TALKS

TRAINING BULLETIN

FOR

FIELD EMPLOYEES

OF THE

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

I N - S E R V I C E T R A I N I N G S E R I E S

1953

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD in How Important to You is Speech 1 To Whom are You Speaking 2

An Audience is Made up of Individuals and They are Free to Withhold or to Give Attention 2

The Audience has a Varied Background . . . 2 The Audience has Normal Intelligence . . . 3 Audience Attention is Scattered 3 The Audience has a Short Interest Span . . 4

About What are You Talking 5 Choose a Subject Interesting to You. . . . 5 Define and limit Your Subject 5 Look for the Conservation Aspect of Your Subject 6

How Will You Organize Your Talk 7 A Synopsis and an Outline are Your Guides. 7 An Introduction Prepares the Audience and

Sets the Stage 10 The Conclusion Ties the Talk Together and

Gives Final Impetus to Your Ideas. . . . 12 How do You Reinforce the Structure of Your Talk 15

Connectives and Transitionals Tie the Talk Together 15

Develop Suspense and Achieve Climax Through Order and Manner of Presentation 15

Supplementary Material Adds Substance to Your Talk Structure 17

Words are Your Tools. Make Them do the Job for You Effectively 18

Words That People Understand 19 Pictures Strengthen and Support Your Words 20

Now Y'ou are Peady to Talk 23 Your Appearance and Actions are Important. 23

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CONTENTS

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Much Depends Upon How You Use Your Voice . 23 Mannerisms of Speech 25 What i s S t a g e F r i g h t 25

R e f e r e n c e s 27 A L a s t Word 29

FOREWORD

T r a i n i n g i s both p r e p a r a t i o n for the j ob and defense aga ins t s t a l e n e s s . Our p rogress in person­nel t r a i n i n g , lam su re , has had much to do with the un i fo rmly h igh l e v e l of competence and e s p r i t de co rps I e n c o u n t e r wherever I go in t h e S e r v i c e . We must cont inue to grow in our j o b s , and to avoid complacence.

We s h a l l cont inue to hold t r a i n i n g courses in the a r e a s , in the Reg iona l O f f i c e s , and S e r v i c e -wide . We must a l s o c o n t i n u o u s l y engage in se l f -t r a i n i n g i f we a re to meet our growing r e s p o n s i ­b i l i t i e s . Toward t h i s end, t r a i n i n g b u l l e t i n s w i l l be i s sued from time to t ime . " T i p s on Your Job ," aimed a t o r i e n t a t i o n of the new employee , was a s t a r t on t h i s program. "Ta lks" i s the f i r s t of a s e r i e s of t r a i n i n g a ids in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

This s e r i e s i s not intended merely as handbooks for n a t u r a l i s t s , h i s t o r i a n s , and a r c h a e o l o g i s t s . Each of us , in every pub l ic con t ac t , in some way i s i n t e r p r e t i n g f e a t u r e s , p rocedu re , p o l i c y , or even more impor t an t ly , the spirit of our S e r v i c e . Bul­l e t i n s in t h i s s e r i e s w i l l h e l p a l l of us to be more e f f e c t i v e , and, I hope, more a c t i v e in human r e l a t i o n s and in communication of i d e a s . Se rv i ce t o the pub l ic i s our p r i n c i p a l reason for e x i s t e n c e . May the se b u l l e t i n s he lp us to do a b e t t e r job in t h i s r e s p e c t .

Conrad L. Wirth D i r ec to r

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HOW IMPORTANT TO YOU IS SPEECH?

Have you e v e r c o n s i d e r e d s p e e c h and i t s impor tance to you? You u t t e r t housands of words f o r e v e r y one you w r i t e , and h e a r h u n d r e d s fo r each one you see in p r i n t . There a r e many more o c c a s i o n s f o r u s e of t h e spoken word t h a n f o r t h e w r i t t e n word, and t h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of r a n g e r s , h i s t o r i a n s and n a t u r a l i s t s who meet park and monument v i s i t o r s f a c e - t o - f a c e . E f f e c ­t i v e n e s s in s p e a k i n g , w h e t h e r t o an i n d i v i d u a l o r t o a l a r g e a u d i e n c e , i s a v a l u a b l e a s s e t . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , p r o f i t a b l e t o c o n s i d e r how t o make s p e e c h e f f e c t i v e .

A l though t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n i s from t h e v i e w p o i n t of s p e a k i n g from a p l a t f o r m , many of the i d e a s e x p r e s s e d have much b r o a d e r u s e f u l ­n e s s . The p r o c e d u r e s f o l l o w e d in p r e p a r a t i o n f o r p u b l i c s p e a k i n g may, f o r e x a m p l e , be j u s t as u se fu l in d e a l i n g wi th an i n d i v i d u a l , in w r i t ­ing a p o p u l a r p u b l i c a t i o n , in l a y i n g out a s e l f -g u i d i n g t r a i l , or of c o n d u c t i n g a b a t t l e f i e l d t o u r . These m a t t e r s have a p p l i c a t i o n f a r b e ­yond the sphe re of s p e a k i n g from a p l a t f o r m .

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TO WHOM ARE YOU TALKING?

