TeachingTransitions

Techniques

Kent Mclntosh Keith Herman Kelly McGraw Kira Horence

Even in an otherwise well-functioningclassroom, transitions may pose a chal-lenge to teachers and students alike, asstudent misbehavior is more likely tooccur and educational time can be wast-ed (Sprick, Garrison, & Howard, 1998).In transitions, we demand a lot fromstudents—we ask them to halt their cur-rent routine, perform a long chain oftasks, and initiate a new activity, allwithout breaking classroom rules. Thefollowing are some examples of not-so-effective transitions that we haveobserved over the past year:

• When lining up for recess, two stu-dents started pushing each other andlost their recess privileges.

• A class returning from lunch took 30minutes and two discipline referralsbefore math instruction started.

• A teacher was reprimanded by sever-al peers and her principal during awhole-school staff meeting for her

students' high noise level in the hall-way.TYansitions can be particularly diffi-

cult for students with autism spectrumdisorders (Winterman & Sapina, 2002),attention deficil/hyperactivity disorder{Carbone, 2001), and other behavioraldisorders. It is no surprise that childrenwith behavioral challenges can experi-ence difficulties during transitions(Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995).Children who are easily distracted andoveractive often have difficulty monitor-ing, managing, and directing their ownhehavior to successfully move from oneroutine to the next, especially whengiven detailed, multistep directions.

Adding to the confusion, many class-rooms are full of implicit transitionexpectations—routines that teachersexpect students to follow with noinstruction. Some students pick up onsubtle clues and teach themselves howto transition effectively. Students with

disabilities, however, are most likely tolearn these routines by mistake—by fail-ing to adhere to the hidden curriculumand being reprimanded. In addition,these expectations vary as studentsmove from room to room.

Teachers can enhance theirclassroom behavior

management with explicitinstruction and practice inbehavioral expectations

and routines.

Rather than assuming that studentsknow (or should know) how to transi-tion appropriately, teachers canenhance their classroom hehavior man-agement with explicit instruction and

32 n COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

practice in behavioral expectations androutines [Darch, Kame'enui, &Crichlow, 2003). A growing body of evi-dence emphasizes the importance ofusing instructional procedures to teachsocial behavior (Gresham, 2002;Langland, Lewis-Palmer, & Sugai, 1998;Todd, Haugen, Anderson, & Spriggs,2002).

Fortunately, the strategies needed toteach behavioral expectations are thesame as those that effective teachersalready use to teach academic skills(Darch et al., 2003; Wolery, Bailey, &Sugai, 1988). These include carefulpreparation, planning, and design;effective delivery; opportunities to prac-tice; ongoing assessment and evalua-tion; and performance feedback(Colvin, Kame'enui. & Sugai. 1993).Research suggests that providing clearstructure, including specific rules andexpectations, increases student atten-tion and reduces hyperactive behaviorsamong children with and withoutADHD (see Gardill, DuPaul, & Kyle,1996],

Behavioral errors are corrected in thesame manner as academic errors. Froman instructional model, one might con-strue misbehavior either as a skill deficit("can't do") or performance deficit("won't do"); and both indicate a needfor further instruction. Students withskill deficits may benefit from learningthe behaviors, and students with per-formance deficits may benefit frompracticing the behaviors to become flu-ent.

Planning for IktinsllionsSuccessful transitions require carefulplanning, teaching, monitoring, andfeedback (Sprick et al., 1998). Effectiveinstruction about when and how to per-form transitions is essential and maymitigate many problem.^ associated withtransitions. As educators, we know agreat deal about how best to design anddeliver behavioral instruction so that itis more likely to increase student com-phance. In this article, we present fourtechniques to promote smooth transi-tions: teaching routines, precorrections,positive reinforcement procedures, andactive supervision (see box, "Tech-niques for Effective TYansitions"),

Teaching RoutinesTeaching transitions as behavioral rou-tines is an effective method of promot-ing appropriate classroom behaviorswhile discouraging inappropriate

Teachers can use transitiontechniques to promote

effective classroom routineslike raising a hand to askfor help, ignoring other

students who aremisbehaving, taking notes,

and completingindependent seatwork.

behaviors. Whereas other strategies likeposting expectations can be valuable inreminding students about the rules,teaching with examples and providingpractice with feedback shows studentsexactly how to behave. Although thefocus of this article is on transitions, youcan use these techniques to teach anybehavioral routine, such as raising ahand to ask for help, ignoring other stu-dents who are misbehaving, takingnotes, or completing independent seat-work.

