Technical Research Bulletin

VOLUME 5 2011

Technical Research Bulletin

25

The Noli me Tangere: study and conservation of a Cretan icon

Lynne Harrison, Janet Ambers, Rebecca Stacey, Caroline

Cartwright and Angeliki Lymberopoulou

Summary A seventeenth-century icon of the Noli me Tangere (1994,0501.3), in the collections of the Depart-

ment of Prehistory and Europe at the British Museum, has been the subject of detailed technical examination

from scientific, conservation and historical perspectives. The aims were to investigate its original materials

and manufacture, its treatment history and, if possible, to look for indications of function and use in Orthodox

practice, with the ultimate purpose of informing the conservation required to stabilize the icon’s structure and

address the damaged condition of the image. Research into the icon’s original context was also undertaken

to strengthen its provenance. The wooden panel was identified as cypress and the original palette was found

to comprise lead white, gypsum, carbon-based black, red and yellow earths, a basic copper carbonate green,

verdigris, indigo, azurite, vermilion, red lead and a red lake. The painting was found to have been originally

coated with an oil and resin varnish and two campaigns of restoration were also identified. The results of

the study enabled a suitable conservation protocol to be devised and applied. This involved removal of the

degraded restoration varnish and the unstable restoration from the early twentieth century to reveal the fine

original painted surface. Those areas of restoration thought to date from the painting’s early history, including

repairs to the edges and the complete regilding of the background, were left in place. The results of the study

also support a Cretan origin for the icon.

INTRODUCTION

A seventeenth-century icon of the Noli me Tangere(1994,0501.3), currently held by the Department of Prehis-

tory and Europe at the British Museum, was purchased

in Chania, Crete (probably in 1894) and donated to the

National Gallery, London in 1924, before being transferred

to the British Museum in 1994 [1; Note 3]. Painted on a

wooden panel measuring 606 × 472 mm and coated with

a glossy and darkened varnish (Figure 1), the image shows

the announcement of Christ’s resurrection organized in six

successive scenes accompanied by Greek inscriptions.

A detailed technical examination of the icon was carried

out, the aims of which were to investigate the original mate-

rials and manufacture, the treatment history and, if possible,

to look for indications of function and use in Orthodox

practice, while informing the conservation needed to stabi-

lize the icon’s structure and address the damaged condition

of the image. Research was also undertaken into the icon’s

original context in an attempt to strengthen its provenance

and to investigate a possible link to the post-Byzantine

Cretan artist Michael Damaskinos (1530/35–1592/93)

[2; p. 458 No. 100].

TECHNICAL EXAMINATION

Technical examination was carried out using X-radiog-

raphy, emission radiography, ultraviolet (UV) and infrared

(IR) examination and photography, optical microscopy,

Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy with

energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDX) and gas

chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), see the

experimental appendix for details. Layer structures were

investigated and the materials used in the original produc-

tion and later interventions were identified. Unfortunately

it was not possible to sample all areas of the painting so

the results given below, while as comprehensive as possible,

cannot be viewed as exhaustive.

Large quantities of data were generated in the process

of this study and it is not possible to include them all here.

LYNNE HARRISON, JANET AMBERS, REBECCA STACEY ET AL.

26

Instead, the most significant results have been selected for

inclusion in Tables 1 and 2, and for discussion and inter-

pretation below. Full details from the study are contained

in a British Museum internal report that can be accessed

through the online catalogue of British Museum icons [3].

Original materials

A single wooden panel of Cupressus sempervirens L.,

cypress (sometimes called Mediterranean or Italian

cypress) was cut in the radial longitudinal axis and

prepared so that it was smooth on the front surface, with

a rougher finish (with traces of adze work visible) on the

reverse [4; p. 33]. Two well-fitting wooden battens, also

of cypress, were then attached horizontally to the reverse

of the panel, at equal distances from the top and bottom

edges. No nails are visible on the reverse, but X-radi-

ography revealed that short, flat-headed nails had been

inserted from the front of the panel, equally spaced along

the length of the battens.

A layer of plain (tabby) weave cloth was glued onto

the smoothed front surface of the panel. While it was not

possible to sample or identify either the cloth or glue used,

linen soaked in animal glue was usually employed for this

purpose [5; p. 28]. A white ground of gypsum bound in a

proteinaceous medium was then applied to the whole front

surface of the panel and burnished smooth. No ground was

applied on the reverse of the icon.1

Evidence from the IR reflectograms, which reveal

elements of the underdrawing, suggests that the layout of

the image, including the positions of the figures, drapery

figure 1. Icon of the Noli me Tangere (1994,0501.3) before conservation. Note the highly glossy varnish seen clearly at the bottom edge

THE NOLI ME TANGERE: STUDY AND CONSERVATION OF A CRETAN ICON

27

Mat

eria

lA

nal

ytic

al m

eth

od

Res

ult

s

Late

r res

tora

tion

mat

eria

ls

Var

nis

hG

C-M

SPi

stacia

resi

n;d

ryin

go

il; a

nd

co

nif

er r

esin

(tr

)

Pai

nt

(pig

men

ts)

Pai

nt

(bin

der

)R

aman

+ o

pti

cal

mic

rosc

op

yG

C-M

SC

adm

ium

yel

low

; ver

mil

ion

;aP

russ

ian

blu

e; a

nd

car

bo

n-b

ased

bla

ckC

on

ifer

res

in; d

ryin

g o

il; a

nd

Pist

acia

resi

n

Gro

un

d (

bin

der

)P

hys

ical

tes

tsW

ater

so

lub

le

Early

resto

ratio

n m

ater

ials

Var

nis

hG

C-M

SC

on

ifer

res

in; d

ryin

g o

il; a

nd

Pist

acia

res

in (

tr)

Pig

men

tsP

ain

t (b

ind

er)

Ind

igo

ove

rpai

nt

(bin

der

)

Ram

an +

op

tica

l m

icro

sco

py

GC

-MS

GC

-MS

Red

lea

d; h

emat

ite;

go

eth

ite;

car

bo

n-b

ased

bla

ck; v

erm

ilio

n; i

nd

igo

; gyp

sum

; an

d r

ed l

ake

Fat

(eg

g?)/

oil

; co

nif

er r

esin

; an

d s

uga

rs (

gum

?)b

Co

nif

er r

esin

an

d o

il

Gro

un

d (

bin

der

)G

C-M

SA

nim

al g

lue

(gel

atin

e)

Orig

inal

laye

rs

Var

nis

hG

C-M

SC

on

ifer

res

in a

nd

dry

ing

oil

Go

ldB

ole

SEM

Ram

anG

old

all

oy

(c.9

3%

Au

, 4%

Ag,

3%

Cu

; c.2

2.4

car

at e

qu

ival

ent)

Go

eth

ite-

an

d h

emat

ite-

con

tain

ing

red

ear

th

Mo

rdan

tO

pti

cal

mic

rosc

op

yTh

ick

, pig

men

ted

an

d o

rgan

ic-r

ich

(p

igm

ents

an

d m

ediu

m n

ot

iden

tifi

ed)

Pai

nt

(pig

men

ts)

Pai

nt

(bin

der

)

Ram

an +

op

tica

l m

icro

sco

py

GC

-MS

Ver

mil

ion

; lea

d w

hit

e; c

arb

on

-bas

ed b

lack

; azu

rite

; in

dig

o; c

op

per

car

bo

nat

e gr

een

(ve

rdit

er?)