Speech i s communica t i on . For p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s , s p e e c h i s t h e communica t ion of an idea, by a speak­er, t o an audience. I d e a , s p e a k e r , and a u d i e n c e a r e e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s i n t h i s p r o c e s s . We s h a l l g i v e a t t e n t i o n t o i d e a s and t h e i r o r g a n i ­z a t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t . We s h a l l c o n s i d e r t h e s p e a k e r and some of h i s p r o b l e m s and t e c h n i q u e s a s he m e e t s h i s a u d i e n c e and p u t s i d e a s i n t o s p o k e n w o r d s . But i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t a l l t h i s i s f u t i l e u n l e s s t h e r e i s an a u d i e n c e a t t u n e d t o s o u n d and r e c e p t i v e t o i d e a s . T a l k i s f o r p e o p l e , and t h e s u c c e s s f u l s p e a k e r i s c o n s t a n t l y aware of t h e n a ­t u r e and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p e o p l e t o whom he s p e a k s .

An Audience is Made Up of Individuals and They are Free to Withhold or to Give Attention

The l i s t e n e r , we as sume , i s p r e s e n t a t a t a l k of h i s own v o l i t i o n , and he v o l u n t a r i l y s u r r e n d e r s h i s t i m e , a t t e n t i o n , and an open mind. In e x c h a n g e , he i s e n t i t l e d t o h e a r a b o u t someth ing i n t e r e s t i n g , t o h e a r i t from someone who knows what he i s t a l k i n g a b o u t , t o h e a r i t p r e s e n t e d i n an i n t e l l i g e n t and a t t r a c t i v e manner , and i n a v o i c e t h a t i s p l e a s i n g and a u d i b l e . I f any of t h e s e o b l i g a t i o n s i s n o t f u l f i l l e d , t h e s p e a k e r w i l l l o s e h i s a u d i e n c e , e i t h e r in p e r s o n o r in a t t e n t i o n .

The Audience Has a Varied Background

A l l t y p e s o f p e o p l e , r e p r e s e n t i n g w i d e l y v a r i e d e x p e r i e n c e , e d u c a t i o n , and t e m p e r a m e n t , a s s emb le in a r e a s of t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k Sys t em. A t a l k which assumes a background d i f f e r e n t from t h a t

a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e a u d i e n c e may be d e ­l i v e r e d by t h e s p e a k e r , b u t t h e a u d i e n c e w i l l soon l o s e i n t e r e s t . A s k i l l f u l s p e a k e r i s aware of t h e b a c k g r o u n d s r e p r e s e n t e d i n h i s a u d i e n c e . He makes h i s i d e a s m e a n i n g f u l by s t a t i n g t h e m i n t e r m s f a m i l i a r t o t h e a u d i e n c e , and by p r o j e c t i n g t h o s e i d e a s i n t o s i t u a t i o n s a l s o f a m i l i a r t o them.

The Audience Has Normal Intelligence

A c e r t a i n b a c k g r o u n d of i n f o r m a t i o n and some­t i m e s a c e r t a i n v o c a b u l a r y i s n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e t h e a u d i e n c e can u n d e r s t a n d and a c c e p t wha t you s a y . When t h e a u d i e n c e does n o t p o s s e s s t h a t b a c k g r o u n d , i t m u s t be s u p p l i e d . I n d o i n g s o , t h e s p e a k e r s h o u l d assume t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e i s a s i n t e l l i g e n t a s h i m s e l f , m e r e l y u n s c h o o l e d i n t h e s u b j e c t f i e l d . Your t a l k i s t o i n t r o d u c e y o u r a u d i e n c e t o some­t h i n g t h a t i s f a m i l i a r t o you and t o a r o u s e i n ­t e r e s t i n i t - - s o m e t h i n g t h a t you h a v e d i s c o v e r e d and found i n t e r e s t i n g and a r e a n x i o u s t o s h a r e w i t h o t h e r s . There i s no g r e a t e r f a u l t in s p e a k i n g t h a n t h a t of t a l k i n g down t o an a u d i e n c e , of a d o p t i n g an a t t i t u d e of s u p e r i o r i t y t o i t .

Audience Attention is Scattered

At t h e b e g i n n i n g of a t a l k , t h e a u d i e n c e i s i n t e r e s t e d i n many t h i n g s o t h e r t h a n t h e s p e a k e r and h i s s u b j e c t . Do n o t assume t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e h a s g a t h e r e d p r i m a r i l y t o h e a r you t a l k , a n d i s e a g e r l y a w a i t i n g y o u r f i r s t words of wisdom. Not i n f r e q u e n t l y y o u r a u d i e n c e h a s g a t h e r e d o u t of c u r i o s i t y , t o be e n t e r t a i n e d o r amused , o r m e r e l y b e c a u s e t h e r e i s n o t h i n g b e t t e r t o d o . I n t e r e s t c a n n o t be t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d . As a s p e a k e r , y o u r f i r s t j o b i s t o a t t r a c t t h i s s c a t t e r e d and c a s u a l a t t e n t i o n , and t o focus i t upon t h e s u b j e c t . Your

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manner of a p p r o a c h , your v o i c e , and most i m p o r t a n t , what you say first, w i l l d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r you t a k e t h e a u d i e n c e w i t h you, or l o s e them.

