Table of contents - edoc.unibas.ch · Table of contents Summary 5 Chapter 1 General introduction...

Gene induction during plant-microbe interactions: The role of chitinases during fungal infection and the

investigation of mycorrhiza-induced genes in the model plant M. truncatula.

Inauguraldissertation

zur

Erlangung der Würde eines Doktors der Philosophie vorgelegt der

Philosophisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Basel

von

Nadja Feddermann Bühler aus Sennwald, SG und Büron, LU

Basel, 2007

Genehmigt von der Philosophisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät auf Antrag von Professor Dr. Thomas Boller und PD Dr. Dirk Redecker. Basel, den 13. Februar 2007

Professor Dr. Hans-Peter Hauri, Dekan

Table of contents Summary 5 Chapter 1 General introduction Scope of the thesis 9 1.1. Interaction of plants with microbes 11 1.1.1. Antagonistic interactions 11 1.1.2. Mutualistic interactions of plants with fungi: the arbuscular mycorrhiza as an example 14 1.1.3. Mutualistic interactions of plants with bacteria: the nodule symbiosis as an example 20 1.1.4. Recognition and signal perception in plant-microbe interactions involve transmembrane receptor-like kinases 24 1.1.5. Common elements in the symbiosis of plants with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia 28 1.2. Chitin and chitinases 29 1.2.1. Chitin: structure, occurrence and function 29 1.2.2. Chitinase characterization 30 1.2.3. Chitinases have diverse functions 31 1.2.4. Chitinases involved in plant defence 33 1.2.5. Chitinases in symbiosis 34 1.3. Medicago truncatula, a model legume 35 1.3.1. Legume research and model plants 35 1.3.2. Medicago truncatula, the barrel medic 37 1.4. Model fungi 39 1.5. Identification of symbiosis related genes 40 1.6. References 41 Chapter 2 Sinorhizobium meliloti- induced chitinase gene expression in Medicago truncatula ecotype R108-1: a comparison between symbiosis-specific class V and defence-related class IV chitinases 2.1. Abstract 61 2.2. Introduction 62 2.3. Materials and methods 64 2.3.1. Treatments and culture of plants, bacteria and fungi 64 2.3.2. Cloning, sequencing and sequence analysis 64 2.3.3. Semi quantitative and quantitative RT-PCR 66 2.4. Results 68 2.4.1. Differential expression of chitinase genes in the M. truncatula ecotypes A17 and R108-1 68 2.4.2. Cloning and sequencing of Mtchit4 68

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2.4.3. Cloning and sequencing of Mtchit5 69 2.4.4. Sinorhizobium-specific induction of Mtchit5 gene expression 69 2.4.5. Mtchit5 expression correlates with nodule development 71 2.4.6. Differential influence of Nod factors on expression of Mtchit5 and Mtchit4 75 2.4.7. Differential influence of K antigens on expression on Mtchit5 and Mtchit4 75 2.4.8. Putative properties of the deduced Mtchit5 polypeptide 76 2.4.9. Phylogenetic analysis of class V and IV chitinases 78 2.5. Discussion 80 2.6. References 82 Appendix 1 Comparative study of M. truncatula chitinases of the GH family 19 A1.1. Abstract 88 A1.2. Introduction 89 A1.3. Materials and methods 90 A1.3.1. Gene isolation, cloning and sequencing 90 A1.3.2. Gene expression measurements by real-time RT-PCR 90 A1.3.3. Biocomputational sequence analyses 90 A1.4. Results 91 A1.4.1. Gene and protein structures 91 A1.4.2. Regulating elements in the chitinase promoters 93 A1.4.3. Phylogeny of GH family 19 chitinases 95 A1.4.4. Expression of chitinases of GH family 19 in different tissues 100 A1.4.5. Expression of chitinases of GH family 19 in mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal roots 100 A1.5. Discussion 101 A1.6. References 104 Chapter 3 Ectopic expression of the mycorrhiza-specific chitinase gene Mtchit3-3 in Medicago truncatula root-organ cultures stimulates spore germination of glomalean fungi 3.1. Abstract 109 3.2. Introduction 110 3.3. Materials and methods 111 3.3.1. Biological materials 111 3.3.2. Cloning and molecular analysis 111 3.3.3. Vector construction for plant transformation 112 3.3.4. Raising transgenic M. truncatula composite plant and ROC’s 113 3.3.5. Analysis of mycorrhiza formation, gene expression and β-glucuronidase (GUS) activity 113 3.4. Results 116 3.4.1. Gene structure and phylogeny 116 3.4.2. Promoter activity of Mtchit3-3 in mycorrhizal roots of M. truncatula composite plants 119

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3.4.3. Initiation of transgenic M. truncatula ROC’s constitutively expressing Mtchit3-3 120 3.4.4. Stimulation of G. intraradices and G. constrictum spore germination by 35S-driven Mtchit3-3 expression in ROC’s 122 3.4.5. Colonization of ROC’s, sporulation and reinfection 124 3.4.6. Induction of Mtchit4 expression in ROC’s by pathogens is independent from ectopic expression of Mtchit3-3 125 3.5. Discussion 128 3.6. References 130 Appendix 2 Localization of Mtchit3-3 with the reporter gene GFP A2.1. Abstract 134 A2.2. Introduction 135 A2.3. Materials and methods 136 A1.3.1. Vectors and materials 136 A1.3.2. Plasmid construction 136 A1.3.3. Transient transformation using surface bombardment 137 A1.3.4. Transformation of M. truncatula hairy roots 137 A2.4. Results 138 A1.4.1. Localization of fluorescence in epidermal cells transiently expressing Mtchit3-3:GFP 138 A1.4.2. Localization of GFP expression in root organ cultures 138 A2.5. Discussion 144 A2.6. References 146 Chapter 4 Medicago truncatula shows distinct patterns of mycorrhiza related gene expression after inoculation with three different arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi 4.1. Abstract 151 4.2. Introduction 152 4.3. Materials and methods 153 4.3.1. Plant growth conditions and sampling 153 4.3.2. Phosphorus, carbon and nitrogen content, soil pH and

determination of physiological parameters 153 4.3.3. RNA preparation, reverse transcription and quantitative PCR 153 4.3.4. Computational analysis of the chitinase promoter sequence 154 4.4. Results 155 4.4.1. Physiological data 155 4.4.2. Real-time PCR data 157 4.4.3. Chitinase Expression in aerial tissues 159 4.4.4. Promoter analysis of chitinase class III genes 160 4.5. Discussion 162 4.6. References 166

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Chapter 5 General discussion 5.1. Chitinases in plants serve diverse biological functions 171 5.2. Plant chitinases exhibit multiple substrate specificities 172 5.3. Possible functions of M. truncatula chitinases 173 4.3.1. Mtchit1a and Mtchit1c 173 4.3.2. Mtchit4 174 4.3.3. Mtchit5 176 4.3.4. Mtchit3-3, Mtchit3-4 and Mtchit3-1 177 5.4. Concluding remarks 180 5.3. References 181 Index of tables and figures Acknowledgements Curriculum Vitae Publication List

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Summary 5

Summary In this thesis, the model legume Medicago truncatula was used for research on plant-microbe interactions. Unlike most other plants, legumes are able to form two distinct root symbioses. Together with soil-borne fungi of the Glomeromycota, they form the arbuscular mycorrhiza and with rhizobial bacteria, they form nitrogen fixing root nodules. Here, plant responses to these symbiotic microbes were investigated, and compared to the plant's defence response against antagonistic microbes. Plant chitinases have an important role in the interplay between plants and microbes; they have been shown to act as defence-related antifungal enzymes, but they seem to be involved in symbiotic processes as well. In previous work, genes encoding eight different chitinases were identified in M. truncatula. The main part of this thesis is dedicated to an in-depth study of these genes with regard to their regulation and function. Additionally, the expression patterns of genes that are related to the arbuscular mycorrhizal interaction of M. truncatula were analysed in order to further explore this important symbiosis. In roots of the M. truncatula ecotype R108-1, expression of the gene Mtchit5, encoding a class V chitinase, was induced during nodule formation after infection with wild type rhizobia, but not in response to pathogenic fungi or arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Mtchit5 transcripts were first detectable in roots forming nodule primordial and accumulated during nodule ripening. The gene was induced in response to purified Nod factors and also in ineffective white nodules formed by a mutant rhizobial strain. Phylogenetic analysis of the deduced amino acid sequence revealed that the putative Mtchit5 chitinase forms a separate clade within class V chitinases of plants. These results, together with the additional finding that Mtchit5 expression is high in flowers, indicate that Mtchit5 is a putative early nodulin that is specifically induced by rhizobia in roots and may have a function in plant developmental processes. The gene Mtchit4, encoding a class IV chitinase, is induced during infection by pathogenic fungi in roots of M. truncatula but not during mycorrhiza formation. During nodule formation, Mtchit4 was strongly induced only in the M. truncatula ecotype Jemalong A17 after infection with wild-type rhizobium strains. Its expression was elevated in nodules formed with a K-antigen deficient rhizobium mutant, but not in response to purified Nod factors. The putative Mtchit4 chitinase is closely related to pathogenesis-related class IV chitinases from other plants, and it is assumed that Mtchit4 is a pathogenesis related protein. This is supported by an additional study that revealed a low overall expression of Mtchit4 throughout the plant, independent of the plant’s symbiotic status, and an in silico analysis of the Mtchit4 promoter sequence, which contains a variety of putative cis-elements related to plant defence. The expression of two genes encoding class I chitinases, Mtchit1a and Mtchit1c, were compared to the expression of Mtchit4 in leaves, roots and flowers and after infection with a mycorrhizal fungus. In contrast to the constitutively expressed Mtchit1c, the expression of Mtchit1a was similar in leaves or roots but low in flowers. Both chitinase genes were not affected by mycorrhizal infection. The differential expression patterns, together with sequence data and in silico promoter analyses, suggest that these genes encode pathogenesis related chitinases, that are specifically regulated in response to infection by pathogenic fungi. Mtchit3-3 is a class III chitinase gene that was specifically induced in mycorrhizal roots. The Mtchit3-3 promoter directs reporter gene expression to arbuscule containing cells, which is consistent with mycorrhiza-related elements found in the promoter sequence. Disruption of the Mtchit3-3 gene expression in root organ cultures stimulated spore germination of mycorrhizal fungi and in one fungal strain resulted in a higher probability of root colonization and spore formation. No effect on the abundance of arbuscules within colonized roots became apparent. Mtchit3-3-GFP fusion constructs revealed that the putative signal peptide could direct the Mtchit3-3 protein to the apoplast. It is suggested that the chitinase Mtchit3-3