;c red

lea

d; g

oet

hit

e, h

emat

ite;

an

d g

ypsu

mV

erd

igri

s; e

arth

pig

men

ts; a

nd

red

lak

ed

Co

nif

er r

esin

; dry

ing

oil

Gro

un

dG

rou

nd

(b

ind

er)

Ram

an +

op

tica

l m

icro

sco

py

Stai

nin

g te

sts

Gyp

sum

Pro

tein

Clo

thV

isu

al a

sses

smen

tP

lain

/tab

by

wea

ve

Wo

od

Op

tica

l m

icro

sco

py

Cupr

essu

s sem

perv

irens

L.,

cyp

ress

No

tes

‘tr’

in

dic

ates

a t

race

am

ou

nt

was

fo

un

d.

a The

smal

l p

arti

cle

size

s su

gges

ted

th

at t

he

verm

ilio

n w

as p

rod

uce

d u

sin

g th

e w

et p

roce

ss.

b Th

e p

rese

nce

of

suga

rs i

s n

ot

un

der

sto

od

at

this

tim

e.c Th

is m

ay b

e n

atu

ral

mal

ach

ite,

bu

t th

e re

gula

r, s

mal

l an

d s

ph

eric

al p

arti

cles

mak

e th

e u

se o

f ar

tifi

cial

gre

en v

erd

iter

mo

re l

ikel

y.d G

iven

th

e te

chn

iqu

es a

vail

able

it

was

no

t p

oss

ible

to

det

erm

ine

the

org

anic

co

lora

nt

in t

he

red

lak

e.

tab

le 1

. Su

mm

ary

of

the

mai

n a

nal

ytic

al r

esu

lts


28

Sam

ple

R

esu

lts

(lay

er s

tru

ctu

re f

rom

su

rfac

e d

ow

n)

CS2

Ch

rist

’s l

eft a

nk

le, a

rea

of

gild

ed d

eco

rati

on

. Sam

ple

in

clu

des

all

lay

ers

of

varn

ish

an

d p

oss

ibly

rec

ent

ove

rpai

nt

Res

tora

tio

n1

0. V

arn

ish

, wh

ich

sh

ow

s w

hit

e lu

min

esce

nce

un

der

UV

ill

um

inat

ion

; to

th

e le

ft i

t is

ove

r la

yer

8 a

nd

pen

etra

tes

thro

ugh

a c

rack

to

th

e le

vel

of

the

ori

gin

al p

ain

t la

yers

; 9

.P

ain

t la

yer

com

pri

sin

g fi

nel

y gr

ou

nd

pig

men

ts (

ove

r o

rigi

nal

lay

ers

at r

igh

t) –

ear

ths,

red

lak

e, c

arb

on

-bas

ed b

lack

(R

aman

);

8.

Pai

nt

laye

r b

etw

een

tw

o t

hin

UV

-lu

min

esce

nt

coat

ings

(at

th

e le

ft o

f th

e sa

mp

le);

an

d

7.

Thic

k v

arn

ish

sh

ow

ing

crea

m lu

min

esce

nce

un

der

UV

ill

um

inat

ion

Ori

gin

al6

.M

etal

lea

f –

go

ld (

SEM

-ED

X);

5.

Thic

k, p

igm

ente

d o

rgan

ic-r

ich

mo

rdan

t;4

. G

reen

ish

-yel

low

lay

er o

f fl

esh

pai

nt

– e

arth

pig

men

ts a

nd

ver

dig

ris

(op

tica

l ex

amin

atio

n o

nly

) to

pp

ed w

ith

th

in p

ink

ish

-red

lay

er o

f fl

esh

pai

nt

– v

erm

ilio

n a

nd

lea

d w

hit

e (R

aman

);3

.W

arm

wh

ite

pai

nt

– l

ead

wh

ite,

car

bo

n b

lack

an

d y

ello

w o

chre

(R

aman

);2

.D

ark

lay

er; a

nd

1.G

esso

– g

ypsu

m (

Ram

an)

[pro

tein

]

CS7

Ove

rgil

din

g an

d o

verp

ain

t o

ver

ori

gin

al p

ain

t fr

om

ed

ge o

f cl

iff t

o l

eftR

esto

rati

on

10

.Tw

o u

pp

er v

arn

ish

lay

ers

sho

win

g w

hit

e lu

min

esce

nce

un

der

UV

ill

um

inat

ion

;9

.G

old

lea

f;8

.R

ed ‘b

ole

’ typ

e la

yer;

7.

Dar

k o

verp

ain

t, m

ediu

m s

ho

win

g lu

min

esce

nce

un

der

UV

ill

um

inat

ion

; an

d6.

Lo

wer

th

ick

var

nis

h t

hat

sh

ow

s cr

eam

lum

ines

cen

ce u

nd

er U

V i

llu

min

atio

n a

nd

pen

etra

tes

into

cra

ck i

n o

rigi

nal

pai

nt

Ori

gin

al5

.D

ark

lay

er –

dir

t(?)

;4

.Th

in v

arn

ish

lay

er s

ho

win

g lu

min

esce

nce

un

der

UV

ill

um

inat

ion

;3

.O

rigi

nal

dar

k g

reen

pai

nt

– a

zuri

te, l

ead

wh

ite

and

car

bo

n-b

ased

bla

ck (

all

by

Ram

an)

and

yel

low

(u

nid

enti

fied

);2

.O

rigi

nal

lig

ht

yell

ow

-gre

en p

ain

t (u

nid

enti

fied

); a

nd

1.

Wh

ite

pai

nt

– l

ead

wh

ite

(Ram

an)

plu

s fr

agm

ent

of

gold

lea

f

CS9

Gre

en o

f an

gel’s

win

g w

ith

red

un

der

pai

nt.

