1883); and the detailed work of the

115

ecclesiologists Muir (1885), Neale (1848)and Dryden (in MacGibbon and Ross1896) which provide information onstanding monuments. These sources arethe result of the antiquarian movementwhich developed throughout the 19thcentury and they are useful because theynot only provide detailed descriptions ofsites now lost or ruinous, but they alsopreserve folklore and traditions which havesince become obscure. A more ambiguoussource from this period lies in the variouscollections of watercolours and drawingsdepicting monuments and churches suchas those in the Robertson Collection(privately owned) (Fig 77), the Drydenwatercolours (Orkney Archives) andAberdeen’s sketches (Orkney Archives). An increased interest in antiquarianism,spurred by a growth in nationalism in thelate 19th century and early 20th century, isexemplified in the large number of studiesfocussing on the ‘Norseness’ of Orkney,including Clouston’s History of Orkney(1932a); Marwick’s series of place-namearticles published in the Proceedings of theOrkney Antiquarian Society (eg 1923b;1931); and most overtly in Johnston’sformation of the Viking Society and his

studies into Udal Law. This developmentresulted in many excellent, and somesuspect, studies of Orkney and‘Orkneyness’ and has influenced scholarlythought throughout the 20th century.These early 20th-century articles, whenused critically, can provide valuableinformation for future research.

Over recent years the RCAHMS has beencompleting an extensive survey of all WWIand WWII remains in Orkney, bringingtogether contemporary documentarysources (including photographs and oralhistory interviews) and modern surveys ofthe surviving structures. This collection ofinformation is able to provide a usefulinsight into how the WHS was utilisedduring both World Wars. Publication ofthe results of this survey work is due in thenear future but can be accessed in themeantime through the RCAHMS.

Orkney is fortunate to have both aphotographic and sound archive, basedwithin Orkney Archive. The SoundArchive holds recordings from as far backas the 1950s, with Ernest Marwick’scollection, copies of recordings made by

116

77. ‘Druidicalremains nearStenhouse Lake,Orkney’s’, anexample of an earlypictorial record of amonument © Robertson Collection.

Alan Bruford of the School of ScottishStudies, and holds the archive ofrecordings made for BBC Radio Orkney.These have been supplemented with avariety of more recent oral history projectswhich have included oral history andfolklore-based work. The PhotographicArchive has a vast collection ofphotographic material which covers theWHS. Both archives have the potential toyield useful information which should bethe base from which any future oral historyor folklore research is developed.

Cartographic sources

The early cartographic sources, includingsea charts, estate maps and maps formedduring the Division of the Commons,provide useful and important informationon early land systems. When combinedwith the Rental information, they help toprovide an enhanced understanding ofpre-improvement Orkney (as shown inThomson 1996). The most importantearly charts for Orkney are Mackenzie’sCharts of 1750, which include townshipboundaries, manor houses, large farms andchurches. These not only preserve thetownship areas but also provide a source ofplace-names. A significant later source isthe Ordnance Survey first edition mapsand the Original Name-Books, which oftenpreserve accounts and locations ofpreviously unrecorded sites, authenticatedby local testimony.

The above sources provide significantcontextual information, which not onlyprovides insight into the medievallandscape of Orkney but also charts theprogress of antiquarian study and showsthe impact that this has had on ourunderstanding of the monuments and thelandscape in which they stand. To ensurethat these sources are used to their fullpotential, an inventory of the materialavailable for the Orkney WHA would be awelcome addition to the SMR or theOrkney Archives.

Qualitative interviewing andparticipant observationSiân Jones and Angela McClanahan

Research into the beliefs and values oflocal communities in relation toarchaeological remains and sacred sites hasled to productive developments in terms ofheritage management, legislation, researchpractices and visitor management. In thiswork participant observation andqualitative interviewing are importantmethods to acquire knowledge. Thisapproach involves a variety of methodsderived from anthropology, sociology andheritage management, includingquestionnaires, focussed interviews andparticipant observation, and it is seen as animportant contribution to challengeconventional aspects of heritagemanagement policies (eg see Bartu 1998;Moser 1999). Though it started out in thecontext of post-colonial countries withvocal indigenous minorities/localcommunities, it is now seen as aproductive part of the process of heritagemanagement in Britain.