Summary 6

is enzymatically active and might act on chitin in the fungal cell wall or fungal chitin-related signals during the symbiosis and it may be involved in communication processes between plant and AM. The class III chitinase genes Mtchit3-1 and Mtchit3-4 are induced in response to infection by pathogenic fungi in roots of M. truncatula. Mtchit3-4, but not Mtchit3-1, was also slightly induced during mycorrhiza formation. According to their gene and protein structures in comparison to chitinases in other plant species and additional in silico promoter analyses, it is proposed that Mtchit3-1 is a pathogenesis related chitinase while Mtchit3-4 may be related in a general way to fungal infections. The functionality of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis was measured by comparing the plant’s nutritional status and growth response of three mycorrhizal fungi from two different phylogenetic taxa, namely Glomus intraradices, Glomus mosseae and Scutellospora castanea. Mycorrhiza formation enhanced biomass accumulation and nutritional status of the plants in each case, although the response was not related to the colonization degree. To supplement the expression data of chitinase genes in relation to different fungal infections, the expression was measured in the roots of M. truncatula plants colonized with the three AMF. In addition, a selected set of other symbiosis related genes were tested that responded differently to the AMF colonization. It can be concluded that a subset of the genes that respond to colonization by the two Glomus species also responded to at least one fungus from the Gigasporaceae. These data indicate that different genes showing arbuscule-specific gene expression in colonized roots are regulated by different mechanisms, depending on the fungal partner.

Chapter 1 General introduction Scope of the thesis 9 1.1. Interaction of plants with microbes 1.1.1. Antagonistic interactions 11 1.1.1.1. Plant diseases 11 1.1.1.2. Preformed defence, passive resistance 11 1.1.1.3. Recognition 11 1.1.1.4. Local defence responses 12 1.1.1.5. Systemic defence responses 13 1.1.1.6. PR proteins 13 1.1.2. Mutualistic interactions of plants with fungi: the arbuscular mycorrhiza as an example 14 1.1.2.1. Arbuscular Mycorrhiza 14 1.1.2.2. The AMF life cycle 15 1.1.2.3. Metabolite exchange 18 1.1.3. Mutualistic interactions of plants with bacteria: the nodule symbiosis as an example 20 1.1.3.1. Legumes establish a mutualistic symbiosis with rhizobia 20 1.1.3.2. Rhizobial life cycle and nitrogen fixation 21 1.1.4. Recognition and signal perception in plant-microbe interactions involve transmembrane receptor-like kinases 24 1.1.4.1. Early steps in antagonistic plant-microbe interactions 24 1.1.4.2. Common early steps in the nodulation and formation of arbuscular mycorrhiza 25 1.1.4.3. Different plant signalling pathways are activated by different microorganisms 27 1.1.5. Common elements in the symbiosis of plant with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia 28 1.1.5.1. Endosymbiotic microbes trigger plant defence reactions 28 1.1.5.2. Early nodulins 28 1.2. Chitin and chitinases 29 1.2.1. Chitin: structure, occurrence and function 29 1.2.2. Chitinase characterization 30 1.2.3. Chitinases have diverse functions 31 1.2.4. Chitinases involved in plant defence 33 1.2.5. Chitinases in symbiosis 34 1.2.5.1. Elicitor cleavage 34 1.2.5.2. Nod factor cleavage 34 1.3. Medicago truncatula, a model legume 35 1.3.1. Legume research and model plants 35 1.3.2. Medicago truncatula, the barrel medic 37 1.4. Model fungi 39 1.5. Identification of symbiosis related genes 40 1.6. References 41

General introduction 7

List of figures and tables: Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree based on analyses of ribosomal small subunit sequences. 15 Figure 2 Life cycle of an AMF. 16 Figure 3 Pictures of appressoria, arbuscules and intraradical hyphae, with vesicles. 17 Figure 4 `Diagrammatic representation of direct and mycorrhizal uptake pathways into plant roots.’ 18 Figure 5 `16S rDNA phylogenetic tree of Rhizobia and related bacteria.’ 21 Figure 6 The formation of root nodules. 22 Figure 7 Proposed model of the Nod-factor signalling pathway. 27 Figure 8 The chemical structures of monomers of chitin and chitosan. 29 Figure 9 Chitinase structures 30 Figure 10 Sites of hydrolytic cleavage of Nod factors of Rhizobium meliloti by enzymes isolated from the roots of Medicago sativa. 35 Figure 11 ‘Simplified schematic tree of legume family.’ 36 Figure 12 Medicago truncatula in different growth stages, flowers and developing seed pods. 37 Figure 13 Phylogenetic tree for overview over the different Glomus groups. 39 Table 1 Putative functions of chitinases of different origin and classes. 32 Table 2 M. truncatula statistics. 38 Abbreviations: AM arbuscular mycorrhiza AMF arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi CCaMK calcium calmodulin dependent protein kinase ENOD early nodulin gene GH glycosyl hydrolase HR hypersensitive reaction LRR leucine rich repeat MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinase myc mycorrhiza-related NAD(P)H nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide (phosphate), reduced form of NAD(P)+NFB Nod factor binding Nod nodulation, nodule-related NFR Nod factor receptor NFP Nod factor perception PR pathogenesis-related RLK receptor like kinase ROS reactive oxygen species sym symbiotic, symbiosis-related


Scope of the thesis Interactions of plants with microorganisms have become an increasingly important topic in plant science. One particular question is how plants are able to perceive and distinguish different microbes; how they are able to defend themselves successfully against antagonistic microbes while at the same time conferring an advantage to mutualistic ones. This field of science has made an extremely good progress in the last decade, and several important problems have been solved, not only because of the technical improvements of molecular biology. And still, for every question that has been answered, new questions arise. Chitinases are hydrolysing enzymes that are produced ubiquitously by plants. Chitin, the substrate of chitinases, has not been found in plants but is formed by plant-associated organisms, in particular as component in the cell wall of true fungi. There are countless examples of studies showing that plant chitinases are induced in relation to stress factors and attack by antagonistic fungal pathogens. These studies indicate that chitinases are an important part of the plant’s defence machinery. However, some chitinases are not induced by pathogens but in response to symbiotic interactions. Indeed, the basis for this thesis was a study of eight chitinase genes in Medicago truncatula roots that were found to be differentially induced upon challenges with different microbes (Salzer et al, 2000). These eight chitinases belong to five known classes, based on their amino acid sequences. As expected from previous work, most of these chitinase genes were induced in response to pathogens and two of the described genes were induced exclusively after contact of the roots with symbiotic organisms. The question arose, whether these particular chitinases have a role in symbiosis. To answer this question, the work of this thesis started with in vivo and in silico studies of the genes encoding these chitinases and of their regulation during infection with microbes. The functional symbiosis of plants with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is based on the specific regulation of a large number of genes, in addition to chitinase genes. Therefore, to supplement the chitinase studies, the transcriptional changes of different mycorrhiza-specific genes in response to selected arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were investigated. This thesis starts with a general introduction to summarize current knowledge on plant-microbe interactions and the model systems that were used here. The subsequent chapters describe experimental results, followed by a general discussion. Each chapter starts with a short introduction to point out the most important aspects of the respective topic. Naturally, the author of this thesis has not performed all of the work by herself, as indicated by the author lists at the beginning of each chapter. However, the author was substantially involved in the experimental setup, the performance and evaluation of all the results presented here. The use of the results for this thesis was co-ordinated with co-authors of the publications, to whom the author is truly grateful.