Up

per

var

nis

hes

rem

ove

dR

esto

rati

on

6.

Rem

ain

s o

f tw

o s

urf

ace

coat

ings

to

th

e ri

ght.

So

me

par

ticl

es s

ho

w lu

min

esce

nce

un

der

UV

ill

um

inat

ion

; an

d5

.D

ark

lay

er p

enet

rati

ng

into

cra

ck

Ori

gin

al4.

Var

nis

h, p

oss

ibly

ori

gin

al, s

ho

win

g fa

int

wh

ite

lum

ines

cen

ce u

nd

er U

V i

llu

min

atio

n;

3.

Wh

ite

hig

hli

ght

pai

nt

– l

ead

wh

ite

(Ram

an);

2.

Gre

en p

ain

t –

man

ufa

ctu

red

gre

en c

op

per

car

bo

nat

e an

d a

zuri

te (

bo

th b

y R

aman

); a

nd

1.

Red

pai

nt

– v

erm

ilio

n, l

ead

wh

ite

(bo

th b

y R

aman

) an

d r

ed l

ake

CS1

0 A

nge

l’s g

rey

rob

e, w

ith

old

var

nis

h r

esid

ues

. Gro

un

d l

ayer

mis

sin

gR

esto

rati

on

5.

So

me

frag

men

tary

par

ticl

es o

n s

urf

ace,

po

ssib

ly o

verp

ain

t;4

.N

on

-lu

min

esce

nt

surf

ace

laye

r –

po

ssib

ly c

alci

um

oxa

late

(vi

sual

exa

min

atio

n, u

nab

le t

o c

on

firm

by

Ram

an);

3.

Rem

ain

s o

f va

rnis

h l

ayer

ab

ove

an

d b

elo

w t

he

oxa

late

lay

er s

ho

win

g cr

eam

lum

ines

cen

ce u

nd

er U

V i

llu

min

atio

n;

Ori

gin

al2

.D

ark

gre

y th

in p

ain

t la

yer

– c

arb

on

-bas

ed b

lack

, lea

d w

hit

e (b

oth

by

Ram

an);

an

d1

.L

igh

t gr

ey t

hic

ker

pai

nt

laye

r –

car

bo

n-b

ased

bla

ck, l

ead

wh

ite

and

azu

rite

(al

l b

y R

aman

)

tab

le 2

. Sel

ecte

d p

ain

t cr

oss

-sec

tio

ns

sho

win

g st

rati

grap

hy


29

CS1

2 D

amag

ed r

ed p

ain

t fr

om

kn

eeli

ng

figu

re t

o l

eft. R

esto

rati

on

var

nis

h

rem

ove

dO

rigi

nal

4.

Cru

st –

deg

rad

atio

n v

isib

le o

n s

urf

ace;

pro

bab

ly a

cal

ciu

m o

xala

te c

rust

(u

nab

le t

o c

on

firm

by

Ram

an);

3.

Red

gla

ze –

red

lak

e;

2.

Red

pai

nt

– v

erm

ilio

n (

Ram

an)

and

red

lak

e; a

nd

1.

Bro

wn

ish

pai

nt

– e

arth

pig

men

ts (

goet

hit

e an

d h

emat

ite)

an

d c

arb

on

-bas

ed b

lack

(al

l b

y R

aman

)

CS1

3 G

old

ove

rpai

nt

laye

rs f

rom

are

a o

f d

amag

e, t

op

cen

tre

of

gild

ed

bac

kgr

ou

nd

an

d i

ncl

ud

ing

ori

gin

al l

ayer

s b

enea

thR

esto

rati

on

6.

Up

per

var

nis

h s

ho

win

g w

hit

e lu

min

esce

nce

un

der

UV

ill

um

inat

ion

;5

.P

igm

ent

and

go

ld o

verp

ain

t –

bla

ck a

nd

red

par

ticl

es (

un

iden

tifi

ed);

an

d4

.Th

ick

bri

ttle

var

nis

h s

ho

win

g cr

eam

lum

ines

cen

ce u

nd

er U

V i

llu

min

atio

n

Ori

gin

al3

.G

old

lea

f;

2.

Red

‘bo

le’ l

ayer

– h

emat

ite

(Ram

an);

an

d1.

Ges

so

No

te

Pig

men

t id

enti

fica

tio

ns

give

n a

re b

ased

on

th

e m

eth

od

giv

en i

n b

rack

ets

and

nat

ure

of

the

org

anic

med

ium

/ v

arn

ish

is

bas

ed o

n m

icro

chem

ical

sta

inin

g te

sts.


30

and architecture, was transferred to the ground layer from

an anthibolon (a cartoon or pattern used for tracing the basic

designs of works) by pricking and pouncing through the

pinholes with a carbon-containing material. The resulting

dots were then joined by drawn lines, Figure 2 [6; pp. 56–60

and 76–79, 7; pp. 169–170, 8]. From the X-radiographs it

is clear that some of the lines were then further incised

into the ground with a sharp implement so that they

could be seen throughout the painting process, Figure

3. Interestingly, the trees and rocks of the background,

the angels’ wings and the faces of the figures were not

incised, Figure 4. Further evidence of underdrawing,

without accompanying incised lines, can be seen in the IR

reflectogram, for example in the branches of the trees and

in the complete drapery of the left figure and folds of the

sleeve of the middle figure in the scene to the upper right

showing the Myrrophoroi (unguent bearers), Figure 5 [1;

p. 191]. Only slight changes in design (pentimenti)between the underdrawing and the finished image are

evident, as in the hem of the drapery of the middle figure

in the Myrrophoroi scene, Figure 5.

A dark, patchy wash of colour on the faces and hands is

also apparent in the IR reflectograms and is interpreted as

an underpainting or proplasmos [9; p. 234].

Following the production of the underdrawing, the areas

to be gilded (the background and halos) were first coated

with a bole based on red earth, burnished and then covered

with thin metal leaf of soft, high-purity gold (see Table 1),

which was further burnished.

Examination of the layer structure revealed details of the

composition of the original paint layer and two additional

restoration layers; in some places the ground preparations

were also present, see below. The original painting tech-

nique was distinct from that used in the restoration layers in

pigment choice, preparation and colour mix, making it easy

to distinguish original workmanship from later additions.

As is common in icons, the use of restoration to maintain

a complete and functional image for worship has produced

a complex and confused layer structure with penetration

of solvents and media from layer to layer making it impos-

sible to identify the original paint medium with certainty [3;

Section 4.1]. Conifer resin and drying oil were found in the

original paint layers but no proteins or fats were identified,

although their presence, perhaps only in small quantities,

may have been masked by other materials.