To provide an example of theprocess. Figure 1 shows a lesson planfor an especially important transitionroutine (lining up at the door). In manyclassrooms, hning up to leave the roomcan be a context for misbehavior.Instead of viewing students as willfullydisobedient or victims of their disabili-ties, this approach assumes that stu-dents may behave more appropriatelyafter learning and practicing expectedbehavior in lining up. Figure 2 providesa blank reproducible behavioral lessonplan (adapted from Langland et al.,1998).

This process includes five steps (Colvin& Lazar, 1997) useful in teaching anybehavior:

1. Provide a rationale,2. Explain the expected behavior.3. Model the expected behavior.4. Practice the expected behavior.5. Monitor and provide feedback.

Providing a rationale involves givingstudents a reason why a rule is impor-tant to follow. In Figure 1, the teachernames the behavior, "Line up right,"and explains why it is important. Givinga rationale is a short and direct step—one or two sentences often suffice.When reviewing skills in a booster les-son (a lesson designed to firm up previ-ously taught behaviors) the teacher maybriefly ask students why walking quiet-ly in the hallway is important. The les-

s for Effective TransitionsThese four teaching techniques may help teachers improve their students' transi-tion skills:• Teaching Routines—Exphcit teaching of expected behavior.

- Model the skills (both correct and incorrect examples).- Provide multiple opportunities for student practice.- Monitor and provide feedback.- Reteach as needed.

• Precorrections—Quick reminders of expected behavior before the transition.- Additional support to firm student skills.- Can be faded or withdrawn as needed.

• Positive Reinforcement Procedures—Incentives for appropriate behavior.- Specific praise can be more powerful than tangible rewards.- Provide attention contingent on correct behavior.- Ignore or quickly redirect incorrect behavior.

• Active Supervision—an effective method for monitoring students.- Scan, move, and interact to create a positive classroom culture.- Avoid performing tasks or conversing with other adults in key transitions.

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN > SEPT/OCT 2004 • 33

Figure 1 . Sample Transition Lesson Plan

Lesson for Teaching Expecfed Behavior

Skill Name

"Lining up right" (to leave the classroom)

Rationale for Teaching the SkillLining up right is a key skill in smooth transitions. Tell students, "When we all line up right, we make more time for activ-ities and recess. Lining up right is safer and helps us all to foUow directions."

Modeling the Skill—Teaching Examples

Teach by telling and showing students the correct and incorrect (nonexamples] ways to line up:

When it is time to leave the room, the teacher (or line leader] will stand at the door and say, "Time to line up right."

1. Stand up and push in their chairs section by section when called (e.g., "Bear section, time to line up right").(NONEXAMPLE: All students all line up at once instead of section by section, or do not push in chairs.)

2. Walk slowly and quietly to tbe door.(NONEXAMPLE: Students run to the door, or bump into each other on the way.J

3. Stand in line quietly, hands at sides, "with two people spaces between you." (teach this idea).(NONEXAMPLE: Students talk in loud voices, stand directly next to each other, or push.)

4. Students walk quietly in the hallway, witb two people spaces, on the right side of the ballway.[NONEXAMPLE: Students call out. run, walk too closely, or in the middle of tbe hallway.)

Practice Activities

1. Play "Correct tbe teacher." After instruction, the teacher performs both examples and nonexamples for the class. Studentsuse thumbs-up and down signals to evaluate the teacher's behavior. If tbe students signal thumbs-down, tbe teacber callson a student to tell the teacber the correct expectation and demonstrate it for the class.

2. Play the "Lining Up Right Game." The class practices lining up right. Every time they hne up perfectly, the class gets apoint. If the class doesn't line up perfectly, tbe teacher gets the point, and the class practices the missed step again. Playuntil the class gets 3 points in a row.

After the Lesson —During the Day or Week

1. Before the class needs to line up, ask a student to tell the class the steps for lining up rigbt.

2. Give specific praise and attention to students who are lining up rigbt ("Keisha, thank you for walking slowly to theline!"]. Provide more attention for appropriate bebavior than misbehavior.