The Audience Has a Short Interest Span

To focus i n i t i a l a t t e n t i o n i s n o t enough , f o r a t t e n t i o n w a n d e r s and a s p e a k e r i s n e v e r more t h a n a minu te or two away from l o s s of v i s i t o r i n t e r e s t . A s k i l l f u l s p e a k e r r e p e a t e d l y u s e s t e c h n i q u e s f o r p u l l i n g w a n d e r i n g i n t e r e s t back t o t h e s u b j e c t . A change i n v o i c e i n f l e c t i o n , of p a c e , an i l l u s t r a t i v e s t o r y , a r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n , a c o m p a r i s o n , a q u o t a ­t i o n , a p i c t u r e or an o b j e c t a r e e x a m p l e s of s u c h d e v i c e s . S t r a i g h t r e c i t a t i o n of a s e r i e s of f a c t s w i t h o u t e m b e l l i s h m e n t w i l l l o s e most of t h e a u d i e n c e many t i m e s d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of a t a l k .

Tn summary , a good s p e a k e r i s a w a r e of t h e e x p e c t a t i o n , i n t e r e s t , e d u c a t i o n , and e x p e r i e n c e l e v e l s of h i s a u d i e n c e . He a p p r o a c h e s t h e a u d i e n c e a t t h e i r l e v e l , and b u i l d s from t h a t t o w a r d h i s o b j e c t i v e .

ABOUT WHAT ARE YOU TALKING?

I t i s a ssumed t h a t t h e s p e a k e r i s a d e q u a t e l y g r o u n d e d i n h i s f i e l d . He i s an h i s t o r i a n , a g e o l o g i s t , a w i l d l i f e s p e c i a l i s t , a b o t a n i s t , o r i s t h o r o u g h l y f a m i l i a r w i t h n a t i o n a l p a r k o r monu­ment m a t t e r s . T h i s d i s c u s s i o n i s n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e m a t t e r of o b t a i n i n g t h e f a c t s and s c i e n ­t i f i c b a c k g r o u n d f o r a t a l k . I t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t f a c t s c o n s t i t u t e t h e b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l of t a l k s , and w i t h o u t t h a t b a c k g r o u n d , o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h s t u d y , o b s e r v a t i o n , and e x p e r i e n c e , no s p e a k e r can be v e r y s u c c e s s f u l . Assuming t h i s b a c k g r o u n d , we a r e c o n c e r n e d h e r e w i t h t h e m a t t e r o f how t h o s e f a c t s a r e managed i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r s p e a k i n g . We a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s e l e c t i o n and p r e s e n t a t i o n of f a c t s so a s t o g i v e a t a l k u n i t y , c o h e r e n c e , l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , and c l i m a x .

Choose a Subject Interesting to You

S e l e c t a s u b j e c t i n w h i c h you y o u r s e l f a r e i n t e r e s t e d , o n e w h i c h you b e l i e v e c a n be made i n t e r e s t i n g t o y o u r a u d i e n c e , and one a b o u t w h i c h you know a good d e a l more t h a n most of y o u r a u d i ­e n c e . Your own i n t e r e s t w i l l be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e e n t h u s i a s m w i t h wh ich you p r e s e n t t h e s u b j e c t , and t h a t e n t h u s i a s m w i l l be c o n v e y e d t o and w i l l a u g ­ment t h e i n t e r e s t of your a u d i e n c e .

Define and Limit Your Subject

S e l e c t a phase o f t h e g e n e r a l s u b j e c t t o d e v e l o p e . P e r h a p s you a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t w i l d l i f e . Can you e x p e c t t o c o v e r a d e q u a t e l y all d e t a i l s of t h e 40 mammals and 100 b i r d s of y o u r a r e a ? The d a n g e r i s t h a t you r t a l k w i l l become n o t h i n g more

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than an oral catalogue. Define and limit the scope of your talk by reducing it to a phase that can be adequately handled. For example, consider the themes, "How man gets along with animals," "How animals are dependent upon each other," "Strange habits of some strange animals." In the course of the talk, you will mention many of the species present in your area, but by more closely restrict­ing the field, you are enabled to give unity, com­pleteness, and more apparent meaning to your talk.

Historical and archeological subjects should also be delimited. Do not select American history as a subject for one discussion, but rather concen­trate upon the sugnificant and unique aspects of a key battle in, for instance, the American Revolu­tion. Similarly, do not select the archeology of the American Southwest as a subject, but select some tribe, such as the Navajo, or a group of ruins, as those in Chaco Canyon. Discuss the subject with reasonable completeness, at the same time showing briefly its relationship to a larger whole such as the Revolution, or the prehistoric inhabitants of the Southwest,

Look for the Conservation Aspect of Your Subject

We are not trying to make professionals or technicians of the audience. We are trying to give meaning to what surrounds the visitor in the park or monument area. Part of that meaning relates to the natural and historical aspects of that environ­ment, and part relates to conservation and national park objectives. Every subject we discuss exempli­fies in some way thi use, conservation, philosophy, objectives, or values of national parks and monu­ments. Discover those meanings and adapt them to your discussion.

HOW WILL YOU ORGANIZE YOUR TALK?

A Synopsis and an Outline are Your Guides

You have selected your main field. You have defined in your own mind the phase of that subject which you will cover. You have discovered the re­lated conservation aspects. Next try to express your theme in a subject sentence, or short para­graph. For example, perhaps your general field is geology, and the specific phase of that subject is to be the story of water. Your synopsis might be:

We trace the course of water from the sea to its precipitation as rain and snow, and then follow it back to the sea, noting its effects upon life and upon topography en route. Thus we learn to understand the importance of watershed protection such as is afforded by a na­tional park.