The original palette consisted of lead white, gypsum,

carbon-based black, red and yellow earths (coloured by

goethite and hematite), a basic copper carbonate green,

verdigris, indigo, azurite, vermilion, red lead and a red lake,

see Table 1. The image was built up in layers, with simple

paint mixtures of two or three pigments.

Selected passages of the painting have been studied in

greater detail; see Table 2 for details of the cross-sections

taken from these areas. The flesh tone of the large figure

of Christ was painted with a yellow-green paint containing

a mixture of yellow earth, verdigris and an unidentified

white pigment, CS2: Table 2. Highlights of lead white were

applied over this layer with the addition of small amounts of

vermilion for areas of warm flesh tones. A similar yellowish-

green paint mixture was used for some of the background

figure 2. Details from the IR reflectogram in the area of Christ’s drapery showing carbon-based spots from pouncing of an original anthibolon. The image to the right is an enlargement of the region bounded by the rectangle in the image to the left

figure 3. Details from the X-radiograph in the area of Christ’s drapery showing incised lines. The image to the right is an enlargement of the region bounded by the rectangle in the image to the left

figure 4. Diagram indicating the positions of incised lines as deduced from the X-radiographs


31

cliffs (CS7: Table 2), where a lighter layer was laid down first

and then darker passages applied on top, with the addition of

azurite and carbon-based black to the paint mixture. A frag-

ment of gold leaf was found within the lowest paint layers.

The grey robe of the angel to the left of the empty tomb

was painted using a mixture of a carbon-based black, lead

white and azurite with the darker folds added on top using

a mixture comprising only lead white and carbon-based

black, CS10: Table 2. The angel’s wings were first painted

with red (a mixture of vermilion, lead white and a red

lake) and then edged with greenish wing tips of a mixture

of malachite (or perhaps its artificial analogue green verd-

iter) and azurite, with white highlights on top, CS9: Table

2. To the lower left, in the scene of the Chairete (‘All Hail’),

the red drapery of the kneeling figure of the Virgin Mary is

quite distinct from the other reds used in the image. This

effect was produced using three paint layers, CS12: Table 2.

The first brownish-red layer was coloured with earths and

carbon-based black and this was coated with a second thin

layer of semi-opaque red (a mixture of vermilion and red

lake) to which a comparatively thick third layer of a trans-

lucent red lake was finally applied.

After painting, mordant gilding was used to deco-

rate Christ’s cloak and sandals, and the angels’ wings. The

mordant from an area of Christ’s sandal, visually identified

as an organic binder bulked out with inorganic pigment,

was applied to the painted surface and then coated with gold

leaf that was left unburnished, CS2: Table 2.2 The surface

of the painting was then coated with a varnish containing

a mixture of drying oil and conifer resin, the remains of

which were located in the paint cross-sections during anal-

ysis and confirmed during conservation.

Later changes (damage and restoration)

At some point, possibly relatively soon after completion,

the icon suffered extensive damage to the wood panel and

painted surface by wood-boring insects, probably attracted

to the glue-impregnated cloth layer as a potential food

source. In general the damage was restricted to the upper-

most surface of the panel, with only few areas of activity

visible on the reverse, which are discussed below. As a

result, original paint and ground were damaged or lost and

restoration was clearly undertaken. The painted surface was

cleaned to remove the original varnish, resulting in some

damage to the paint (particularly the Virgin’s red robe in

the Chairete scene) and etching of the surface of the gilded

halos and mordant gilding, Figure 6. The lost areas – partic-

ularly at the edges – were replaced with a white ground

layer bound in animal glue and an attempt was made to

complete the detail of the lost image using pigments that

were probably bound in egg or an egg/oil mixture, Table

1. An exception to this was the indigo paint used to cover

areas of loss in the trees, which was oil-based. Curiously,

the restoration layer was not built up to the same level

as the original surface, but sat just below, forming a step

around the edges of the damages. Some of the insect flight

holes were also plugged with white fill and overpainted.

The early restoration palette included red lead, vermilion,

indigo, ochres, a red lake and gypsum, and differs from

the original palette both in pigment mixtures and the size

of the pigment particles. For example, restoration of the

red coffin in the Myrrophoroi scene, originally painted in

vermilion, was carried out in a mixture of red lead and

a red lake. Larger areas of loss of original ground in the

gold background were also replaced and the whole of the

background was regilded. Of the original gilding, only the

halos and traces in the background remain (see below). The

profiles of the mountains and architecture were repainted

and a black inscription added on top of the gold back-

ground between the mountains to the right. The original

crosses were completely overpainted. A comparatively thick

coating of an oil and conifer resin varnish was then applied

across the whole surface including the restorations and the

original paint.

figure 6. Photomicrograph of the mordant gilding on Christ’s sandal strap showing loss of original mordant gilding beneath the cracked and brittle restoration varnish. Image size 12 × 9 mm

figure 5. Detail from the IR reflectogram showing underdrawing in: (a) the tree branches; and (b) the scene of the Myrrophoroi


32

A later, probably early twentieth century, restoration

campaign has also been identified, which concentrated on

the lower left edge and left side of the icon, but included

other scattered areas of retouching across most of the

surface. The losses were replaced with white, water-soluble

filler and inpainted using pigments that were probably

bound in oil. The palette included traditional pigments

such as vermilion for the overpainted red border and

some post-eighteenth-century materials such as cadmium

yellow and Prussian blue; the latter was used to retouch

the Magdalene’s blue robe that had originally been painted

with a mixture containing indigo and gypsum, Table 1. This

paint was applied directly on top of the older degraded oil

and conifer resin varnish from the previous treatment and

concealed areas of original paint and earlier restoration.

Unlike the earlier repairs, no attempt was made to recreate

the lost parts, using instead simple blocks of colour to fill

the losses. A further, thinner, layer of oil and mastic resin

varnish was then brushed over the whole surface.

CONSERVATION TREATMENT

Condition before conservation

As a result of its history of construction and change, the

painting was in urgent need of conservation, both to stabi-

lize it and to clarify the heavily restored and damaged

image. The icon was structurally unstable and visually

compromised by the previous restoration treatments. The

figure 7. Icon during conservation showing those areas (shaded in pink) that comprise earlier restorations or regilding, plus the black inscription; all of these were left in place


33

two oil and resin varnish layers from previous restora-

tions were brittle and flaking and original paint was often

attached to these flakes. There were localized areas of recent

paint loss, some showing cleavage between the paint layers

while others included the ground and exposed the wood

support. Two rigid paint blisters in the centre were raised

out of plane and hollow to the touch. The later restoration

was particularly unstable along the left edge and was sepa-

rating from the wood.