3. When you see a student hne up incorrectly, remind bim or her how to do it right and have tbe student show you theright way to do it.

4. Play the "Lining Up Right Game" at every opportunity to line up. Keep score on the board. Once the class reaches a pre-determined point goal, they earn a celebration (preferred activity, extra minute of recess, sticker, etc.).

Note. From "Teacbing Respect in the Classroom; An Instructional Approach", by S. Langland, T. Lewis-Palmer & G. Sugai, 1998,Journal of Behavioral Education, 8, pp. 245-262, Copyright 1998 by Kluwer Academic/Plenum Puclishers. Adapted with permis-sion.

34 • COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Figure 2. Reproducible Lessen Plan Ferm

Lesson for Teaching Expected Behavior

Skill Name

Rationale for Teoching the Skill

Modeling the Skill—Teaching Examples

Practice Activities

After the Lesson—During the Day or Week

Note. "From Teaching Respect in the Classroom: An Instructional Approach by S. Langland, T. Lewis-Palmer & G, Sugai, 1998,Journal of Behavioral Education, 8, pp. 245-262. Copyright 1998 by Kluwer Academic/Plenum Puclishers.. Adapted with permis-sion.

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN • SEPT/OCT 2004 • 35

son, however, must focus on performingthe skill, not talking about it.

Next, teachers (or, perhaps, trainedstudent volunteers) model the skill thelesson is teaching. Modeling expectedbebavior is a critical step in demonstrat-ing what the expected behavior lookslike. Explicitly sbowing students whatto do provides a clear example of bothacceptable and nonacceptable behavior.Providing both examples (correct) andnonexamples (incorrect] of bow to per-form the behavior further clarifies tbeline between appropriate and inappro-priate behavior, particularly for instruc-fionally naive learners (Kame'enui &Simmons, 1990). The teacher may telltbe class, "Here is how not to line upright." and stand up before being asked(by a student acting as teacher), thensay. "Here is bow to line up right," andstand up when asked. Ending with thecorrect example is prudent. Teachersmay identify or ask students to identifythe specific transition bebavior that isbeing demonstrated or violated in theexamples (e.g. "Who can tell me whythis is not lining up right?") Engaginginstruction during this step is key inmaintaining student attention. Addinghumorous nonexamples (as long as theyare instructive] can be one way toincrease engagement. It is insufficientfor students merely to see a demonstra-tion of the bebavior—students thenneed to perform and practice tbe newskill. Practicing can actively engage stu-dents with attention difficulties, increas-ing the likelihood that they will retainthe information (Gardill et al., 1996],but there are additional benefits. Askingstudents to perform tbe behavior manytimes provides checks for understand-ing, opportunities for praise or correc-tive feedback, and practice to becomefluent with the behaviors. By practicingwith teacber guidance and withoutpressure, students will be better pre-pared to perform the bebavior whenmore distractions surround them.

The example lesson provides a fewactivities for practice, including choos-ing tbe correct behavior when theteacher models examples and nonexam-pies and playing games tbat use repeat-ed practice and performance feedback

Exomples of TransttionRouHnes to Teoch

Tbe folloviing are a few of tbe typesof transitions that could be taugbt inthis format:• Entering and exiting the classroom

at various times of the day.- Start of day/entry activities.- Recess or lunch.- Moving to or from another class.- End of day.

• Putting materials away and prepar-ing for the next task.

• Cleaning up a work area.• Moving from group to independent

work.• Turning in homework.• Choosing partners for small group

activities.• Preparing for a lesson.• Choosing a book in the library.• Returning equipment at tbe end of

recess.• Checking in with a mentor before

or after school.

(see box, " Examples of TransitionRoutines to Teach"].

PrecorrectionsOnce students have learned transitionbehaviors, some will still benefit fromadditional support and structure.Precorrections are quick reminders ofhow to perform skills given directly

Precorrections may beeffective with the wholeclass or with individual

students who need moresupport to be successful.

before the opportunity to use them(Kame'enui & Simmons, 1990; Walkeret al., 1995), Researchers have showntbat precorrections reduce problembehavior during transitions in class-rooms and in settings like cafeterias,playgrounds, and hallways (Colvin,

Sugai, Good, & Lee, 1997; Kartub,Taylor-Greene, March, & Horner. 2000;Lewis, Sugai, & Colvin, 2000). Thistechnique is especially helpful whenteachers can anticipate that studentswill have difficulty performing skillscorrectly. You may use precorrectionswith the whole class or individual stu-dents who need more support to be suc-cessful,

Examples of precorrections for liningup might include statements such as.•'Make sure to wait until I excuse youbefore you line up," or questions like,"How far apart should you be when youline up?" These precorrections shouldhappen just before a teacber asks stu-dents to line up. As students becomemore fluent with transitions, precorrec-tions can be changed to subtle cues likehand signals, or faded or phased outcompletely..