For an example in the field of history, suppose your general subject is the American Civil War, with the limited subject being the significance of the Battle of Antietam. The specific theme to be developed might be stated as follows:

The Battle of Antietam, September 17 , 1862, was fought in western Maryland on lands surrounding Antietam Creek, It ended Lee's first invasion of the North, postponed indefinitely Fngland's threat­ened recognition of the Confederacy, and gave Lincoln the opportunity to issue his Emancipation Proclamation. It thus greatly affected the course of the Ameri­can Civil War.

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With t h i s general p i c t u r e in mind, you are next ready to p l an the development of t h e s e s u b j e c t s . Here an o u t l i n e i s most u s e f u l . Perhaps you p r o ­ceed as in the fo l lowing examples:

WATER

A. Introduction

1. The water cycle defined 2. The subject limited to the effects of

water as it returns to the sea

B. The Geological Work of Water

1. Surface water 2. Underground water 3. Ice and snow

C. Water and Wildlife

1. Response and adaptations to normal and extremes of water supply

2. Plants in relation to soil, water supply, and erosion

D. Water and Man

1. Water and scenery 2. Water and modern civilization

E. Conclusion

Water enhances park and r e c r e a t i o n va lue s , and i s r e q u i s i t e to man's economy. Conserva t ion of w a t e r s h e d s , as exempl i ­f i e d by c e r t a i n n a t i o n a l p a r k s , i s t h e b e s t way t o a s s i s t n a t u r e t o p r o v i d e adequate water for a l l these purposes .

ANTIETAM

A. Introduction

1. Brief background of the preceding events of the Civil War

B. Lee's Maryland Campaign, 1862

1. Reasons for first Confederate invasion of Northern territory

2. Lee's route of march and its influence on Federal military strategy

3. Federal attempts to turn Lee's march

C. Battle of Antietam

1. Positions of Lee's and McClellan's forces, September 17

2. Action on the morning of September 17 to the north of Sharpsburg

3. Action on the afternoon of September 17 at Burnside's Bridge

D. Conclusion: Results of the Battle of Antietam

1. Immediate military results 2. Political and diplomatic results

The outline gives your talk structure and a plan of development; it results in a story to tell in a smooth, even, and logical sequence, and bound together or given unity through the device of a plot and an objective. Without such a structure and plot and objective, a talk becomes merely the telling of a group of apparently unrelated facts.

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A c e r t a i n deg ree of o r g a n i z a t i o n i s a lmos t automatic in some t a lk sub jec t s such as t r ave logues , or t h o s e in which an o r d e r l y sequence of e v e n t s forms the b a s i c s t r u c t u r e . Flower t a l k s , animal t a l k s , and the l i k e , appea r to be the most d i f ­f i c u l t t o o r g a n i z e . The l i f e zone i d e a , a walk along a t r a i l , co lor in Nature, the food of animals , and o t h e r such themes which r e l y upon e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e d e v i c e s which a r e of ten used to give such t a l k s framework. I t i s of f i r s t importance t h a t any t a l k have u n i t y ; t h a t i t be on a d e f i n i t e s u b j e c t ; t h a t i t s t i c k t o t h a t s u b j e c t ; t h a t i t cover the s u b j e c t wi th s a t i s f a c ­tory completeness; and t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p of i t s s e v e r a l p a r t s be e s t a b l i s h e d . To accomplish t h i s i s the func t ion of the o u t l i n e .

An Introduction Prepares the Audi ence and Sets the S tage

Your t a l k w i l l have th ree p a r t s : An in t roduc ­t i o n , a deve lopment s e c t i o n , and a c o n c l u s i o n . Assuming a 30-minute t a l k , you w i l l perhaps al low about f ive minutes for i n t r o d u c t i o n , and somewhat l e s s for the conclus ion . So far we have considered c h i e f l y the development s e c t i o n . The i n t r o d u c t i o n and the conc lus ion commonly are planned a f t e r the bas ic s t r u c t u r e of the t a l k i s completed.

The i n t r o d u c t i o n should f i r s t focus audience a t t e n t i o n on you and your s u b j e c t . You d o n ' t have to s t a r t l e an audience in order to a t t r a c t a t t e n ­t i o n , but you do need an i n i t i a l s t a t e m e n t which i s in i t s e l f of commanding i n t e r e s t . A s t o r y , an expe r i ence , a problem s t a t e d , or a ques t ion r a i s e d - - a l l r e l a t i n g t o and i n t roduc ing your sub j ec t and a n t i c i p a t i n g i t s development- -are good dev ices for accomplishing t h i s purpose .

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Having attracted attention and interest, and having indicated the general field of your talk, next tell the audience what you are going to do with that subject. The following examples illustrate these functions of an introduction:

Have you ever wondered why this coun­try is called Yellowstone? The story is an interesting one, and takes us back to the time of the French voyageurs who pre­ceded Lewis and Clark. The Yellowstone we know today was long considered a myth, and before that myth was shown to be fact, many exciting adventures occurred right here where we are now. Let's look a little in­to the history of Yellowstone and picture in our minds some of those exciting scenes in its discovery and exploration.

or

In Ecclesiastes we read "All the waters of the land run down to the sea yet the sea is not full, whence the waters come, thither they return again." Water still evaporates, falls to earth and runs down hill, and in this cycle from land to sea to air and back to the sea, it affects the landscape, the forests, the flower fields, and the animal inhabitants of the wilderness, as well as the welfare of even those of us who live far below the moun­tains. Let's talk about water.