1.1. Interaction of plants with microbes Plants are autotrophic organisms that are surrounded by heterotrophic microorganisms that may exploit them to acquire nutrients for their proliferation. Plants need to be able to distinguish between two kinds of microbial approaches: in unfriendly approaches, generally defined as antagonistic interactions, the microbes benefit at the expense of the plant and sometimes cause disease. In contrast, in friendly approaches, generally defined as mutualistic interactions, the plant benefits from the microbes and vice versa. The borders between antagonistic and mutualistic symbiosis are however not always clear. A given interaction may have both antagonistic and mutualistic aspects, depending on the environmental conditions or the fitness of the organisms. 1.1.1. Antagonistic interactions 1.1.1.1. Plant diseases Many plant diseases arise through the attack by antagonistic microbes. These diseases comprise a variety of symptoms ranging from small local lesions to the death of the whole plant. However, severe plant diseases are not very common, due to the plant's efficient defence systems. Only if a microbe overcomes these defences, it enters a compatible interaction and it can multiply and exploit the plant. This leads in most cases to distinct disease symptoms (Jones & Takemoto, 2004). In contrast, when the microbe is warded off by the plant defence system, the interaction is incompatible and no disease symptoms occur. Many pathogens are restricted in their host range, while others are more generalistic. Some pathogens with a small host range are specialized on various crop plants and cause problems for agriculture. To counter this threat, efficient fungicides and other antimicrobial agents are developed and this forms a big part of the agrochemical research and industry. 1.1.1.2. Preformed defence, passive resistance Antagonistic microorganisms use a variety of strategies to attack plants. They all weaken, inactivate or circumvent the plant's defence mechanisms. This can be seen, for example, in the interaction of Pseudomonas with Arabidopsis thaliana (Hauck et al, 2003) and of Cladosporium with tomato (van den Burg et al, 2003). Being constantly endangered by microbes in the environment, plants use a preformed defence as first protection. Preformed defence mechanisms include lignified cell walls and waxy surfaces to block an invader at the outside of the plant. Once a pathogen has penetrated these first physical barriers, it may be confronted with preformed toxic substances, including protease inhibitors or antimicrobial enzymes like chitinases and beta-1,3-glucanases (Arlorio et al, 1992; Sela-Buurlage et al, 1993). 1.1.1.3. Recognition Elicitors Recognition of an antagonistic microbe is a prerequisite for initiation of defence reactions (Boller, 1995; Jones & Takemoto, 2004). Elicitors are microbial substances characteristic for whole classes of microbes that induce defence reactions in plants. But also plant molecules generated specifically upon pathogen attack elicit such defence reactions (e.g. Mauch et al, 1988a; Ren & West, 1992; Felix et al, 1993, 1999). Abiotic elicitors exist as well; wounding, wind, flooding and touching may cause the induction of a series of defence reactions in plants (e.g. Hedrick et al, 1988; Stintzi et al,


1993). Examples for microbial elicitors are the pathogen associated molecular patterns, PAMPs. The PAMPs are “general elicitors”, i.e. proteins or small molecules that are highly characteristic and conserved among certain classes of microbes. They directly induce defence reactions through interaction with specific receptors on the plant cell surface (Asai et al, 2001; Gomez-Gomez & Boller, 2002). One such PAMP is chitin, an important element of the cell wall of fungi. Chitin fragments induce strong defence reactions in plants (Ren & West, 1992; Ramonell et al, 2005). Gene-for-gene resistance The concept of the gene-for-gene based resistance implies a highly refined form of recognition of specific pathogen products. These are encoded by microbial avirulence genes and are recognized by the gene products of their counterparts in incompatible host plants, the resistance genes (Martin et al, 1993; Jones et al, 1994; Tang et al, 1996; Parniske et al, 1997). Resistance gene products are receptors that perceive the avirulence gene products directly or indirectly. Recognition triggers the induction of defence related signalling cascades and confers a strong and specific resistance response including local necrosis, known as the hypersensisitve response, HR. Resistance genes are members of large gene families that are under increased diversification pressure, as they confer specific recognition of pathogens and are therefore targets of selection in the coevolution of plants and microbes (Bishop, 2000; Jones & Dangl, 2006). 1.1.1.4. Local defence responses Typically, addition of elicitors such as microbial fragments or chitin oligomers induces defence reactions (Felix et al, 1993, 1999; Ramonell et al, 2005). Certain reactions can be elicited also by jasmonic acid and ethylene, two plant hormones that are part of the defence machinery itself, showing that these reactions are part of an elaborated system to act in a fast and efficient way upon an attack. Global analyses of gene expression have shown that several hundreds of genes are up-regulated in response to elicitors; among them are previously known defence related genes, but also protein kinases and phosphatases, WRKY transcription factors and others (Ramonell & Somerville, 2002). The hypersensitive response One reaction to pathogen infection is the hypersensitive response, HR. The HR is characterized by rapid, localized biochemical defence, such as the production of ROS, reorganization of the cytoplasm, apposition of material to the cell walls in the proximity of the invading pathogen and the synthesis of phytoalexins and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins. The HR results in the death of cells around the infection site, which prevents the infection to spread through the tissue (Lamb & Dixon, 1997; Kombrink & Schmelzer, 2001). Reactive oxygen species An important fast effect often associated with defence responses is the oxidative burst, in which reactive oxygen species, ROS, are rapidly formed. ROS can be triggered both after general elicitor or PAMP perception and during pathogen invasion. Predominant forms of ROS are superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, that are produced through the action of membrane anchored NAD(P)H-dependent oxidases and peroxidases (Lamb & Dixon, 1997; Bolwell et al, 2002). The oxidative burst goes together with transmemebrane ion fluxes, extracellular alkalinisation and protein phosphorylation (Felix et al, 1993; Peck et al, 2001; Dat et al, 2002). ROS are signal compounds that may also be produced in several internal sources like chloroplasts or peroxisomes in relation to abiotic stresses (Dat et al, 2002). Depending on the location and dose, ROS can activate diverse signalling cascades or act directly as toxic compounds. They also cause modification of apoplastic structures and are furthermore known to be involved in senescence and cell death.


Transcriptional activation induces synthesis of phytoalexins The range of pathogen induced defence reactions includes the production of phytolalexins, a group of low molecular substances that inhibit microbes at the site of pathogen contact. The activation of diverse phytoalexin synthesis pathways occurs within a short time after elicitor treatment or infection with pathogenic fungi (Ebel & Grisebach, 1988). Some of the phytoalexins are sesquiterpenoids, polyacetylenes, stilbenoids and isoflavonoids such as glyceollin in soybean (Ebel & Grisebach, 1988). 1.1.1.5. Systemic defence responses Local infection by a pathogen may sometimes confer a certain resistance against infection or stimuli not only at the infection site, but also in distal tissues. There are two forms of this phenomenon: The systemic acquired resistance, SAR, which is established after a pathogen infection (Grant & Lamb, 2006) and the induced systemic resistance, ISR, which is conferred by non pathogenic, plant growth promoting bacteria (Sticher et al, 1997; Pieterse et al, 2003). Systemic acquired resistance SAR occurs in certain plants that have been infected with a pathogen at one site and there develop a HR. These plants develop resistance in distal organs against the same or even different pathogens. The SAR is mediated through salicylic acid signalling pathways (Heath, 2000; Grant & Lamb, 2006) and is generally associated with the systemic induction of pathogenesis related (PR) proteins such as chitinases or beta-1,3-glucanases and thaumatin-like substances (Kombrink & Schmelzer, 2001). The effect of SAR can last up to weeks or even months (Sticher et al, 1997). Induced systemic resistances The ISR confers resistance to above-ground plant parts after infection of roots with rhizobacteria, such as certain Pseudomonas strains. ISR acts against a broad spectrum of pathogenic organisms, including fungi, bacteria and viruses. The ISR is induced through a different signalling pathway than the SAR and requires jasmonic acid and ethylene as signalling compounds. These phytohormones are acting synergistically, together with other factors such as bacterial siderophores and O-antigen or nitric oxide (e.g. Heath, 2000; Grant & Lamb, 2006). In contrast to SAR, the ISR does not involve enhanced formation of PR proteins, but the two mechanisms of resistance are compatible and additive when induced simultaneously. 1.1.1.6. PR proteins Pathogen infection leads to local and often systemic de novo formation of many proteins, such as chalcone isomerase and other enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway leading to the production of phytoalexins and lignins and enzymes that are part of the biosynthesis pathways of defence-related phytohormones (Gianinazzi-Pearson et al, 1996; Kapulnik, 1996). A special class among these newly formed proteins are the pathogenesis-related proteins, the PR proteins (van Loon, 1985). They include chitinases and beta-1,3-glucanases that are evidently directed against the main components of fungal cell walls (Mauch et al, 1988b; Sela-Buurlage et al, 1993). The expression of PR proteins is developmentally, tissue or organ specifically regulated, and generally tightly organized. They are accumulating in the intercellular spaces as well as vacuoles of various plant cells during interaction with pathogenic microorganisms (Neuhaus et al, 1991). Typically, they are resistant to proteolytic degradation or acidic pH. PR proteins are induced upon different stimuli from viruses, bacteria or fungi and elicitor treatment (e.g. Boller et al, 1983; Stintzi et al, 1993), but in some cases, they can also be induced by abiotic stress, such as drought, salinity, wounding or heavy metals (e.g. Lawton & Lamb, 1987; Stintzi et al, 1993).