Insect damage had caused areas of the original surface

to become soft and hollow. These had collapsed in places,

causing surface undulations and loss. The painted layers

were riddled with insect flight holes, many of which had

been plugged with restoration material. X-radiography

revealed the extent, depth and severity of a crack running

vertically through the centre of the panel; this was partic-

ularly evident in the electron emission radiograph, which

also provided a very clear view of other panel damage

and the restoration of the painted surface. The panel had

remained relatively flat with only a minor twist from top to

bottom, although shrinkage and expansion could readily be

observed in the behaviour of one of the paint blisters in the

upper centre right, which altered in height in response to

changes in relative humidity (RH).

Treatment

Conservation treatment was undertaken to render the icon

structurally stable and improve the clarity of the image.

The outermost oil and mastic resin varnish was removed

with a solvent mixture comprising propan-2-ol and white

spirits in a ratio of 2:3 (v/v), applied on small cotton wool

swabs rolled across the surface; this revealed the lower,

older varnish and the most recent restoration. Where these

restorations extended over the original surface they were

removed mechanically with a scalpel. The lower varnish

was then removed with propanone (acetone) applied in the

manner described above, uncovering the remains of a rela-

tively insoluble coating that had been applied directly onto

the painted surface and which was, therefore, interpreted as

an original material.

The remainder of the most recent restoration and asso-

ciated fills, along the left edge and where present on the

other edges, were removed mechanically using a scalpel,

revealing the wood beneath and exposing the insect

damage. The remains of a cloth layer between the wood

and ground were discovered at this point; its presence was

not previously known, as it had not been revealed by any

of the imaging methods applied to the painting. Traces of

earlier restoration were also uncovered along the left edge,

matching those present on the right, including the step in

level. It appears that prior to the later restoration the panel

had lost most of its previously restored left edge, together

with more of the original paint at the bottom and top left

corners, and that this may be the reason for the later treat-

ment to repair the left side.

The earlier restorations were left in place except where

they covered original material and obscured the original

surface, where they were removed mechanically. The

regilding and the added black inscription between the

mountains in the background were left, as neither the

extent of any surviving original gilding nor the presence of

an earlier inscription could be determined, Figure 7.

Localized areas of flaking original paint were consoli-

dated with an acrylic dispersion (Lascaux® 4176) applied

beneath the lifting flake with a small brush. The treated area

was then warmed with a heated spatula to approximately

40°C through release layers of lens tissue (closest to the paint

layer) and lightweight Melinex® polyester film to relax and

reattach the paint. The area was weighted with sandbags until

the adhesive dried. Localized areas of cleavage between the

ground and the cloth or wood were reattached by injecting

a warm solution of gelatine (approximately 10% w/v in

de-ionized water) through losses in the original surface with

a small syringe and then weighting with sandbags placed

over release layers as described above. The large rigid blister

discussed earlier was not treated, as the long-term stability of

this reattachment could not be guaranteed unless the icon is

henceforth stored permanently at a raised RH to prevent any

panel shrinkage. Were the panel to be subjected to a period

of low or fluctuating RH there would be increased risk of the

blister lifting again or, more worryingly, of the paint layers

becoming compressed, resulting in active flaking and loss.

For this reason the blister, which was considered stiff enough

to support itself, was not further treated.

The reverse of the panel was cleaned with ‘smoke sponge’,

a vulcanized rubber molecular trap that contains a minus-

cule percentage of a mild soap (<0.006%, or 0.06 grammes

per kilogramme).

Where access was possible, voids and soft areas of the

original painted surface (comprising paint and ground

layers), particularly around clusters of flight holes and at the

edges of paint losses, were strengthened with a 5% w/v solu-

tion of Paraloid® B72 (methyl acrylate/ethyl methacrylate

copolymer) in a 1:1 v/v mixture of acetone and industrial

methylated spirit (IMS). This was injected beneath the

figure 8. A detail of the upper left side of the icon during conserva-tion showing the condition of the original surface after cleaning and the newly applied white surface fills before inpainting


34

painted surface and through flight holes to consolidate the

wood and frass. Where access was possible to voids directly

beneath the original paint, these were filled by injecting a

suspension of fine silica microballoons in a 10% solution of

Paraloid B72 in the same solvent mixture through holes in

the surface.

In order to unify damaged and undamaged elements of

the image, new fills were also applied to losses in the orig-

inal painted image and used to plug selected flight holes,

Figure 8. The original paint layer around the area to be

filled was first protected with a (temporary) brushed appli-

cation of a ketone-based picture varnish. A filler comprising

chalk in a 10% w/v solution of gelatine in de-ionized water

was applied to the losses and, once dry, was carved with a

scalpel blade and smoothed with cotton wool swabs damp-

ened with de-ionized water to mimic the original surface

topography. The temporary varnish was then removed with

white spirits. The larger losses along the edges were not

replaced. The whole painted surface of the icon was then

coated with a brushed application of a 12% w/v solution

of Paraloid B72 in dimethylbenzene (xylene) and the fills

were inpainted with raw pigments ground and mixed in a

20% w/v solution of Paraloid B72 in methoxypropan-2-ol.

Selected areas of wear, considered to be detrimental to the

integrity of the image, were also inpainted. A final thin coat

of a 10% w/v solution of Paraloid B72 in xylene was sprayed

onto the surface to reduce the gloss and to give a more even

appearance across the surface of the painting, Figure 9. As

the icon is generally displayed within a conditioned case,

only a thin protective coating, sufficient to saturate the

colours adequately and provide some protection against

dirt, was used.

figure 9. Icon of the Noli me Tangere (1994,0501.3) after conservation


35

FINDINGS IN A HISTORICAL CONTEXT

While the need to conserve the painting was the primary

driving force in this investigation, the results have broader

implications, particularly with regard to provenance and

authorship.

The icon is recorded as having been purchased in

Crete and the findings described here certainly accord

with it having originated in this region. The subject of the

Noli me Tangere was common in Cretan painting from

the mid-fifteenth century onwards [2; p. 407 No. 50, 10;

p. 44 No. 370, 11; p. 187 No. 58, 12; p. 92 No. 19]. The

style of this icon is similar to other works from this period

that show Cretan or Venetian influences. The island of

Crete came under Venetian domination in 1211 and by

the mid-fifteenth century its hybrid society, consisting of

native Greek Orthodox Cretans and Catholic Venetians,

was experiencing widespread and fertile cross-cultural

interactions [13; pp. 194–217, 14; pp. 351–370]. The target

audience for icons such as this Noli me Tangere was both

Orthodox and Catholic and the image combines subjects

favoured by both Christian traditions, the resurrected

Christ being the focal point of the Greek Orthodox faith

and the penitent Mary Magdalene of great importance in

Catholic theology.