The Conclusion Ties the Talk Together and Gives Final Impetus to Your Ideas

Finish off your job. You are not a continuously playing record that can be started and stopped with

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equal effect at any point. Your presentation is a single job. It has an introduction, a firm founda­tion in fact, a logical development, and it needs a fitting conclusion. The conclusion may be a re­capitulation—a brief summation of the points you have established. It should gather those facts to­gether in such a way as to point to the purpose of your talk--your objective. It often refers back to your introductory statement. It may, in addition, with skill and awareness on the part of the speaker, assume an inspirational tone. Your best chance of being remembered usually occurs during the last min­utes of your talk. Make those minutes the minutes that count.

So the land of the Yellow Pock River of the French, its mysteries explored and explained by Colter, Washburn, andHayden, became our first national park. Where once tourists were harrassed by the Nez Perce, millions now peacefully witness the eruptions of Old Faithful, or contem­plate the colorful beauty of the Yellow­stone Canyon. Once a land of mystery and tall tales, now the Yellowstone is a na­tional park, preserved by our Nation, for the enjoyment and inspiration of all our people. Yes these riches of nature are yours and mine. They are ours to enjoy to the fullest degree, and to pass on un­impaired so that people for all time may know and enjoy the Yellowstone.

The conclusion for a talk on the Battle of An-tietam could summarize its results and significance as follows:

Throughout the day of September 18, the armies faced each other without

13

further fighting. That night Lee with­drew his army to the Potomac at Blackford's Ford and crossed into Virginia. Neither side had gained a decisive victory, but Lee had been turned back in his first at­tempt to invade the North.

Lee's failure to carry the war ef­fectively into the Northern States or even to maintain himself in Maryland, together with the almost simultaneous repulse of Bragg's invasion of Kentucky, caused Great Britain to postpone recognition of the Confederate Government. Probably the greatest significance of Antietam in American history, therefore, lies in the fact that if Lee had won a decisive vic­tory it might have foreshadowed the final independence of the Confederacy. When Lee turned back into Virginia, the best, if not the last, chance of foreign inter­vention vanished.

Of almost equal consequence on the future course of the war was the long a-waited opportunity given President Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. On September 22, 1862, five days after the favorable issue to the Federal cause of the bloody battle of Antietam, Lincoln is­sued his preliminary proclamation which warned the South that on January 1, 1863, he would declare free all slaves in ter­ritory still resisting the Union. Hence­forth, the purpose of the war broadened. It now had two purposes: To preserve the Union and to end slavery.

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The conclusion gives final impetus to your ideas. It may summarize, make an appeal, or look to the future. It may use quotation, object lesson, or illustration. It should not go off on a side­track, but should end with dispatch.

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HOW DO YOU REINFORCE THE STRUCTURE OF YOUR TALK?

The working outline gives your talk structure and unity, but it is only the framework of ideas which you must decorate and embellish--the skeleton which you must clothe with living flesh and blood. Here are some devices and techniques to strengthen that structure and give your talk life and color and interest.

Connectives and Transitionals Tie the Talk Together

Perhaps the first thing to work out is the matter of tying the structure together. For exam­ple, you tie phrases and sentences together by the use of the words and, so, also, but, there fore, for example, besides, in other words, etc. Similarly

develop transitional devices to move from idea to idea, from paragraph to paragraph, or from one sec­tion of your outline to the next. This suggests, in contrast to, by compar i s on, in the meant ime, an even more interesting case, a. parallel s i t uat ion, as we move on to a nother place, at another time --these are examples of transitionals that lead from one idea to another, Transitionals give your talk a continuous flow instead of jerky, broken, and detached presentation. They help hold attention, as well as help you remember what comes next.

Develop Suspense and Achieve Climax Through Order and Manner of Presentation

Suspense is a feeling of uncertainty and ex­pectation. It is achieved by arranging facts in order of their increasing strength of interest or of importance, by posing questions to be answered, or by the development of an idea in such a manner

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as to point toward a goal that is not immediately apparent. Climax is achieved as you reveal the an­swer to the question you posed, or the goal or con­clusion toward which your facts have been leading. Suspense and climax may characterize a single sen­tence, a paragraph, or a subdivision of a talk; and, by all means, the talk as a whole should utilize suspense and attain climax.

Following are some examples for study:

Old Faithful erupted as they came out of the forest. (No suspense.)

As they came out of the forest, Old Faithful erupted. (Suspense and climax.)

C.ornwallis was defeated because of blackade by sea, the loss of his defense works to the land forces if Washington, sickness among his troops, and dwindling supplies. (Decreasing emphasis.)

His troops were weakened by sickness, his am­munition and supplies were nearly exhausted. Toward the sea, the French held him under blockade, and with the capture of his defenses, Washington's army brought him under direct fire by land. Cornwallis was forced to surrender. (Suspense and climax.)

Here is a peculiar situation. In the middle of a dense forest, surrounded by hilly terrain, is this flat, treeless meadow. As far as we can tell, this meadow, sharply bounded by forest, has existed without change for hundreds of years. Why does the forest not advance upon it? (Suspense--a problem stated whose solution will develop through the body of the talk to a final explanation-- the climax.)