1.1.2. Mutualistic interactions of plants with fungi: the arbuscular mycorrhiza as an example The mutualistic symbiosis between fungi and plants was named mycorrhiza, after the Greek words for myces and rhiza, standing for Fungus and Root respectively. Since then, a series of definitions were given, using amongst others the words mutualistic, symbiotic, beneficial, supportive to describe the mycorrhizal association. Brundrett summarized previous attempts to categorise the mycorrhiza, and compared the different types of mycorrhizae, separating it from other plant-fungal interactions. “A mycorrhiza is: a symbiotic association essential for one or both partners, between a fungus (specialised for life in soils and plants) and a root (or other substrate-contacting organ) of a living plant, that is primarily responsible for nutrient transfer. Mycorrhizas occur in a specialised plant organ where intimate contact results from synchronised plant-fungus development.” (Brundrett, 2004). Most plants form mycorrhiza, but there are some exceptions. For example the members of the Brassicaceae and Chenopodiaceae families are unable to enter any mutualistic fungal symbiosis. There are several forms of mycorrhizae, which are to a certain extent dependent on the host-fungus species compatibility. The outer or ecto-mycorrhiza is mainly formed between trees and fungi of the Basidiomycetes or Ascomycetes. The shortened and thickened plant roots host a hyphal network in the outer root layers forming the Hartig net as nutrient exchange unit. The fungus also forms an extraradical mycelium to acquire mineral nutrients in the soil (Tagu & Martin, 1996). Morphologically, there is a transition with unclear borders from ecto- to ectendo- to the inner or endo-mycorrhiza. The endomycorrhiza is characterized by the intracellular localization of the nutrient exchange unit, often in the form of a tree-like structure, the arbuscule, in the root cortex of mainly herbous plant species. Therefore this endomycorrhiza is also termed the arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) or vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM). 1.1.2.1. Arbuscular mycorrhiza The symbiosis of plants with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is one of the most widespread and oldest symbiotic life forms, and is thought to date back to the Ordovician, 460 Mio years ago (Remy et al, 1994; Redecker et al, 2000). The fungi in these mutualistic associations are members of the fungal phylum Glomeromycota that are able to colonize over 80% of all plant species (Schüssler et al, 2001). Fungal importance and biodiversity The fungi are completely dependent in their nutrition and reproduction on their host plants. The plants, in return, benefit from the fungi: it has been shown that they become more resistant to drought, phosphate- and nitrogen starvation (St Arnaud et al, 1995; Gianinazzi-Pearson, 1996). Especially in nutrient poor soils, the fungi with their small and flexible hyphae are able to reach water and nutrient reservoirs where plants cannot reach them. These goods are transported through the fungal network into the plant roots, where they are exchanged for plant derived sugars, the photosynthetic products. A healthy AM community with intact soil structures is of big agricultural importance, as symbiotic plants achieve higher biomass and crop yields particularly in nutrient poor soils. Increased overall plant fitness and resistance against nematodes or pathogens can, to a certain extent, prevent high input of agrochemicals. It is also clear that the mycorrhizal symbiosis cannot be seen only as a relation between a plant and its fungus, but that it is embedded into a soil community, which is referred to as the rhizosphere (Rambelli, 1973). In this, the mycorrhizal roots form the largest root fraction and AMF networks are ubiquitous, and it might therefore be referred to as the mycorrhizosphere (Johansson et al, 2004). AMF provide a key component of the microbial population and most interactions are depending on their presence. This means that the fungal symbiosis is not only of importance for the fitness of single plants but it is crucial for the maintenance of biodiversity in plant and soil communities. Increased diversity of AMF causes an increase in plant biodiversity (Van der Heijden et al, 1998) as well as in microbial diversity (Johansson et al, 2004).


Fungal classification Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are asexual, multinucleate soil living fungi. They do not form fruit bodies but small, multinucleate spores with layered walls. These spores are able to survive for a long time, and over periods of dryness and heat. The phylum Glomeromycota is a sister clade of Basidiomycota and Ascomycota, and was only recently defined (Schüssler et al, 2001). It currently comprises approximately 200 described species distributed among ten genera, most of which were defined primarily by spore morphology. But lately, also DNA sequences have been used to describe AMF taxa and their phylogenetic relationship (Figure 1). While the major concepts of mycorrhizal functioning, the exchange of nutrients and metabolites, were proposed in the 1960s, their verification at the molecular level only started approximately 10 years ago (reviewed by Koide & Mosse, 2004).

Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree based on analyses of ribosomal small subunit sequences. Glomus

subgroups as defined by (Schwarzott et al, 2001). Tree taken from http://www.tolweb.org/tree?group=Glomeromycota, visited August 2006.

Classification of AMF is done via morphological characteristics. Spores are analyzed under the microscope, with different staining methods that make spore walls distinguishable. The number and ornamentation of the outer or inner cell walls are characteristic for each species. Although these characteristics are specific, they can be different dependent on the status of the spores; aged, dry or decaying spores may look different, even if they belong to the same species. Spores that were isolated from different soils can again look different. However, to distinguish and classify spores by morphological methods is quite difficult and needs expert knowledge. Nowadays, molecular tools are established for AMF phylogenetic analyses. These tools comprise amplification of fungal DNA with specific primers, and the analysis and comparison of the amplified DNA sequences (e.g. Redecker, 2000). DNA sequences are independent of age and status of the spores, and can be amplified directly out of root material, independent from spores. Therefore, the phylogenetic relations of the AM fungi are being reorganized as the tools of molecular biology deliver new results. 1.1.2.2. The AMF life cycle Contact and attachment to the roots The AMF colonization process begins with fungal spore germination (Figure 2 A, B). Spore germination, first hyphal growth and branching are stimulated by root exudates from potential host plants, whereas non host plants have no effect on the hyphal growth or even are inhibitory (e.g. Buee et al, 2000; Gianinazzi-Pearson,1996). These preinfection processes are stimulated by signal molecules, synthesized and secreted by the roots as root exudates, and volatiles such as CO2 (Gadkar et al, 2001; Bécard & Piché, 1989). Spores are also able to germinate, and hyphae grow without the presence of roots. However, in the absence of possible host roots after some time the germinating hyphae cease and decay. Branching factor, an only recently identified sequiterpene


(Akiyama et al, 2005; Parniske, 2005), causes the germinating hyphae to grow in a fine and highly branched mycelium. Branching is thought to enhance the chances for the hyphae to reach and contact a root (Figure 1 C). Similar to the branching factor, which is produced by plants as compatibility signal to the fungus, the branched fungal hyphae seem to secrete a diffusible signal to the roots. This signal leads to a controlled induction of the symbiosis program in root areas that are in actual contact with the fungus, including the expression of symbiosis-related genes like ENOD11 (Chabaud et al, 2002; Kosuta et al, 2003). Appressorium formation, entry into the root When hyphae get into contact with a host plant root hyphal tips swell and form appressoria at the root epidermis (Figures 2 D). Appressoria are attachment structures formed on the root surface, from which the fungi can enter into the roots (Figure 3), which are triggered from topological signals on the cell wall surface. It was shown that appressorium structures can be formed on isolated root epidermal cell walls, but not on cortical or vascular cells (Gadkar et al, 2001). On these cells no penetration was observed. Many myc- mutants are blocked at this stage (e.g. Gao et al, 2004; Gianinazzi-Pearson, 1996; David-Schwartz et al, 2003; Paszkowski et al, 2006) and non host plants do not support appressorium formation. Appressorium formation is followed by penetration of the upper cell layers of the root and proliferation of intraradical hyphae (Figure 2 E). Penetration into roots is achieved by wall-degrading hydrolytic enzymes by the fungus, and the hydrostatic pressure of the hyphal tip. The entry of the fungus through the epidermis into the outermost cell layers is assisted by the plant by forming an opening a cleft at the middle lamella (Demchenko et al, 2004) and the establishment of a special cytoskeletal arrangement, the prepenetration apparatus (Genre et al, 2005).

appressorium cell wall

spores A

C

root

branched hyphae

D

B

germinated spores

CO2

root

E

F

intraradical hyphae

H

G

extraradical hyphae

new spores

arbuscules

Figure 2 Life cycle of an AMF. The entry into host roots, intraradical growth and generation of

offspring spores. Scheme originally designed by P. Salzer (unpublished).


Arbuscule formation and completion of the fungal life cycle After entry into the root, fungal hyphae grow intercellularly through the root until they reach the inner cortical cell layers (Figure 2 F). The intraradical hyphae ultimately start to penetrate cortical cell walls and form intracellular hyphal structures, the arbuscules. Depending on the type of mycorrhiza, heavily curled (Paris type) or highly branched (Arum type; Figure 3) haustorial structures (Smith & Smith, 1997) are developed, generally in neighbouring cells, forming patches of arbusculate cells (Figure 2 G). However, at no time point, the fungus enters the plant cytoplasm. In the arbuscule-containing cells a periarbuscular membrane is formed that surrounds the arbuscule with an extremely large contact surface between the two symbionts. This is the place where nutrients are transferred between the plant and the fungus, mediated through a series of specific proteins (e.g. Liu et al, 2003; Wulf et al, 2003). Despite their central role in nutrient exchange, arbuscules have a relatively short life, already after a few days or weeks they collapse and become degraded. Aging and collapse of arbuscules goes together with the formation of intraradical septae (Dickson & Smith, 2001) and the decrease of phosphate transporters that are involved in nutrient exchange (Harrison et al, 2002). The former arbuscule-containing plant cell is not damaged by the arbuscule degradation and can host further arbuscules. Colonization of the plant root spans in some cases large areas of the roots, often with hyphal bridges from one cell layer to the other. Apart from arbuscules, some AMF develop vesicles, thin-walled, lipid-filled structures, thought to serve for lipid storage. To finish its life cycle the fungus exits the root again followed by extensive growth of external hyphae and sporulates in the soil (Figure 2 H).

ab

ap

h

ab

ap

h

Figure 3 Pictures of appressoria (ap), arbuscules (ab) and intraradical hyphae (h) of strawberry

roots colonized by G. mosseae. Bars equal 30 μm . Pictures by N. Feddermann.


1.1.2.3. Metabolite exchange

lant roots are constantly expanding, growing into new areas of the soil and using the nutrients and

ineral nutrient uptake in arbuscular cells through specific membrane transporters . It is needed as

ate from organic compounds

igure 4 `Diagrammatic representation (not to scale) of direct hiza

s depicted in Figure 4, the indirect pathway delivers phosphate into the root cortex through fungal

hosphate transporters, of which the

Pwater therein. During root growth the younger parts of the root grow into regions of the soil that are rich in nutrients. These younger parts of the root and root hairs are able to take up phosphate, nitrate and other nutrients directly from the soil. The older root parts are in a nutrient poor zone, in particular in phosphorus, which is quickly depleted and moves very slowly through diffusion. Furthermore, nutrients are heterogeneously distributed in the soil, which makes it also difficult for the plants to reach nutrients. Thus, mainly older root parts are dependent on mycorrhiza for supply of nutrients, as AMF are able to reach into the zones that are not depleted yet. MPhosphate is one of the most important mineral nutrients for all living organismsstructural component in nucleic acids and proteins as well as in energy turnover, protein regulation and other functions. Most of the phosphate in soil is inorganic and fixed in practically insoluble minerals. A small fraction is present in organic compounds, such as plant-derived phytate. Thus, phosphate is present in soils in relatively high amounts, but most of it is not freely accessible for plants. In many soils phosphorus is a growth limiting factor for plants. Plants secrete phosphatases into the rhizosphere to hydrolyze phosph(Joner et al, 2000). Specialized high affinity phosphate transporters, MtPt1 and MtPt2, which are highly induced in phosphate starved plants, are located at the root epidermis. These specialized transporters are responsible for uptake of solubilised phosphate via a direct pathway, directly from the soil into the roots (Liu et al, 1998).