Analysis confirmed that the construction of the icon

seems to follow post-Byzantine Orthodox painting practice

as established in the literature [5, 8; pp. 54–56], employing

techniques used in earlier Italian panel paintings and

documented in painters’ manuals [7; pp. 152–192, 15;

pp. 11–48, 16]. Cypress wood was the traditional choice for

panel painting in Crete [5; p. 26], as it was widely available

and its inherent qualities of strength, hardness, fine grain,

resistance to splitting or warping and ease of cutting and

carving were ideal for this purpose. Furthermore, as cypress

retains its fragrance, it can be resistant to some insects [17].

The method of attachment of the horizontal battens on the

reverse of the icon, with nails too short to penetrate the

thickness of the structure, is more unusual. Longer nails

were more commonly used, with the exposed nail points

clinched (bent) at right angles into the wood to prevent the

batten easing off should the panel warp or develop a twist

[4; p. 34, 5; p. 26, 18; pp. 122–125].

The icon also shows great similarity with a considerably

larger depiction of the same subject in Saint Catherine’s

Monastery at Herakleion, Crete, which bears the signature

of the post-Byzantine Cretan artist Michael Damaskinos

(1530/1535–1592/1593) [2; p. 458 No.100]. It is possible

that the British Museum icon could be based on a scaled-

down anthibolon of the painting by Damaskinos. Anthibolawere commonly used by Cretan painters to create quick and

efficient reproductions [19; p. 181]. Changing the scale of

a cartoon was certainly a common practice in Renaissance

Italy, the most common method being the use of a ‘propor-

tional squaring grid’ [6; pp. 51 and 131], and it may be that

similar processes were applied to anthibola. Such were the

reputation of Damaskinos and the quality of his works that

his anthibola were in great demand after his death [20;

pp. 255–256 and 269–271]. His icons were copied by known

Cretan artists in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

[2; pp. 453, 457, 465 No. 107, colour plate 107], although it

should be acknowledged that stylistically they often differ

substantially from the originals [1, 2; p. 465 No. 107 and

pp. 455–457 No. 99]. As discussed above, investigations of

the underdrawing revealed omissions to the incised image

in the background, angels’ wings and faces of the figures that

could explain slight variations in position and appearance

between this icon and the painting by Michael Damaskinos.

Analysis of the original paint media was not conclusive

and neither proteins nor fats were identified, Table 1. In

traditional practice, egg is generally described as being used

in this context, either alone or mixed with oil in the form

of a tempera grassa medium [9; pp. 202–203 and 234, 16;

p. 11]. But as described earlier, the identification of proteins

in paintings such as this is difficult, particularly if they are

only present in small proportions or if an interaction has

occurred between pigment and binder [21]. Additionally,

research is increasingly demonstrating the complexities

of the use and identification of the binding media in early

paintings [22]. Despite these caveats it is worth noting that

the appearance of the paint surface is certainly consistent

with egg tempera painting practice.

The use of tempera grassa was previously indicated in

a group of late fifteenth-century Florentine panels [23;

p. 30]. It has been suggested that it was sometimes employed

by the fifteenth-century Cretan artist Angelos, as it was

detected in two of six panels analysed [5; p. 40], and later by

Damaskinos [24; p. 187]. The addition of drying oil would

certainly have enhanced the glazing effect of the indigo and

red lake in the composition. Darkening of the paint layer as

a result of ageing of the oil would also explain the darkened

look of the green trees and perhaps the change in appear-

ance of the red lake glaze on the Virgin’s robe.3

The pigments identified, including the organic lakes,

are consistent with those found on Greek and Cretan icons

from the fifteenth century onwards [5; pp. 40–64, 25], and

would have been available as a consequence of vigorous

trade routes with Venice [5; p. 94 Note 43, 7; p. 183, 26;

p. 247]. The technique used to paint the Virgin’s robe is

thought to date from after the mid-fifteenth century and is

distinct from earlier practice employed for Virgins’ robes

[5; pp. 54, 92, Note 40 and 130]. Unfortunately neither the

palette nor the techniques employed are distinctive enough

to give a definitive date for the production of the British

Museum icon, although a seventeenth-century origin seems

most likely [1].

The icon certainly seems to have been used within a

liturgical context. Wax spots were identified on the original

surface above the earliest confirmed varnish and are inter-

preted as accretions accumulated during use. In Orthodox

practice icons are venerated through the act of Proskynesis [27; p. 8], in which they are kissed, handled and exposed to

candles and incense [9; p. 48, 28; p. 173, 29; pp. 38–39]. From

the time of the earliest restoration, and predating its purchase


36

in the late nineteenth century, it is likely that repairs were

made to facilitate continued use in liturgy. The later restora-

tion to complete the image and apply a coat of mastic varnish

was probably undertaken at the National Gallery in 1924 [30].

CONCLUSIONS

Using a range of analytical and conservation approaches

it has been possible to identify the original materials and

methods of construction of the icon depicting the Noli me Tangere, together with the materials used in later conserva-

tion interventions. The interpretation of these findings was

only possible in combination with research into the history

of the production and use of icons and previous restoration

practices. Research has also helped establish a likely chro-

nology for previous interventions. The latest conservation

treatment has rendered the icon structurally stable and to a

certain extent reintroduced clarity to the image, revealing

the fine quality of the painting technique. The icon is now

included in a permanent display at the British Museum

alongside other Cretan icons, helping to highlight the exist-

ence of this important part of the collection and stimulate

interest in its study.

Technical examination has shown that the icon is

complex and well made, following traditional practice.

Identification of the materials and techniques employed,

together with art historical evidence [1], has helped to

strengthen a Cretan provenance. The painting technique

and, to a certain extent, the panel preparation suggest the

work of a skilled artisan. The character of the underdrawing

suggests that the work is a copy of a prototype, possibly by

the Cretan artist Michael Damaskinos.

This icon, together with the work by Damaskinos in Saint

Catherine’s Monastery at Herakleion, are representative

examples of the style of art created within a cosmopolitan

and multicultural urban environment on Crete, which

contains elements designed to appeal to a hybrid audience

from different Christian traditions.

EXPERIMENTAL APPENDIX

Surface examination under magnification was carried out

using a Leica S8 APO stereomicroscope with an APO ×0.63

WD 100 mm lens. The images were captured with a Leica

DFC320 camera.