Here is a cougar. Is it a varmint? Should it be exterminated? Cr, are there good reasons why we

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should take steps to preserve at least a few of this largest of the cats among our native animals? (Sus­pense through stimulated curiosity, to be satisfied by a final climax in the form of an appeal for sym­pathetic under standing of the status of the cougar in a park fauna.)

Supplementary Material Adds Substance to Your Talk Structure

Peoples' interest will not be held for very long at a time merely by a series of statements of facts. Recognizing this, you now devise ways to il­lustrate and to express facts and ideas in a manner which will give them meaning within the scope of ex­perience of the audience. The listener must see the situation in his mind as well as hear it described. This is a function of pictures properly used. The listener needs to identify himself in the scene you describe, so you try to project him into the scene as in the following examples':

What would you have done had you been faced with this problem?

or Hiking along the steepening trail we

hear the birds, we smell the fragrance of the forests, we see the snow-capped peaks towering in every hand, we fill our lungs at every step with fresh mountain air, we are off to an adventure.

or It's the same sort of feeling you get

when you wake up in the night and all sorts of strange noises, multiplied in your im­agination, convince you there's a prowler around. But now, every unfamiliar forest sound, every strange shadow suggests BEAR!

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Following are other means of helping the lis­tener to understand what you are talking about:

1. Define or explain in lay language any un­familiar terms or concepts you will use.

2. Relate factual data in support of ideas. 3. Use anecdotes and examples. 4. Make comparisons and contrasts. 5. Cite testimony and quotation. 6. Employ narration. 7. For emphasis use repetition, varying your

wording, 8. Make full use of visual aids and of three

dimensional objects which can be seen by the audi­ence.

Words are Your Tools. Make Then do the Job for You

Effeetively

The words you use and how you use them may either dilute what you say, and divert attention from the thought you are expressing, or they can strengthen and add color to your ideas. Use words so that they say exactly what you mean, and achieve the effect you desire. Following are some examples which will serve for study of the effect of word usages:

Live verbs are more forceful: General Grant believed. General Grant was of the opinion.

The flood eroded the mountainside. The erosion of the hillside was the result

of the flood.

Specific words express more precise meanings: They climbed the mountain . . , (or, did

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they scale, rope up, walk up, scramble, struggle, or stroll?)

Simp Ie Words

Sometimes you will need to say with regard to, for the purpose of, with reference to, in the nature of, with view to, or to use modify­

ing adverbs such as worked diligently, fed abundantly. Habitual speech patterns of this kind, however, result in monotony and dilution. Most of the time the single unadorned word is more forceful and more precise: About, for, like, if, to, or labored or feasted.

Words That People Unders tand

In describing military and general historical or archeological events, periods, or concepts, use the language of the ]ayman rather than technical, professional, or abstract terms. For example, do nbt use "piece" for rifle or gun, or "redoubt" un­less it is explained to be a type of fort, or "can­non emplacement" for cannon platform. In archeo­logical talks, don't say "Anasazi complex" when you mean simply the life of the Pueblo Indians. Simi­larly the words ecology, plant succession, cirque, fault, Sonoran life zone, vulcanism, or saprophyte may not mean anything to some of your audience un­less the discussion itself makes the meanings clear. This does not mean that you avoid these words. They are very useful words. People like to add new words to their vocabularies, and for you to do this for them can add to and prolong their interest in what you say. Just be sure that new words and new concepts are given meaning by what you say about them.

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Pictures Strengthen and Support Your Words

" I t i s easy to give a s l i d e t a l k . " Perhaps i t i s t r u e t h a t a poor speaker can " g e t by" by u s ing s l i d e s , but i t i s the p i c t u r e , not the t a l k , t h a t commands a t t e n t i o n and holds i n t e r e s t . There a re o c c a s i o n s , of cou r se , when p i c t u r e s a re shown for t h e i r own i n t r i n s i c i n t e r e s t , and in t h e s e c a s e s the commentary q u i t e p rope r ly i s secondary. Using p i c t u r e s t o g ive g r e a t e r emphas is t o the spoken word i s q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r , and, c o n t r a r y to the above quo ta t ion , r e q u i r e s a cons ide rab le degree of s k i l l and very ca r e fu l p r e p a r a t i o n . The i l l u s ­t r a t i o n s w i l l e a s i l y " s t e a l the show" u n l e s s the speaker surmounts c e r t a i n handicaps under which he l a b o r s .

F i r s t , t he speake r works in the dark , and i s thus depr ived of the use of f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n and g e s t u r e . To compensate, he must r e l y heav i ly upon v o i c e i n f l e c t i o n for emphasis and a t t e n t i o n . A subdued l i g h t on the speaker i s an a i d .

Secondly, a f t e r p l a c i n g h imsel f in d a r k n e s s , he g i v e s t h e a u d i e n c e s o m e t h i n g a t t r a c t i v e and co lo r fu l to look a t . For most people , what the eye s e e s t a k e s p r e c e d e n c e over what t h e e a r h e a r s . People can hear and see a t the same time, but un less what they hear i s wel l c o o r d i n a t e d wi th what they see , the mind w i l l concen t ra te on one or the o t h e r . How often have you heard the comment "I enjoyed your p i c t u r e s . " Coordina t ion of p i c t u r e and commentary makes the p i c t u r e more meaningful , and the p i c t u r e in tu rn gives emphasis to the spoken word.