Fand mycorr l uptake pathways into plant roots. In the direct pathway, high-affinity plant P transporters (black circles) located in the epidermis and root hairs are involved in uptake of orthophosphate from the soil solution directly into plant cells. If the rate of uptake exceeds the rate of diffusion of P in the soil solution, the concentration of P is reduced leading to 1- to 2-mm zones of depletion (narrow yellow band) close to the root surfaces, which limit the rate of uptake. The mycorrhizal pathway involves uptake of P from the soil solution by AM fungal transporters (blue circles) located in external hyphae. P is then translocated rapidly over considerable distances (1-15 cm) and is delivered to fungus-plant interfaces in the root cortex. Plant P transporters located at these interfaces (black circles) absorb P into root cortical cells.´ Picture and text from (Smith et al, 2003, Figure 1)

Ahyphae, while epidermal phosphate transporters are downregulated during the AM. This seems to be the dominant way in most plants and probably accounts for most if not all of the inorganic phosphate (Pi) acquisition (Pearson & Jacobsen 1993; Smith et al, 2003). Phosphate is taken up from the soil by AMF through fungal pones from G. versiforme, G. intraradices and G. mosseae have been characterized (Harrison & van Buuren, 1995; Maldonado-Mendoza et al, 2001; Benedetto et al, 2005). Within the extraradical fungal


hyphae phosphate is condensed to polyphosphate, and transported into the intraradical hyphae. At the intraradical hyphae, more exactly in the arbuscules, polyphosphate is hydrolysed by enhanced phosphatase activity and released into the periarbuscular space (Solaiman & Saito, 2001; Ohtomo & Saito, 2005). Phosphate is then taken up and incorporated into the plant cortex cells through a low affinity transmembrane transporter, such as the Medicago truncatula MtPt4, which is present in the periarbuscular membrane (Harrison et al, 2002). Of the phosphate transporter gene family, MtPt4 is the only one that is strongly upregulated during symbiosis, and corresponding genes have been identified and characterized in potato, StPt3, and tomato, LePt1, (Rausch et al, 2001). Functional transporter genes have also been identified in rice, maize and wheat (Paszkowski et al, 2002; Guimil et al, 2005; Glassop et al, 2005), although in these species they are not orthologous to MtPt4 (Paszkowski et al, 2002). Expression of MtPt4 was found to be correlated with the degree of mycorrhizal colonization (Isayenkov et al, 2004) and thus can be used as mycorrhizal marker. The mycorrhizal symbiosis is also important with respect to another nutrient, nitrogen. Inorganic

phosphate and other nutrients by arbuscular plant cells may be linked to a high plant

lant derived carbon as energy source for AMF dependent on the plant symbiosis. Fungal growth,

lipids, trehalose and glycogen (Bécard

nitrogen is taken up by the fungus in the extraradical hyphae, and incorporated into arginine (Jin et al, 2005), transported to the intraradical structures, where it is released as ammonia after arginine breakdown and then translocated into the plant cortex cells via ammonia channels (Govindarajulu et al, 2005). Furthermore, several nitrate, zink or copper transporters of the plant have been shown to be expressed in high amounts in mycorrhizal roots (e.g. Hohnjec et al, 2005; Frenzel et al, 2005; Burleigh et al, 2003). It is interesting, that members of the nitrate and zink transporter gene families are differentially regulated, like the members of the phosphate transporter gene family, showing upregulation of several genes, while others are reduced in mycorrhizal roots (Liu et al, 2003; Hohnjec et al, 2005). The uptake ofand fungal H+-ATPase activity observed at the periarbuscular membrane (Gianinazzi-Pearson et al, 2000; Krajinski et al, 2002; Requena et al, 2003). H+-ATPases are assumed to drive the transmembrane proton gradient that is required for some of the transmembrane transporter activities and are responsible for an acidic pH in the periarbuscular space. Other genes induced in the arbuscular cells are for instance several multifunctional aquaporins with yet unknown functions that are probably involved in signalling (Küster et al, 2004), as well as cytochromes (Hohnjec et al, 2005), or glutathione-S-transferase, which are involved in energy acquisition (Wulf et al, 2003). Although most of the nutrient transfer between the two symbiotic partners takes place in the arbuscules, the arbuscules do not seem to be the sole place of nutrient exchange. It is almost certain that nutrient transfer may additionally occur at the intracellular hyphae (Gianinazzi-Pearson et al, 1991). PThe completion of the AMF life cycle is entirelyspore production and mycelial transport activities require a high amount of energy. Energy in form of organic carbon is obtained from plant derived sugars, in some cases a large fraction of the photosynthesis products are delivered to the fungus (Wright et al, 1998). For the symbiotic fungus 100% of all carbohydrates are supplied by the plant, as extraradical hyphae, in contrast to intraradical hyphae, do not absorb and utilize sugars like glucose and fructose (Solaiman & Saito, 1997; Bago et al, 1999; Pfeffer et al, 1999). It has to be noted that the intraradical and extraradical mycelium together with the spores form one continuum, in which anastomoses may connect the plasma of converging extraradical hyphae (Giovannetti et al, 2001). Yet, an intraradical and an extraradical hyphal carbon metabolism can be separated. The major storage forms of carbon in spores and hyphae areet al, 1991; Bonfante et al, 1994; Shachar-Hill et al, 1995; Bago et al, 1999, 2003; Pfeffer et al 1999). Of these, lipids appear to be the main storage and transport form in the extraradical hyphae, but also carbohydrates may also be transported, although this might be less favourable because of osmotic effects (Shachar-Hill et al, 1995; Solaiman & Saito, 1997). Photosynthetic assimilates are supplied to the root cells in the form of sucrose. Most likely, in the arbuscules, assimilate transfer includes export across the plant plasma membrane and active uptake across the fungal plasma membrane, driven by an increased H+-ATPase activity at the arbuscular membrane (Gianinazzi-Pearson et al, 1991,


2000). In the fungal cytosol the assimilates are then converted into triacylglycerides, amino acids or incorporated into glycogen pools. Mycorrhizal roots are sink tissues

of carbon and energy by the fungus at the plant-fungus interface

their costs to

.1.3. Mutualistic interactions of plants with bacteria: the nodule symbiosis as an example

itrogen is an essential nutrient for all living organisms. It is incorporated into biological compounds

ver. It

.1.3.1. Legumes establish a mutualistic symbiosis with rhizobia

lmost all legumes enter symbioses with gram-negative soil bacteria of the family Rhizobiaceae with many members (Figure 5). The name Rhizobium comes from the Greek, meaning root living. The

Utilization of sucrose as a source depends on its cleavage into hexoses. On the plant side this is catalysed by differentially expressed acid invertases, alkaline invertases and sucrose synthases that are found in arbuscule containing cells and are regarded as key enzymes for sucrose turnover in these cells (Blee & Anderson, 1998, 2002; Hohnjec et al, 2003; Ravnskov et al, 2003). As the action of invertases is irreversible, hydrolysis from sucrose into glucose and fructose is responsible for creation of a sucrose gradient between source and sink tissues and by cleavage of sucrose the osmotic pressure is increased (Blee & Anderson, 1998; Hohnjec et al, 2003; Ravnskov et al, 2003). One of the plant hexose transporters, MtSt1, (Harrison, 1996) could be involved in the regulation of periarbuscular sugar content in these cells, and so regulate the activity of the sucrose turnover in cortical mycorrhizal cells. Plants seem to control their sugar supply to the fungus carefully, in order to keepbenefit ratio equilibrated. Higher demand of sugar in the roots causes higher production demands on fixed carbon from photosynthesis, mainly sucrose, and thus increases the amount of photosynthetically active organs (Wright et al, 1998). This is also evident from plants grown under limiting light conditions; they develop less AMF colonization. On the other hand, plants that are phosphate or nitrogen starved allow a higher degree of colonization in order to increase their nutrition status via the fungal supply. Nevertheless, the concept of functional diversity among fungal and plant partners implies that nutrient acquisition is not necessarily a determining factor for the host compatibility and colonization ability. The strength of the sugar sink in arbuscular roots is dependent on the physiological requirements of the partners and not only on their genotypic compatibility (Burleigh et al, 2002; Smith et al, 2003). In fact, the plant phosphate uptake from the fungus is not directly influenced by the phosphate supply by the fungus. But in contrast, the phosphate uptake of fungi from the soil and translocation into the intraradical compartment is determined by the sugar supply from the plant (Bücking & Shachar-Hill, 2005). 1 Nsuch as nucleic acids and proteins. Although nitrogen is present in the atmosphere in vast amounts, the nitrogen pool is not available for most organisms because of the inert chemical nature of dinitrogen, its main atmospheric form. The only organisms that are capable of incorporating nitrogen into organic compounds, under high costs of energy, are diazotrophic bacteria. A large fraction of these bacteria live in soils, of which two groups establish symbiosis with plants: Frankia establish symbioses with a wide range of host plants such as Alnus, Casuarina, Hippophae and Myrica. The Rhizobia (Figure 5) induce nodules in roots of legumes and will be considered in detail below. The symbiotic fixation of nitrogen is an important contribution to the atmospheric nitrogen turnois also of special interest to agriculture, as nitrogen is a limiting nutrient for plants and has to be provided as fertilizer in many systems. In contrast, symbiotically fixed nitrogen is a natural and cheap source for agronomical important plants. The soils are enriched in nitrogen via the symbiotic activity and thus the careful use of legumes in farming, as e.g. in crop rotations, is advantageous for soils and sustainable environment. 1 A


nodulating genera of the Rhizobiaceae are the Sinorhizobium (Rhizobium), Mesorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Allorhizobium and Azorhizobium, which are generally termed Rhizobia. Rhizobia differ in their host specificity. The host range can be relatively narrow (e.g. S. meliloti) and comprises in some cases only one plant species (Perret et al, 2000).