Ultraviolet (UV) examination was undertaken using

two UV fluorescent lamps and captured with a Hasselblad

503CW camera fitted with a PhaseOne H25 digital back

and an 80 mm Carl Zeiss lens fitted with an UV-absorbing

filter. The exposure times were generally long (in the range

of c.5–10 minutes).

X-radiographs were produced using typical exposure

conditions of 60–70 kV for 25 mA minutes on Kodak

Industrex film and then scanned using an Agfa RadView

digitizer with a 50 μm pixel size and 12-bit resolution to

allow digital manipulation and enhancement of the images.

On some areas, electron emission imaging using a heavily

filtered X-ray beam at 300 kV was carried out [31; p. 101].

IR reflectograms (IRR) were produced using tungsten

Elinchrom 500 lights with an Osiris infrared camera fitted

with an InGaAs sensor and a six-element 150 mm focal

length f/5.6–f/45 lens. A Schott RG830 glass filter with a

cut-on transmission of 50% at 830 nm was placed in front

of the lens.

For wood identification, small (< 1.5 × 1.5 mm) samples

were fractured to expose transverse, radial longitudinal

and tangential longitudinal surfaces for identification

using a Leica Aristomet biological optical microscope.

Reflected light with dark field mode was used at magni-

fications ranging from ×50 to ×520. Polarized light was

selected as required. Standard techniques of wood iden-

tification and terminology were used as set out by the

International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA)

for the identification of modern wood as exemplified by

Wheeler et al. [32, 33].

Paint cross-section samples were mounted in clear

casting AM polyester resin and dry ground using Micro-

Mesh® abrasive and polishing cloths to avoid disturbing

any water-soluble layers. The samples were examined

under reflected visible and UV light at magnifications of

×400 and ×600. Any inorganic materials present were iden-

tified using Raman spectroscopy and SEM-EDX analysis.

Raman spectroscopy of dispersed samples and mounted

cross-sections was carried out using a Horiba Infinity spec-

trometer with green (532 nm) and near infrared (785 nm)

lasers, with a maximum power of 4 mW at the sample.

Samples for SEM-EDX analysis were carbon coated and

then examined in a JEOL JSM-840, equipped with an EDX

accessory (Oxford Instruments, ISIS with Si(Li) detector)

for elemental analysis. Sequential microchemical staining

tests were also carried out to indicate types of media. Amido

Black AB2A was used as a general stain for protein and

Rhodamine B as a general stain for oil [34, 35]. The cross-

sections were examined under magnification as above.

Samples for GC-MS analysis were collected by swabbing

or from surface scrapes. Methods of sample preparation

and analysis were selected according to sample type. A

lipid method was used principally for varnishes and the

characterization of paint media. Samples were extracted

using dichloromethane (DCM) and then derivatized

prior to analysis with bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroaceta-

mide (BSTFA) + 1% trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS) to

form trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives. A protein method

was used principally for ground layers and glues or adhe-

sives. Samples were prepared as amino acid extracts by

hydrolysation with hydrochloric acid, then derivatized

prior to analysis with N-(tertbutyldimethylsilyl)-N-methyl

trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) + 1% tertbutyldimethyl

silyl chloride (TBDMSC). For further details of the analyt-

ical methods, see [3].


37

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Chris Entwistle, curator of the icon collection at the British Museum; Marika Spring and Hayley Tomlinson of the National Gallery, London; Aviva Burnstock of the Courtauld Institute of Art, London; and colleagues from the British Museum: Catherine Higgitt, Duncan Hook, Kevin Lovelock, Nigel Meeks, Antony Simpson, Trevor Springett and Giovanni Verri.

MATERIALS AND SUPPLIERS

AM Polyester resin: Alec Tiranti Ltd, www.tiranti.co.ukLascaux 4176 and Paraloid B-72: AP Fitzpatrick, www.apfitzpatrick.co.ukLens tissue: Falkiners fine papers, www.falkiners.comSilica microballoons: Conservation by Design Ltd, www.conservation-by-design.co.ukMicro-Mesh: Craft Supplies Ltd, The Mill, Millers Dale, Derbyshire SK17 8SN, UK.Melinex and smoke sponge: Preservation Equipment Ltd, www.preservationequipment.comSolvents: VWR International Ltd, Magna Park, Hunter Boule-vard, Lutterworth, Leicestershire LE17 4XN, UK, uk.vwr.com

AUTHORS

Lynne Harrison ([email protected]) is a conservator and Janet Ambers ([email protected]), Rebecca Stacey ([email protected]) and Caroline Cartwright ([email protected]) are scientists, all in the Department of Conservation and Scientific Research at the British Museum. Angeliki Lymberopoulou ([email protected]) is a lecturer at the Open University.

REFERENCES

1. Lymberopoulou, A., Harrison, L. and Ambers, J., ‘The Noli me Tangere icon at the British Museum: vision, message and reality’, in Images of the Byzantine World: visions, messages and mean-ings. Studies presented to Leslie Brubaker, ed. A. Lymberopoulou, Ashgate, Farnham (2011) 185–214.

2. Μπορμπουδάκης, M. (Borboudakis, M.) (ed.), Εικόνες της Κρητικής Τέχνης (Από τον Χάνδακα ως την Μόσχα και την Αγία Πετρούπολη), University of Crete, Herakleion (1993). [Images of Cretan art (from Candia to Moscow and St Petersburg)]

3. Harrison, L., Ambers, J., Cartwright, C.R., Stacey, R. and Hook, D., Establishing an approach to the care and conservation of Orthodox icons at the British Museum, Report No. 7449/1 (forthcoming), www.britishmuseum.org/research/online_research_catalogues.

4. Papadopoulou, A., ‘Traditional wood technology and problems relating to wooden supports’, in The conservation of late icons, ed. N. Jolkkonen, A. Martiskainen, P. Martiskainen and H. Nikkanen, Valamo Art Conservation Institute, Finland (1998) 31–40.

5. Milanou, K., Vourvopoulou, C., Vranopoulou, L. and Kalliga, A.L., Icons by the hand of Angelos: the painting method of a fifteenth-century Cretan painter, Benaki Museum, Athens (2008).

6. Bambach, C.C., Drawing and painting in the Italian Renaissance workshop: theory and practice, 1300–1600, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1999).

7. Dunkerton, J., Foister, S., Gordon, D. and Penny, N., Giotto to Durer: early European painting in the National Gallery, National Gallery Company, London (1991).