The t e m p t a t i o n i s g r e a t t o use s l i d e s as a s u b s t i t u t e for good o rgan iza t ion and as a cover for poor p r e p a r a t i o n and poor p r e s e n t a t i o n . Speakers

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who use this crutch identify themselves as they introduce each slide with"The next slide shows...", "Here we see...", or "This is a picture of..,".

How do you avoid these pitfalls, and overcome these handicaps? The following procedures and tech­niques will be helpful.

Thorough preparation for the talk itself is the first essential. Forget about slides for the moment. Plan a talk that will stand on its own feet. Plan and organize the talk and know what you are going to say, then select and arrange your il­lustrations. Choose slides to fit the talk, not words to explain a series of previously arranged slides.

In the actual presentation, avoid all unneces­sary reference to the slides. When you say "This scene shows", you are telling the audience to focus their attention on the screen. What you really want is for them to listen to what you say. The effect you strive for is a well organized, smooth-flowing talk which, at just the right time, is il­lustrated by a picture. Used in this way, pictures supplement the talk rather than compete with it.

Every change of scene on the screen is a momentary distraction from your spoken word. Try to make this work for you rather than against you. One way is to make the transition to the idea il­lustrated by the next slide a few seconds before the picture is changed--in your commentary, antici­pate the next scene. Recognize too that some of your pictures are so impressive that they immediately steal the show. In your commentary you have anti­cipated the picture, then your prize shot appears on the screen and the audience concentrates its

22

a t t e n t i o n on i t . Continue to t a l k , but defer your impor t an t comment u n t i l a t t e n t i o n swings back to you.

F x p e r t p r o j e c t i o n i s a b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t . Every s l i d e u p - s i d e - d o w n , e v e r y obv ious s p o t or f i n g e r p r i n t , j e rky changes, delayed changes, s l i d e s changed too soon, b lack i n t e r v a l s between s l i d e s , a b lank f u l l y l i g h t e d w h i t e s c r e e n , any u n u s u a l n o i s e - - a l l of t h e s e a r e d i s t r a c t i o n s t h a t on ly serve to pu l l a t t e n t i o n away from the p i c t u r e , and, more impor tan t ly , away from the speaker . The prob­lems of the speaker us ing s l i d e s are too g r e a t for him t o t o l e r a t e i n e x p e r t p r o j e c t i o n or l e s s than complete preparedness on h is own p a r t .

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NOW YOU ARE READY TO TALK

Your Appearance and Actions are Important Factors

Approach your audience erect, with a natural but lively stride, without rushing and without hesi­tation. Stand still, stand erect, and pause for a few seconds before you begin. During this interval do two things--establish eye contact with your audi­ence, and remind yourself that you are communicating with people, not talking to yourself. Make yourself aware that there is a real, live audience out there in front of you. The awareness of an audience, and of communication, which you establish at this time, will assist you throughout your talk in maintaining good volume, tone, and quality of voice, and in giving naturalness to your gestures. Talk to people and gesture for people, not to and for yourself.

Do not prop yourself over a table, pace back and forth, fiddle with objects, or make meaningless motions. Movement and gestures strengthen your words when called for by what you say and when they come naturally. Use gestures when they derive from an earnest effort to communicate with an audience.

Finish your talk at its highest level, with its most important idea, pause and then take your depar­ture. No need to rush off or to be hesitant--just walk off. Don't apologize, and avoid killing your conclusion by changing character, or uttering unes­sential comments--just close your talk and be done.

Much Depends Upon How You Use Your Voice

We cannot deal extensively with the matter of training the speaking voice. However, the knowledge

24

of some general p r i n c i p l e s and some common p i t f a l l s w i l l be u s e f u l . Voice volume, voice q u a l i t y , and a r t i c u l a t i o n are the important f a c t o r s .

Volume, in genera l , i s r egu la ted and c o n t r o l l e d from the ches t and diaphragm. Breathe deeply , and gain force from the diaphragm. As an aid to e s t a b ­l i s h i n g p rope r volume, s e l e c t some pe r son in the r ea r of your audience , and t a l k to him. You d o n ' t have to look a t him a l l the t ime , bu t b r i n g your eyes back to him p e r i o d i c a l l y . Your awareness of t h a t one person w i l l unconsciously help maintain an adequate volume. Change of volume i s a t echn ique of emphasis, and a lowering of volume i s often more emphatic than a loud vo ice .

Voice q u a l i t y i s a product of ove r tones p r o ­duced in mouth and head and added to sounds produced by the voca l c o r d s . Without good o v e r t o n e s the voice may be t h i n , f l a t , c o l o r l e s s , harsh or n a s a l . Speaking from the diaphragm with c l e a r and p r e c i s e e n u n c i a t i o n , speaking wi th an open mouth, and a t ­tempting to throw the voice toward the roof of the mouth a re p r a c t i c e s which aid in deve lop ing r e s o ­nance, good tona l q u a l i t y , the f u l l n e s s of v o i c e .