16S rDNA phylogenetic tree of rhizobia (bold letters) and related bacteria. The plant hosts are indicated in brackets: rhizobia of different phylogenetic branches are able to

.1.3.2. Rhizobial life cycle and nitrogen fixation

e is crucial for host compatibility lant-secreted secondary metabolites, mainly flavonoids, trigger the activation of bacterial nodulation

od factors. Nod

Figure 5

nodulate the same plant species. Picture taken and text modified after Debellé et al (2001).

1 Plant rhizobium contact; bacterial Nod factor structurPgenes (nodA, nodB, nodC etc.) which results in the biosynthesis and secretion of Nfactors are lipo-chitooligosaccharide based bacterial signal molecules that are essential for rhizobial infection. The Nod factor backbones are synthesized by the nodA, nodB, nodC genes, which are essential for Nod factor synthesis and common to all rhizobial strains. The nodD gene codes for a transcriptional activator that induces the transcription of the nodABC operon in a host specific manner (Honma et al, 1990). Other nod genes are species specific and determine host specificity by adding a variety of decorations to the Nod factors (reviewed by Perret et al, 2000) and so, each bacterial strain produces a spectrum of Nod factors (see also Figure 10). Nod factors are also perceived by non host plant species and to a certain degree cause specific reactions (Staehelin et al, 1994; Müller et al, 2000; Yokoyama et al, 2000). It could be shown that the Nod factor structure is not correlated with the taxonomic position of the bacterial species but rather with its nod gene sequence. Mutations in these genes result in alterations in host specificity by alterations in Nod factor features


(Roche et al, 1999; Debellé et al, 2001). The compatibility of host plant and bacterial strain is strongly dependent on the structure of Nod factors but for the full host establishment of the symbiosis, additional factors are required, such as the combination of polysaccharides on the bacterial cell surface (Schultze & Kondorosi, 1998). The perception of Nod factors by host legumes triggers many of the early developmental steps in the bacteria-plant symbiosis, even in the absence of bacteria. This makes the Nod factors unique and a

ization (Ehrhardt et al, 1992; Gehring et al, 1997; Felle et al,

igure 6 The formation of root nodules. A - E: Invasion of legume root hairs by Rhizobium. rh, rhizobia; r, root hairs; ep, epidermis; ci, center of infection; n, plant nucleus; it, infection thread(s); rit, ramifying infection thread; c, cortex; ed, endodermis; b,

ane;

perfect tool for the communication between the chitin-compound producing bacteria and the chitin-compound receiving plants. Nod factors alone are sufficient to activate a majority of the early responses that are normally induced during the interaction with bacteria (e.g. Denarié et al, 1996). A reaction to Nod factors in plant root hairs occurs within minutes and in nano- or picomolar concentrations (Shaw & Long, 2003). In the root hair cells Nod factors induce rapid ion fluxes (Ca+, K+, H+, Cl-) across the plasma membrane causing membrane depolar1995). By rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton root hairs start to swell and curl, and undergo reinitiation of tip growth and deformation towards the site of Nod factor origin (Catoira et al, 2001; Esseling et al, 2003) (Figure 6 A). In the region around the nucleus calcium spiking, rhythmic Ca+ fluctuations, occur, which are involved in signal transduction inducing downstream reactions. Early nodulins, Nod factor induced genes, are synthesized in the root hair and in the dividing cells of the root cortex cell division begins, which leads to the formation of nodule primordia.

F

G

F

bacteroids; s, symbiosomes; phb, poly-β-hydroxybutarate; pb, peribacteroid membrd, digestive vacuole. Picture and legend from Perret et al (2000, Figure 1). F: Curled root hairs and infection threads (arrows) in root hairs, bar equals 50 μm. (picture from Stracke et al, 2002). G: Nodules of M. truncatula inoculated with R. meliloti, next to a 1 mm ruler. Picture by N. Feddermann.


Bacterial entrNodule deve of rhizobia towards young roots of the host plant y chemotaxis (Figure 6 A). Bacteria assemble at the tip of root hairs and are encaved by the curling

ads, specialized tubular structures, are subsequently formed at

odules of two types are observed in legumes, which differ in their morphology and life span. eterminate nodules are formed in e.g. Lotus japonicus or Glycine max. In contrast to determinate

erminate nodules have a persistent meristem and are formed for example in

ment. Plants can form

n by nitrogenase acteroids in the nitrogen-fixing zone of the nodules reduce atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia, which used by the plant in exchange for organic carbon that serves as energy source for the bacteria

t al, 2000). Nitrogenases are protein complexes consisting of

rcome by a compartmented cell structure and high levels of oxygen-binding

ance and differentiation lopment is initiated by the approaching

broot hair tip (Figure 6 B). Infection threthe root hair tip by plasma membrane invaginations (Figure 6 C). The infection thread grows towards the nodule primordium guided by the root hair structure. In certain plants, a preformed cortex structure, the preinfection thread, is established, which joins the infection thread in the root cortex (Kannenberg et al, 1994). The infection thread then ramifies (Figure 6 D) and forms a network in the underlying root cortex, through which bacteria are transported and enter the cortex cells by endocytosis. They differentiate into bacteroids, a specialized symbiotic form of the bacteria (Figure 6 E). The bacteroids, which proliferate by cell division, reside in the cytoplasm of the plant cells but are enclosed by a plant derived membrane, the peribacteroid membrane and its own bacteroid membrane (Day et al, 2000): these nitrogen-fixing organelles are called symbiosomes. Each symbiotic plant cell may contain several hundreds of symbiosomes. After infection of the primordium cells the formation of a new organ, the root nodule, is initiated. Nodule formation NDnodules, the indetMedicago truncatula, Pisum sativum, Vicia faba or Trifolium repens (Pawlowski & Bisseling, 1996; Müller et al, 2001). The formation of indeterminate nodules in Medicago truncatula is well known; cells from the nodule primordium grow as an apical meristem, adding cells to the inner nodule tissues, while the nodule lengthens. As a result, a developmental gradient of infected cells is established along the nodule axis. Infected cells are located in the inner nodule zones, where cells do not divide. The zone below the meristem is the pre-infection zone, the middle and biggest zone is specified by the nitrogen-fixing zone containing bacteriods and at the distal zone, rhizobia are released from the infection thread and start to differentiate. These different nodule tissues do not only differ in their local and functional properties, but also the expression of nodulation genes is different (Pawlowski & Bisseling, 1996). The meristematic activity in determinate nodules ceases early and the nodules expand spherically by expansion of the inner nodule tissue. A radial gradient is developed in these nodules, where the oldest part is in the innermost zone. The bacteria of both types of nodules are able to revert to free living bacteria after nodule senescence (Müller et al, 2001). Mature nodules have a stem like organization with a vascular tissue and may have adopted their developmental programme from root developspontaneous nodules without the presence of Nod factors or rhizobial infection, but they do not exhibit the infection pattern with infection thread formation and the typical gene expression and therefore resemble the ineffective white nodules with defective or mutant rhizobial strains (Tirichine et al, 2006a). Nitrogen fixatioBis(Udvardi & Day, 1997; Day edinitrogenase and dinitrogenase reductase that contain iron/molybdenum cofactors for activity. Dinitrogenase is encoded by the bacterial gene family nifD, nifK and nifH, where nif stands for nitrogen fixation. In a reducing reaction, nitrogen is converted into ammonia, a form that can be assimilated by plants. Although the nitrogen fixation as a whole usually requires oxygen for respiration, nodules require a low-oxygen environment for optimal activity of bacterial nitrogenase, which is very oxygen labile. This oxygen dilemma is oveleghaemoglobins (Appleby, 1994). These plant encoded, symbiosis specific proteins provide an efficient system to keep oxygen away from the nitrogenase, having an extremely fast oxygen


association rate and a slow dissociation rate (Delgado et al, 1998). Because this leads to low levels of free oxygen in the respiratory chain, the bacteroids need a specific oxygenase, encoded by the bacterial fixNOQP operon, with an extremely high affinity for oxygen (Preisig et al, 1993; Delgado et al, 1998). Nutrient transfer

oot nodules represent strong sink tissues for the plant, not only because growth and reorganisation rocesses need a high amount of energy but also because the bacterial symbionts require

similates to fuel the nitrogen fixation. In the symbiosomes, nutrients are exchanged

been generated by photosynthetic activities from the plant. Sucrose is

.1.4. Recognition and signal perception in plant-microbe interactions involve transmembrane receptor-like kinases

eceptor like kinases are involved in recognition of PAMPs

identify an approaching pathogen. ungal or bacterial signal molecules are recognized by specific intracellular or membrane bound

nse in the respective cells (e.g. Jones &

rabidopsis thaliana,

ithin minutes after elicitor recognition, the first symptoms are efflux of Cl- and K+, together with flux of Ca+ and protons. These ion fluxes lead to membrane depolarization and alkalinization of the