8. Bouras, L., ‘Working drawings of painters in Greece after the fall of Constantinople’, in From Byzantium to El Greco: Greek frescoes and icons, ed. M. Acheimastou-Potamianou, Greek Ministry of Culture and Byzantine Museum of Athens, Athens (1987) 54–56.

9. Sendler, S.J.E., The icon: image of the invisible, 2nd edn, translated by S. Bingham, Oakwood Publications, California (1988).

10. Chatzidakis, N., Icons of Cretan School (15th–16th century),Benaki Museum, Athens (1983).

11. Acheimastou-Potamianou, M. (ed.), From Byzantium to El Greco: Greek frescoes and icons, Greek Ministry of Culture and Byzantine Museum of Athens, Athens (1987).

12. Chatzidakis, N., Venetiae quasi alterum Byzantium: Candia to Venice. Greek icons in Italy, 15th–16th centuries, Foundation for Hellenic Culture, Athens (1993).

13. Lymberopoulou, A., The Church of the Archangel Michael at Kava-lariana: art and society on fourteenth-century Venetian-dominated Crete, Pindar Press, London (2006).

14. Lymberopoulou, A., ‘Late and post-Byzantine art under Vene-tian rule: frescoes versus icons and Crete in the middle’, in A companion to Byzantium, ed. L. James, Wiley, Oxford (2010).

15. Bomford, D., Dunkerton, J., Gordon, D. and Roy, A., Art in the making: Italian painting before 1400, National Gallery Company, London (1989).

16. Hetherington, P. (tr.), The ‘painter’s manual’ of Dionysius of Fourna: an English translation with commentary, of Cod. Gr. 708 in the Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public Library, Leningrad, 2nd edn, Oakwood Publications, California (1989).

17. Charas, C., Revolon, C., Feinberg, M. and Ducauze, C., ‘Preference of certain Scolytidae for different conifers’, Journal of Chemical Ecology 8 (1982) 1093–1109.

18. Uzielli, L., ‘Historical overview of panel-making techniques in central Italy’, in The structural conservation of panel paintings, ed. K. Dardes and A. Rothe, Getty Trust Publications, Los Angeles (1998) 110–135.

19. Lymberopoulou, A., ‘The painter Angelos and post-Byzantine Art’, in Locating Renaissance art, ed. C.M. Richardson, Yale University Press, New Haven (2007) 174–210.

20. Κωνσταντουδάκη-Κιτρομηλίδου, M. (Constantoudaki-Kitrom-ilidou, M.), ‘Παραγγελίες Πινάκων, Εργαστήριο, Κυκλοφορία Σχεδίων του Μιχαήλ Δαμασκηνού στο Χάνδακα: Ανέκδοτα Έγγραφα (1585–1593)’, Θησαυρίσματα/Thesaurismata 34 (2004) 253–272. [Commissions for paintings, workshops and the circula-tion of drawings by Michael Damaskinos in Candia: unpublished documents (1585–1593)]

21. Spring, M. and Higgitt, C., ‘Analyses reconsidered: the importance of the pigment content of paint in the interpretation of the results of examination of binding media’, in Medieval painting in Northern Europe: techniques, analysis, art history, ed. J. Nadolny with K. Kollandsrud, M.-L. Sauerberg and T. Frøysaker, Archetype Publications, London (2006) 223–229.

22. Higgitt, C. and White, R., ‘Analysis of paint media: new studies of Italian paintings of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries’, National Gallery Technical Bulletin 26 (2005) 88–104.

23. Dunkerton, J. and Roy, A., ‘The materials of a group of late fifteenth-century Florentine panel paintings’, National Gallery Technical Bulletin 17 (1996) 20–31.

24. Moshos, T., ‘The conservation work on the Michael Damaskinos icons in the Saint Catherine Sinaiton collection in Heraklion’, in The conservation of late icons, ed. N. Jolkkonen, A. Martiskainen, P. Martiskainen and H. Nikkanen, Valamo Art Conservation Institute, Finland (1998) 187–192.

25. Milanou, K., ‘The techniques of post-Byzantine icons of the 15th century: observations on works of the Benaki Museum collec-tion’, in Changes in post–Byzantine icon painting techniques, ed. N. Jolkkonen and H. Nikkanen, Valamo Art Conservation Insti-tute, Finland (1999) 5–6.

26. Mathew, L. and Berrie, B., ‘“Memoria de colori che bisognino torre a vinetia”: Venice as a centre for the purchase of painters’ colours’,


38

in Trade in artists’ materials: materials, markets and commerce in Europe to 1700, ed. J. Kirby, S. Nash and J. Cannon, Archetype Publications, London (2010) 245–252.

27. Weitzmann, K., The icon, Evans Brothers, London (1982).28. Lymberopoulou, A., ‘Audiences and markets for Cretan icons’,

in Viewing Renaissance art, ed. C.M. Richardson, K.M. Woods and A. Lymberopoulou, Yale University Press, New Haven (2007) 171–206.

29. Tarasov, O., Icon and devotion: sacred spaces in imperial Russia,translated by R.M. Gullard, Reaktion Books, London (2002).

30. Tomlinson, H., National Gallery, London, personal communica-tion (January 2011).

31. Daniels, V. and Lang, J., ‘X-rays and paper’, in Radiography of cultural material, 2nd edn, ed. J. Lang and A. Middleton, Elsevier, Oxford (2004) 101–103.

32. Wheeler, E.A., Pearson, R.G., La Pasha, C.A., Zack, T. and Hatley, W., Computer-aided wood identification, Bulletin 474, North Caro-lina Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh (1986).

33. Wheeler, E.A., Baas, P. and Gasson, P.E. (ed.), ‘IAWA list of micro-scopic features for hardwood identification’, IAWA Bulletin 10(3) (1989) 219–332.

34. Martin, E., ‘Some improvements in techniques of analysis of paint media’, Studies in Conservation 22 (1977) 63–67.

35. Wolbers, R.C. and Landrey, G., ‘The use of direct reactive fluo-rescent dyes for the characterization of binding media in cross sectional examinations’, in 15th Annual Meeting, American Insti-tute for Conservation, American Institute of Conservation, Wash-ington (1987) 168–202.

NOTES

1. The term ‘ground’ is used here to describe the smooth white prep-aration layer between the cloth and the painted and gilded layers.

2. It was not possible to characterize this mordant fully because of sampling difficulties; for further discussion see [3; Section 3.3.1.2].

3. It should be noted that the oil and resin mixture found may not be intentional and could be the result of the accidental migration of surface varnish layers as a consequence of traditional cleaning and repair treatments [3; Section 4.1].

Technical Research Bulletin

Documents

Transcript of Technical Research Bulletin