Positive Reinforcement ProceduresTeachers may use positive reinforce-ment procedures to encourage studentsto transition appropriately, A studentmay obtain verbal praise, good grades,or extra recess for certain kinds ofappropriate behavior. If students contin-ue to line up correctly in exchange foracknowledgment for their behavior, youhave positively reinforced the correctbebavior by your attention. On tbe otherhand, tbe same is true if students con-tinue to yell in the bailway: They getone-on-one attention when you repri-mand them. Effective use of reinforce-ment requires two skills: providingattention or other incentives for appro-priate bebavior and minimizing anyreinforcement for inappropriate bebav-ior (Sprick, Sprick. & Garrison, 1993),

Effective reinforcers may includeteacher praise, a preferred activity, atangible incentive (such as a sticker orcandy), or a combination (Alberto &Troutman, 2003). One of the most pow-erful and readily available reinforcers isteacher attention. Eor example, simplypraising students for pushing in theirchairs when they leave their seats maymaintain their bebavior.

When providing incentives, keep inmind that certain incentives may beaversive to some students. For example,many older students (sucb as middle

36 m COUNCIL FOR E.xcEPTiONAL CHILDREN

and high school students) may notrespond favorably to effusive teacherattention or public recognition. In thiscase, you should provide other incen-tives, such as homework reduction or achoice of rewards, for appropriatebehavior.

Allowing students to earn 1 or 2extra minutes of recess or a fun groupactivity may be more acceptable tosome educators (and inore social forstudents) than providing tangibiestAlberto & Troutman, 2003). Self-moni-toring point sheets (Condon & Tobin,2001); token economies (Carbone,2001); or the ''Lining Up Right Game"from the provided lesson are examplesof positive reinforcement procedures. Inthe "Lining Up Right (iame," studentsearn points toward a designated incen-tive with each correct transition.

Schoolwide positive reinforcementprocedures, particularly raffles in whichstudents earn tickets for good behavior,have also been used effectively toimprove the transition behaviors of anentire school (Kartub et al., 2000).

In addition to providing attention orincentives contingent on appropriatebehavior, providing specific praise canbe even more effective in increasing cor-rect behaviors (Sutherland, Wehby, &Copeland, 2000), Specific praise servestwo purposes: first, it tells studentsexactly what they are doing well, andsecond, it provides a cue for other stu-dents on how to eain the teacher'sattention. For example, when you tell astudent, "Good job," ihe student maynot know the expectation, or questionthe sincerity of the piaise. When yousay, "Thank you for standing quietlywith your hands at your sides," the stu-dent knows what he or she has done toearn the praise, and other students maytry to mimic the appropriate behavior inhopes of receiving praise for their ownbehavior.

Active SupervisionActive supervision is a specific methodfor monitoring students in classroomtransitions and nonclassroom settings.Researchers have found active supervi-sion effective in both decreasing inap-propriate behaviors and increasingappropriate behaviors in school settings

Be specific in your praise:Instead ol saying "Good

job," say, "Thank you forstanding quietly with your

hands at your sides."

(Colvin et al., 1997; DePry & Sugai,2002; Lewis et al..2OOO).

Active supervision is defined by itsthree behaviors—scanning, moving,and interacting—which increase super-visor awareness and heighten respon-siveness to student activity (Colvin etal., 1997). Because of these aspects,active supervision is a good way to pro-mote student safety and well-being inthe schools (Golvin & Lazar, 1997;Colvin & Lowe, 1986].