The method of research requiresengagement with various differentcommunities and individuals, such as localinhabitants, farmers, archaeologists,visitors, tourist organisations, etc, in avariety of social settings, and this isachieved through the overarchingframework of ‘multi-sited’ ethnography(see Marcus 1998). This anthropologicalstrategy is intended specifically to observethe behaviour and social engagements ofgroups and individuals in different places.It centres on spending significant amountsof time in different cultural settings (bothphysical and virtual; for example, anarchaeological site vs. an internetdiscussion forum), viewing eachplace/situation as an individual field ‘site’.Within each site a combination of specificmethods can be employed: participantobservation; direct observation; focusedqualitative interviews; historical anddocumentary analysis; and questionnaires.

117

Participant observation involves livingamongst, and participating in, the activitiesand daily lives of the specific communitieswhich are the focus of research and it iswidely regarded as yielding the most in-depth insights and understandings ofpeople’s beliefs, traditions and practices(for an overview see Jorgensen 1989).Interviews comprise an important part ofthis in order to deal with specific issues:they may range from impromptu,informal, but focused, conversations thattake place during routine interaction, toformal semi-structured interviews thathave been specifically arranged. In thecontext of the WHS, the incorporation ofrelevant textual material relating toarchaeological sites and monuments (eg inleaflets and on display boards), heritagemanagement policies, community andagricultural organisations, folklore,newspaper articles etc, is important. Thiswork draws not only on contemporarypractice, but it is also important to providea historical dimension through the use oforal and written historical evidence. In thisway it is possible to provide a historicalcontext for people’s beliefs, traditions andpractices.

Studies of this type are taking place inOrkney (currently by Angela McClanahanas a PhD studentship, supervised by SiânJones, Manchester University and fundedby Historic Scotland; McClanahan 2004)and they will provide in-depth knowledgeabout people’s beliefs, perceptions andpractices as they relate to the WHS. Morebroadly, the rôle of the WHS in thedevelopment and transformation of a senseof place and local identity can be exploredin relation to other historic sites in Orkneyand elsewhere. At a national (orinternational) level the WHS offers adetailed case study to explore the widerissues concerning the impact ofarchaeological monuments, and theirresearch, management and presentation,upon a contemporary society.

Museum-based studiesAnne Brundle

Museum collections hold originalarchaeological and historical material, andassociated information. They have greatresearch potential. Previously publishedmaterial can be usefully re-examined with

118

78. Museumsprovide a place forstudy as well as fordisplay © C R Wickham-Jones.

reference to new information orcollections, sometimes overturningprevious assumptions (eg Forsyth 1995;Heald 2001). The principal archaeologicalcollections from excavations in Orkney arein the Orkney Museum and the NationalMuseums of Scotland, but there are asurprising number of other museums,elsewhere in Britain which also hold someof the older Orkney material.

Access to museum collections is hamperedby museum catalogues, many of which areincomplete and unpublished. TheMuseums Registration scheme includes ageneral requirement for registeredmuseums to address catalogue backlogs,and the Orkney Heritage DevelopmentPlan 2000-2003 included a commitmentby Orkney Islands Council to establish afive-year plan to address this issue, but, atpresent, only part of the OrkneyMuseum’s archaeological collection iscatalogued by the museum; most of theremainder is accessible only throughexcavation archives and published reports.

Museums hold material from publishedand unpublished excavations and isolatedfinds. For the published material, there arepost-excavation reports. Some of theseinclude wide-ranging re-evaluation of aclass of material (eg MacSween 1997).Other specialist reports are produced withlimited resources, so that it is not possiblefor the authors to look at comparativematerial in other collections, or to find

parallels which may be obscure. Thesematerials covered by such reports mightwell reward further study (Fig 78).

It is more difficult to study unpublishedassemblages, particularly those from olderexcavations. Researchers may have to relyon the advice of museum curators, orpersonal networks, to get access toinformation not yet in the public domain.Information about individual finds andsmall assemblages should be availablethrough museum catalogues.

Sadly, research visits to museums are rare,as are detailed enquiries. They need to beencouraged. Museum collections are thepublic heritage; they and their associatedinformation should be as freely available asis possible within the limits of theconservation needs of the material and ofthe museum resources of time and space.

With regard to the WHS, priority shouldbe given to putting together a catalogue ofall relevant museum holdings and theirlocation. Past archaeological research inthe WHS has created a wealth of materialfrom which more information can begained. This includes material derivedfrom sites elsewhere across Orkney, as wellas material from the WHS itself. Findsfrom previous excavations are a valuablearchaeological resource, the materialremains of sites that have been wholly orpartially excavated away. There is a still agreat deal to be learned from them.

119