; Nürnberger et al, 1994). The increased concentrations of

Rpphotosynthetic asbetween the partners via the symbiotic interface, the peribacteroid membrane. Bacteroids deliver ammonia or amino acids via transmembrane channels into the peribacteroid space. These nitrogen compounds are taken up by the plant cells under action of plant derived H+ATPases (Udvardi & Day, 1997; Day et al, 2000). In plant cells the fixed nitrogen compounds are incorporated into glutamine that is then further promoted into other metabolites. In exchange for nitrogen the bacteria are provided with carbon compounds that have transported into the infected zone of the nodules, processed into hexoses by sucrose synthases, members of the nodule essential SucS family, and invertases (Küster et al, 1993; Hohnjec et al, 2003; Day et al, 2000). Hexoses are then metabolized into organic acids, mainly malate and succinate. These are translocated via the peribacteroid membrane into the bacteroids and then incorporated into the bacterial metabolism (Day et al, 2000). 1

1.1.4.1. Early steps in antagonistic plant-microbe interactions

RIn order to generate a defence reaction, plants need to chemically Freceptors that mediate a localized and rapid defence respoTakemoto, 2004). Important in the recognition of pathogens are the transmembrane receptor-like kinases, RLK, that have a leucine rich repeat, LRR, extracellular domain connected to a catalytic intracellular kinase domain (Asai et al, 2001; Gomez-Gomez & Boller, 2002). Certain PAMPs are perceived by the possibly dimeric LRR RLKs, and the signals are mediated via a phosphorylation regulated MAP kinase signalling cascade (Peck et al, 2001; Nühse et al, 2003). Receptor-like kinases are diverse in their functions and are highly conserved. Plant LRR RLKs share structural homology with animal Toll-like receptors (TLR). But although for example the animal TLR5 is able to recognize the same stimulus as the FLS2 (flagellin sensitive 2) in Anamely bacterial flagellin (Felix et al, 1999; Hayashi et al, 2001), it recognizes a different epitope than the plant receptor, which indicates an independent evolution of the two receptor kinases (Kistner & Parniske, 2002; Jones & Takemoto, 2004). Downstream reactions in plant defence Winextracellular medium (Felix et al, 1993cytoplasmic calcium ions are a necessary part of elicitor sensing pathways that lead to defence reactions not only in antagonistic interactions (Romeis et al, 2001; del Pozo et al, 2004). However, it


seems that plants use different cytosolic calcium elevation signatures in order to differentiate between several elicitors, including abiotic factors. Following the rapid ion fluxes, activation and deactivation of various proteins by phosphorylation indicate the activation of certain MAPK pathways (Zhang & Klessig, 2001; Asai et al, 2001; Peck et

.1.4.2. Common early steps in the nodulation and formation of arbuscular mycorrhiza

least in art from the older arbuscular mycorrhiza. Indeed, parts of the symbiotic programs are shared

labour intense as the search

od factor receptors everal receptor-like kinases, RLKs, are implicated in the recognition of symbiotic microbes. Nod

, most probably recognize Nod factors (Madsen et al, 2003; Radutoiu et al,

lular LysM (lysin motif) domain is believed to be responsible for the

arly events in nodulation and mycorrhiza formation nodule formation, the earliest reactions associated with Nod factor perception are calcium influx

that cause membrane depolarization about 1

al, 2001). It is interesting that the signals from several LRR RLKs that recognize different stimuli can be fed into the same MAPK pathway (Jones & Takemoto, 2004). In some cases, elicitor perception induces a hypersensitive response and production of reactive oxygen species, although the HR is not necessarily required for resistance (Kombrink & Schmelzer, 2001). Ultimately, elicitor perception leads to downstream reactions such as activation of phytoalexins and local expression of PR genes as well as the systemic activation of resistance-related gene expression. 1 It is a well accepted hypothesis that symbiotic mechanisms in nodule formation evolved at pamong both interactions, especially some of the early signalling events. Thus, plant mutants defective in nodulation are often also defective in the AM symbiosis, and these mutants reveal common genetic factors for the symbiosis (Kistner & Parniske, 2002). Mutants are useful tools to genetically dissect the development of both symbioses, although the discovery of non-nodulating, nod-, mutants is naturally easier and lessfor non-mycorrhiza forming, myc-, mutants. Collections of nodulation mutants are available for Lotus japonicus, Pisum sativum and M. truncatula. M. truncatula is also the main object for AM research together with tobacco, maize and tomato, in which symbiosis mutants are described (e.g. Bonfante et al, 2000; Marsh & Schultze, 2001; David-Schwartz et al, 2001; Paszkowski et al, 2006). NSfactor receptors, NFR2003), but a receptor that would take part in the perception of a putative Myc factor has not been identified yet. The Nod factor-related RLKs have a weak overall similarity with the receptors implied with the defence generating RLKs and have similarities in their reaction machinery (Gomez-Gomez & Boller, 2002; Kaku et al, 2006). Nod factors are thought to be perceived by two transmembrane RLKs forming a heterodimeric receptor complex. Their extracelbinding of the chitin-oligomeric part of the Nod factors by comparing analogies in their amino acid sequences to chitin binding proteins (Madsen et al, 2003; Radutoiu et al, 2003). In M. truncatula the LysM RLK gene family includes the LysM domain-containing receptor-like kinases LYK3 and LYK4 and Nod factor perception NFP (Limpens et al, 2003; Arrighi et al, 2006). The corresponding RLKs in Lotus japonicus are the Nod factor receptors NFR1 and NFR5, encoded by SYM1 and SYM5, and SYM2 and SYM10 in pea (Limpens et al, 2003; Madsen et al, 2003; Radutoiu et al, 2003). Nodulation mutants of these genes are not blocked in the formation of the mycorrhizal symbiosis (Ben Amor et al, 2003). Mutant analyses indicate that the LysM receptor-like kinases are not involved in the formation of AM, suggesting that the receptors for mycorrhizal signals, the putative Myc factors, are different (Cullimore & Denarié, 2003; Mulder et al, 2006). EIntogether with a chloride efflux from root hair cells minute after Nod factor addition. Membrane repolarisation is achieved by a potassium efflux shortly after (Ehrhardt et al, 1992; Felle et al, 1995). The rapid opening of plasma membrane ion channels in response to Nod factor perception is believed to be implicated in the reorientation of root hair tip


growth (Charron et al, 2004). There is also evidence for signaling and very early reactions in the mycorrhizal symbiosis (Chabaud et al, 2002; Kosuta et al, 2003). Recent genetic studies have identified common elements in these early reactions. The DMI genes,

ownstream reactions of Nod factor binding Ks, the signal is probably transmitted to a LRR RLK,

nstream of DMI2 and is a putative ligand-gated cation channel and

factors and possibly also by AMF most likely induces phospholipid

alcium oscillations fflux and subsequent influx of calcium ions from the endoplasmatic reticulum,

f M. truncatula encodes a calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase, CCaMK, which is

named after Does Not Make Infection, belong to the nod- and myc- mutants (Catoira et al, 2000). With respect to nodulation, the dmi mutants are blocked at different early steps, as they are partially defective in root hair deformation, calcium oscillation and gene expression (Wais et al, 2002; Catoira et al, 2000). With respect to AM formation, the dmi mutants are not able to form the prepenetration apparatus to allow AMF entry into the roots (Genre et al, 2005). DAfter perception of Nod factors by LysM RLwhich also acts early in perception of the putative Myc factor and is probably the converging step in signaling shared with the Nod factor induced signalling cascade (Figure 7) (Yoshida & Parniske, 2005). This LRR RLK is the M. truncatula DMI2, which corresponds to SYM19 in pea, NORK in Medicago sativa, and SYMRK in Lotus japonicus (Stracke et al, 2002; Endre et al, 2002; Geurts & Bisseling, 2002). DMI1, SYM8 in pea, acts dowpossibly involved in both calcium flux and calcium spiking (Ané et al, 2004). Castor and Pollux, the DMI1 homologues in Lotus japonicus (encoded by SYM4), have been shown to code for plastid located ion channels, although plastids are unlikely to be internal calcium stores (Bonfante et al, 2000; Imaizumi-Anraku et al, 2005). The exact function of these proteins is still unknown. Furthermore, calcium spiking was shown to depend on the function of NUP133, a gene encoding a nucleoporin specifically expressed in root hairs that is essential for the establishment of functional nodules (Kanamori et al, 2006). The stimulus generated by Nod signalling cascades through the activation of RLKs, and processing by small G-proteins, associated with the G-protein coupled receptors and increased levels of secondary messenger molecules (Figure 7) (Pingret et al, 1998; den Hartog et al, 2001; Charron et al, 2004). These messengers activate in turn downstream elements, including DMI3, SYM9 in pea. DMI3 encodes a chimeric calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase, CCaMK (Lévy et al, 2004; Mitra et al, 2004). CThe rhythmic, rapid ecalled calcium spiking, is one of the early events in the Nod factor transduction events and takes place within 10 to 30 min after Nod factor perception (e.g. Wais et al, 2000). These oscillations in cytosolic calcium act as secondary messenger in the nodulation signalling pathway and the mycorrhizal signalling pathway as depicted in Figure 7 (e.g. Riely et al, 2004; Oldroyd & Downie, 2006). DMI3 orequired for the transduction of calcium oscillations (Lévy et al, 2004; Mitra et al, 2004). CCaMK could be the calcium sensor required to translate Nod factor elicited calcium oscillations into a specific downstream signalling cascade, and it also has an important regulatory function in later nodule stages and expression of early nodulin genes, ENODs (Tirichine et al, 2006b). DMI3 has a calcium dependent autophosphorylation activity by which the activity of its kinase domain towards its substrate is regulated. This in turn controls the formation of nodules. Abolishing the autoregulatory function results in nodule formation without bacterial stimulation or Nod factor treatment (Gleason et al, 2006). This shows that calcium oscillations and calmodulin binding are central to the nodulin gene expression and nodule formation, and can even be restored in mutant legumes by a CCaMK from rice (Godfroy et al, 2005). In the case of mycorrhiza formation, the DMI3 CCaMK is also required for signal perception, but it is fed into a different downstream cascade, which is not activated by Nod factors. Therefore the CCamK step is the most downstream common event of the two symbioses (Weidman et al, 2004).


igure 7 Proposed model of the Nod-factor signaling pathway.