Good a r t i c u l a t i o n i s b a s i c to good speak ing . Volume a lone w i l l no t c a r r y your message i f your words are spoken i n d i s t i n c t l y . On the o ther hand, wi th good a r t i c u l a t i o n , l e s s volume i s needed to c a r r y t h e v o i c e t o t h e a u d i e n c e . A d e a d - p a n , m o t i o n l e s s - 1 i p d e l i v e r y w i l l r e s u l t in muf f led , s l u r r e d , and i n d i s t i n c t t o n e s . Good a r t i c u l a t i o n i s a r e s u l t of a c t i v e use of t h r o a t , tongue, t e e t h , and l i p s .

Your normal speaking key i s gene ra l ly bes t for you. Normal p i t c h p laces l ess s t r a i n on your voice,.

2 5

and provides the greatest latitude for expression.

However, the excitement of appearing before an audi­

ence often raises the voice one or two tones above

normal pitch. The very fact that the voice is too

high prolongs stage fright, and the voice may never

drop to its normal level. For most people, then,

it is good practice at the beginning of a talk to

deliberately lower the voice one or two tones.

This may even place the voice below its most effec­

tive pitch, but it will soon move up to its natural

level.

Mannerisms of Speech

Recordings of your voice probably will reveal certain mannerisms of speech. Some are bad, some neutral. Only you can correct them. The most com­mon and objectionable is the habit of punctuating each pause with an "ah" or "uh". Keep your mind ahead of your voice and there will be fewer pauses and fewer occasions for "ahs". When you do pause, make it a silent interval. There is nothing wrong with a few silent intervals. Pauses properly used are oral punctuation marks. Other mannerisms in­clude habitual use of certain words or phrases, or of a set pattern of sentence structure. Use variety --synonyms for commonly used words, a varied sen­tence structure--to improve the cadence and swing of your talk.

What is Stage Fright?

Most speakers, including professionals, ex­perience an excitement commonly called "stage fright." This is not fear of an audience and it will not render you speechless. It is a stimula­tion, an excitement, which results as the body fortifies itself in anticipation of an unaccustomed

26

activity or a crisis. This stimulation can be an advantage to you. It can make your mind more alert, and add life and vigor to your delivery. Stage fright also may reflect fear of yourself, a feeling of inadequacy; complete preparation is the obvious antidote. Confidence and control come with experi­ence, but in the meantime it is helpful to (1) firmly fix in mind your introductory statement, (2) pause, and gain eye contact with the audience before you start, (3) think about your subject, not about yourself, and (4) use a memorized outline.

During the course of a talk, sometimes your mind goes completely blank. Again, a brief pause while you collect your thoughts is not objection­able. If the next word doesn't come, step forward and repeat the last point you made, and go on from there. As a last resort, simply acknowledge that the next point has slipped your mind for the moment, and pick up your talk at the next point in your outline. If you talk from a memorized sequence of ideas, a memorized outline, rather than from a memorized speech, you can't get lost for long in any place in your talk,

Reading aloud is helpful in improving the quality of the voice and also aids in avoiding the kind of stage fright which may occur when, for the first time, you become conscious of the sound of your own voice. Recordings should be made periodi­cally to detect faults and improve quality. Tape or wire recorders or even dictaphones are useful for this purpose.

The following references are suggested for additional study of the art of speaking effec­tively :

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Training the Speaking Voice

By Virgil A. Anderson, Oxford Univers ity Press, 1942

This volume covers breathing for speech, pro­duction of vocal tones, physics of voice resonance, developing clearness of speech, etc., and is compre­hensive and detailed on voice culture. Some parts of it are technical in nature.

Public Speaking as Listeners Like It By Richard C. Borden, Harpers Press, 1935

A brief volume containing listener's laws for speech organization, speech substance, speech phra­seology and speech delivery. The volume contains some excellent suggestions for successful public speaking.

Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business By Dale Carnegie

This volume contains many useful suggestions in the preparation and delivery of talks.

The Art of Plain Talk By Rudolf Flesch, Harper and Brothers, 1946

This book tells how to speak and to write so that people understand what you mean.

Speech, Its Techniques and Disciplines in a Free Society

By William Norwood Brigance, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953

An excellent treatment of the theory and prac­tical aspects of speech. It considers the audience,

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the preparation and organization of the talk, the delivery of the talk, and voice training.

Everyday Speech By Bess Sonde I, Perma Books, 1950

This is a handy little volume containing cur­rent ideas on talking to groups.

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A LAST WORD

It is said that rules are made to be broken. Certainly many of the procedures outlined above may be violated without resulting in failure. There is still a very important place reserved for individual expression and originality. By all means experi­ment, develop new techniques, devise methods of presentation that best reflect your own abilities and personality and that fit the local situation. However, in breaking the rules you first should know the rules, and in judging performance be sure of the criteria for the measurement of success. In interpretive work, it is not entertainment value, the beauty of a group of slides, oratorical ability as such, or public reaction to a personality that measure success. All of these may be important contributing factors, but the real measure of ac­complishment is revealed as, in review of your per­formance, you ask:

1. Did I hold interest all through the talk? 2. Did the audience get any new ideas? 3. Were favorable attitudes toward the area,

the Service, and this activity estab­lished?

Nor will this, or any other discussion of speaking in itself, give you ability as a speaker. Speaking is a skill, it is capable of improvement, and like golf or singing, it is a skill which will decline through lack of exercise. There is no way to achieve proficiency but through practice.

INT . -DUP . SEC . , SASH . , D. C. t, g 6 6 5