• Scatining is a technique used toexamine the environment frequently,looking for both appropriate andinappropriate behaviors. This allowsteachers to be aware of all the behav-iors that students are displaying dur-ing transitions. Teachers who useeffective scanning glance around theclassroom or other setting regularly,looking for multiple opportunities toreward students behaving appropri-ately. Though recommended ratiosvary, you should strive to praise stu-dents for appropriate behavior atleast three times as often as you rep-rimand them (Sprick et al,, 1998).

• Moving, as one might guess, consistsof walking around the setting, visitingproblem areas often, and makingone's presence known to students.Instead of using a regular pattern,teachers should move unpredictably,so that students will not know whereor when an adult will be in directproximity.

• Interacting includes teaching behav-iors, providing precorrections, andeven conversing with students infor-mally (DePry & Sugai, 2002).Interaction allows teachers to build apositive relationship with students,prevent inappropriate behavior, andemphasize positive behavior.

You can use active supervision toprovide consistent and preventive mon-itoring of student behaviors, especiallyduring transitions when there may bechanges in staff, settings, and behav-ioral expectations (Colvin et al., 1997).Adequate monitoring requires effort andattention. Using transitions as an oppor-tunity to gather materials or plan for thenext activity or spending more timeinteracting with other adults than withstudents may negate other efforts toimprove transitions. Prior planning andstaff training emphasizing the three keybehaviors of active supervision mayhelp mitigate these difficulties (see box,"Active Supervision"),

Revisting andReviewing InstrucHonTeaching students transition routines,providing practice activities, and usingprecorrection, reinforcement, and activesupervision allow students to learn howto transition efficiently and effectivelyand receive support and incentives forappropriate behavior. Defining, teach-ing, and rewarding correct transitionscan result in approximately 80%-90%of students being successful in transi-tions (Colvin et al,, 1997; DePry &Sugai, 2002; Kartub et al,, 2000; Taylor-Greene et al., 1997). We recommendteachers revisit expectations and teach"booster" lessons as needed throughoutthe year, particularly after vacations,long weekends, when new students join

Active SuperviisiionThe following are important activesupervision activities:• Scan.

~ Examine the environment fre-quently.

~ Notice both inappropriate andappropriate behaviors.

• Move.- Move around the entire area

unpredictably/- Visit problem areas frequently.

• Interact.- Elicit conversations with stu-

dents,- Provide precorrections and

reminders.- Provide positive reinforcers.

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN > SEPT/OCT 2004 • 37

the class, or when transition routinesstart to unravel.

Some students will need additionalsupport to he successful. Students withbehavioral challenges may benefit fromspecific adaptations to get through tran-sitions. Visual structures, such as tapingsquares on the floor to show studentswhere to stand when lining up, or pic-ture schedules (Winterman & Sapina,2002) are common and effective adapta-tions. As with ali students, minimizingattention for mishehavior while empha-sizing attention for positive behavior iscritical.

Final ThoughtsThough teaching transitions requirestime and energy, initial investments inteaching behaviors result in lastingimprovements throughout the year(Taylor-Greene et al., 1997; Todd et al.,2002). We encourage teachers to sharethese techniques with other teachersand paraprofessionals (such as librari-ans, recess monitors, music teachers,and educational assistants) who workwith their students throughout the day.Students with disabilities are more like-!y to be successful when they know allof their daily routines. Teaching transi-tions saves considerable teaching timeand frustration, especially given howmany transitions students experiencethroughout the school day.

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Kent Mclntosh (CEC OR Federation).Doctoral Student, Educa-tional and Community Supports, Universityof Oregon. Eugene. Keith Herman, SchoolPsychologist, Springfield School District.Eugene. Oregon. Amanda Sanford, DoctoralStudent: Kelly McGraw (CEC ORFederation). Doctoral Student; and KiraFlorence (CEC OR Federation). DoctoralStudent, School Psychology Program.University of Oregon. Eugene.

Address correspondence to Kent Mclntosh.Educational and Community Supports,University of Oregon, 1235 University ofOregon, Eugene, 97403 (e-mail: mcintosh@uoregon.edu).

The development of this article was supportedin part by Grant No. H32SA00010I. funded bythe U.S. Department of Education, Office ofSpecial Education Programs. Opinionsexpressed herein do not necessarily reflect theposition of the U.S. Department of Education,and such endorsements should not beinferred.

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 37.No. !. pp. 32-38.

Copyright 2004 CEC.

38 • COUNCIL KOR EXCEPTIONAL GHILDREN