Picture from Riely et al, 2004 (not including the nucleoporin NUP133).

.1.4.3. Different plant signalling pathways are activated by different microorganisms

action of lants with microbes. In order to generate appropriate reactions, such as root hair curling prior to

for the infection with rust fungi.

F

1 The perception of e.g. chitin oligomeric signalling compounds is a crucial step in the interpnodulation, plants need to discriminate between different signals. As the partly divergent signalling pathways of the mycorrhizal and rhizobial symbioses indicate, plants seem to be able to distinguish between certain signalling molecules. A chitin oligomer binding protein was recently identified, that seems to be related to plant defence and it was therefore suggested that binding of chitin molecules is involved in recognition of microbial signals (Kaku et al, 2006). Indeed, plants seem to be able to distinguish between different classes of fungi. For example, certain symbiosis-defective Lotus japonicus mutants are not defectiveFurthermore, Arabidopsis thaliana, which is readily infected by rust fungi but not by AMF, does not have clear orthologues of these sym genes. This shows that the same genes are not required for infection with an antagonistic fungus, and that symbiotic and pathogenic fungi use at least in part different entry strategies into the plant (Mellersh & Parniske, 2006).


1.1.5. Common elements in the symbiosis of plant with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia

The AM and rhizobial symbioses both represent an invasion of the plant by microorganisms. Plants ave evolved a tightly regulated recognition system to prevent abuse of the symbiotic system by

.1.5.1. Endosymbiotic microbes trigger plant defence reactions

o together with other fungal or bacterial infections. A microbial infection is prevented for example in

use, 2005). ROS are

ct directly on the bacteria and stimulate bacterial

.1.5.2. Early nodulins

CCamK in the plant-rhizobium symbiosis appear to activate anscription factors, which in turn seem to have substantial roles in symbiosis. In nodule

hantagonistic microorganisms. It is also important in mutualistic interactions that the rate of symbiotic structures is regulated to avoid exhaustion of the plant. It was shown that plants are able to control the amount of colonization in the AM interaction (e.g. Gao et al, 2004) and the number of nodules (e.g. Sun et al, 2006) by a mechanism that is termed the autoregulation of nodulation and mycorrhization. For example, nodulation does not take place when sufficient nitrogen is available to the plant. The autoregulation of nodulation involves a systemic signal (van Brussel et al, 2002) and this control is regulated by the shoots, which is not surprising, as shoots are the source of carbon that is delivered into the bacteroids (Nishimura et al, 2002; Krusell et al, 2002; Searle et al, 2003). 1 Mutualistic microbial entry and proliferation within the roots trigger at least some of the reactions that gincompatible rhizobial strains and in those having deficiencies in their surface polysaccharide patterns, indicating that a distinct recognition pattern is required for symbiotically active microorganisms. Weak transient defence responses are observed when AMF enter host roots. Flavonoid biosynthesis (Shaw et al, 2006) and the production of ROS, reactive oxygen species (Salzer et al, 1999; Fester & Hause, 2005), are observed as well as the increased presence of general phytoalexins (Gianinazzi-Pearson, 1996). However, there is evidence that the defence mechanism of the plant is indeed actively repressed in initial stages of a symbiotic infection (Volpin et al, 1995; Bartsev et al, 2004; Demchenko et al, 2004; Guenoune et al, 2005). ROS are produced in root cortical cells associated with intraradical hyphae but also with arbuscules in correlation with arbuscule degradation (Salzer et al, 1999; Fester & Haimportant messenger molecules generally produced after infection with fungi or bacteria. The ROS produced by senescing arbuscules lead to several reactions, for example the production of jasmonates (Hause et al, 2002) which in turn induce carotenoid synthesis and could be involved in the increased resistance against invading pathogens, as it is observed sometimes in AM colonized roots (Fester et al, 2002; Hause & Fester, 2005). As another important group of signalling molecules, flavonoids are crucial for symbiosis establishment. In the rhizobial symbiosis, they agene expression by interaction with e.g. the nodD transcriptional regulator that induces nodABC expression (Broughton et al, 2000). In AMF they stimulate spore germination, but are not necessary for successful symbiosis formation (Bécard et al, 1995). A related signalling factor, the branching factor, has been chemically identified (Akiyama et al, 2005; Besserer et al, 2006). The presence of compatible Nod factors, and not necessarily infection by bacteria, but the accumulation of flavonoids enhance the colonization with AMF (e.g. Xie et al, 1995). On the other hand, certain flavonoids, such as medicarpin in Medicago and glyceollin in soybean (Ebel & Grisebach, 1988), are antimicrobial phytoalexins, secreted to prevent an attack by pathogenic microbes. This again displays the dual function of signalling molecules used by plants in reaction to their environment in very distinct ways. 1 Calcium spiking and the action of trdevelopment the transcription factor NIN, for nodule inception in Lotus japonicus (Schauser et al, 1999), and the GRAS transcription factors NSP1 and NSP2 in M. truncatula (Kalo et al, 2005; Smit et al, 2005) are the next steps downstream of the calcium spiking that lead to activation of early nodulin genes, ENODs, during early stages of the nodule formation and in the nodule primordium stage.


ENODs are also expressed during AMF infection. The spatial and temporal expression pattern is characteristic for each ENOD gene and different stage of the symbiosis development. The most

that seem to be required for infection thread growth, nodule

.2. Chitin and chitinases

and function

mines (Figure 8 a), which is very insoluble to ost solutes. It is said to be the second most abundant natural polysaccharide after cellulose. About

hich has a different chemical

prominent genes are the early nodulin genes ENOD11 and ENOD12 (Journet et al, 2001), homologues produced by the plant not only during preinfection and infection stages with rhizobia, but also in inner cortical cells containing recently formed arbuscules (Journet et al, 1994, 2001). ENOD11 expression is also linked to the presence of exudates from mycorrhizal hyphae, although ENOD11 activation was independent of DMI1, DMI2 and DMI3. Upon direct fungal contact to the roots, however, the signal is controlled by a cell specific regulation process and the ENOD11 expression is circumvented in the DMI2 mutant by addition of Nod factors (Chabaud et al, 2002; Kosuta et al, 2003). This indicates that the signalling cascade of the Nod and putative Myc factors are differently integrated by the plant. Subsequent to the induction of ENOD11, ENOD12, ENOD2, ENOD40 and other ENOD gene families, a battery of genes are inducedformation and cell cycle control, entrance of bacteria and nitrogen fixation, for instance leghaemoglobins that are relatively early induced during nodule formation, as well as chitinases or phenylalanine ammonia lyase. Late nodulin genes are, in contrast to ENODs, involved in the setup of nodules and expressed in order to fulfil nodule functions. Some of the ENODs and late nodulins are required for both the mycorrhiza and the bacterial symbiosis, linking the two interactions again, on a different level of regulation. For example, ENOD40, which is encoded by two genes in M. truncatula, differing in their timing during nodule formation, is important for functioning nodules and is also involved in arbuscular formation in the root cortex cells (Staehelin et al, 2001; Kumagai et al, 2006). Interestingly, the presence of ENOD genes in rice, and the observation that transgenic rice is able to activate the expression of an ENOD gene by a Nod factor dependent mechanism (Reddy et al, 1999) suggests that at least a part of the pathways for symbiotic interactions are conserved in legume and non-legume plants. 1 1.2.1. Chitin: structure, occurrence Chitin, the polymer of β-1-4-linked N-acetyl-D-glucosamone in six aminosaccharide residues is devoid of its acetyl group; chitosan is the deacetylation product of chitin, poly-(1-4)-2-amino-2-deoxy-β-D-glucose (Figure 8 b). Chitin exists in two crystalline polymorphic forms. Commercially available chitin preparations are made from shrimp or crab shell or are obtained from the squid pen, warrangement (a-form and b-form respectively).

The chemical structures of monomers of chitin (a) and chitosan (b). Figure 8


Chitin is the major component of the exoskeleton of arthropods and nematodes. It is a major cell wall component of bacteria, algae and most higher fungi, such as Basidiomycetes, Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes. Up to 60% of their cell wall can be consisting of chitin. The word ‘chitin’ comes from the Greek word chiton, meaning coat of mail or tunic, a certain piece of clothing. Chitin was first identified in mushrooms, under the name of fungine, and later in the shell of crustaceans, under the name of chitin. Like cellulose in plants, chitin acts as a stabilizing material for cell walls in fungi, molds and yeasts. 1.2.2. Chitinase characterization Chitinases are poly-β-1,4-(2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-glucoside) glycanohydrolases that form the EC 3.2.1.14 and are grouped, depending on their mode of action, into exo- and endo chitinases (Neuhaus et al, 1996). Endochitinases cleave chitin polymers randomly at the internal glycosidic bonds and generate chitin oligomers, such as chitotriose, chitotetraose or chitopentaose. Exochitinases have a preference for the nonreducing end of chitin chains, and create N-acetyl monomers. The most obvious plant chitinase substrate is microbial polymeric chitin, but they are also able to bind to and hydrolyse chitin fragments and similar molecules, for example decorated chitin oligomers and chitosan oligomers. Plant chitinases are classified into different classes and catalytic families Plants possess different classes of chitinases, which can be distinguished by their primary protein structure, substrate specificity, mechanisms of catalysis and sensitivity to inhibitors (Shinshi et al, 1990 and Collinge et al, 1993; Neuhaus et al, 1996). Class I chitinases (Figure 9) are mostly vacuolar basic chitinases. They possess an N-terminal cyst

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