Table of Contents

Executive Summary:Memo to Texas RE: Alternative Education

1

2

Effects of Poverty3

4

5

The Problem

On-line Learning

C t B d C i l (CBC)

6

Capacity Building as P.D.

Computer Based Curriculum (CBC) 7

8

Best Practices In Alt Ed9

Legacy of Success: Pathfinders10

SHORT STORY: […in order to alter the potential effects of generational poverty…] Students need: 1) direct-teach, 2) relationships, and 3) an environment that teaches coping skills.

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Impact of Poverty onImpact of Poverty on EducationMarcia Melton

EDCI 6300EDCI 6300

Summer, 2007

Introduction The United States has about 74.5 million children.

Even though our county is one of the world’s 24 wealthiest country’s, the United States has the highest child poverty rate. (UNICEF, 2007)

Twenty percent of children are from poverty. (Payne, 2001) (Jenson, 2007)

Forty percent live in low-income families. (National Center for Child i 2006)Children in Poverty, 2006)

It is easy to see that public education is greatly impacted by these children who may come to school lacking fundamental resources that in turn affect their learning.

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Overview Impact of Poverty on Learningp y g

Payne

Marzano

Hart and Risley

Implications for Educators Implications for Educators

Conclusion

Impact of Poverty on Learning Poverty effects student learning in many y g y

ways. Jenson (2007) notes that poverty results in brain changes from several factors: nutritional deficits, lack of emotional support, stress/distress, health issues, cognitive stimulation and safety issuesstimulation, and safety issues.

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Payne’s Definition of Poverty “The extent to which an individual does with

out resources.” (Payne, A Framework for Poverty, 2001)

Resources Include Financial-often used to define poverty levels, p y

financial resources does not explain the differences in success with which individuals leave poverty.

Emotional-perseverance, persistence, stamina and control of emotions

Mental-the ability to process informationy p

Spiritual-believing in a divine purpose and guidance

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Resources Continued

Physical-having physical healthy g p y

Support Systems-friends and family

Relationships/Role Models-having access to an appropriate and nurturing adult “No significant learning occurs without a significant relationship.” Dr. James Comer (1995)p

Knowledge of the Hidden Rules-these exist in poverty, middle class and in wealth. They are the understandings that cue members of the group.

Marzano’s Findings

High Correlation between poverty and academic success

Students from low economic status had much higher failing rates, 63 to 85 percent higher

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Hart and Risley

Welfare children experience 500 affirmatives and 1,100 prohibitions per week

Working class children experience 1,200 g p ,affirmatives and 700 prohibitions per week

Hart and Risley Continued

They also found that young children from y y gpoverty families have about 70 percent of the vocabulary of the same aged child in a working-class family and about 45 percent of the vocabulary of a child from a professional familyfamily.

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Implications for Educators

Declarative Knowledge-what the learner gknows or understands

Procedural Knowledge-what the learner is able to do

Dimensions of Learning, Marzano and Pickering (1997)

Declarative KnowledgeConstruct Meaning Organize Store

1 H l t d t d t d h t it 1 H l t d t d t d th 1 H l t d t d t d th1. Help students understand what it means to construct meaning.2. Use the three-minute pause.3. Help students experience content using a variety of senses.4. Help students to construct meaning for vocabulary terms. 5. Present students with the K-W-l strategy. 6. Create opportunities for the students to discover or figure out

1. Help students understand the importance of organizing information.2. Have students use graphic organizers for the identified organizational patterns.3. Provide students with advance organizer questions.4. Present note-taking strategies that use graphic representation.5. Have students create physical

1. Help students understand the process of storing information.2. Present students with the strategy of using symbols and substitutes.3. Use the link strategy with students.4. Use highly structured systems for storing information with students.5. Provide students with

the new information for themselves.7. Use instructional techniques that provide students with strategies to use before, during and after they receive information.

and pictographic representation of information.6. Have students use graphs and charts.

mnemonics for important content.

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Procedural KnowledgeConstruct Models Shape Internalize

1. Help students understand the importance of constructing models for procedural knowledge.2. Use a think-aloud process to demonstrate a new skill or process.3. Provide or construct with students a written or graphic representation of the skill or process they are learning

1. Help students understand the importance of shaping procedural knowledge. 2. Demonstrate and create opportunities for students to practice using the important variations of the skill or process.3. Point out common errors and pitfalls.4. Help students develop the conceptual understanding

1. Help students understand the importance of internalizing procedural knowledge.2. Help students set up a practice schedule.3. Have students chart and report on their speed and/or accuracy when practicing new skills or processes.

process they are learning.4. Help students see how the skill or process they are learning is similar to and different from other skills or processes.5. Teach students to mentally rehearse the steps involved in a skill or process.

conceptual understanding necessary to use the skill or process.

The Importance of Mental Models

Students come to school with a background of existing information or their own mental models.

Background information impacts a student’s ability to process and store information.

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Six Principals for Building Background Knowledge (Marzano, 2004)

background knowledge is stored in bimodal packets the process of storing experiences in permanent

memory can be enhanced background knowledge is multidimensional and its

value is contextual even surface-level background knowledge is useful background knowledge manifests itself as g g

vocabulary knowledge virtual experiences can enhance background

knowledge

Most Important Mental Model for Poverty Students (Payne, 2002)

Students need to understand Time

Includes past, present and future

Constructing a mental model for time is critical for understanding cause, effect, consequence and sequence

Students who do not have a mental model for time can not plan

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Drawbacks to Mental Models Learners often have preconceived (and often p (

inaccurate) conceptions of mental models. (Driscoll, 2005, p. 209)

Learners often build on prior knowledge that may be incorrect and inconsistent. (Jenson, 2005, p. 47)

Summary Most educators come from middle class backgrounds with

iddl l l th f it b diffi lt f th tmiddle class values; therefore it may be difficult for them to understand that poverty may bring on a culture and value system much different than theirs. (Payne, 2001)

What is important to note is that poverty alone should not be used to track or label students. It should only serve to understand the diversity of their students in the same way one might understand English limited learners or other students in g gtheir classrooms. (Nieto & Bode, 2008)

Using the teaching strategies discussed here is beneficial for all students including those from backgrounds of poverty.

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Remember: “People develop feelings that they are liked, p p f g y ,

wanted, acceptable, and able from having been liked, wanted, accepted, and from having been successful.” (Combs, 1982)

Web Sites

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National Center for Children of Poverty

http://www.nccp.org/p p g

This site includes many statistics about children in poverty. It also includes research information, projects, state profiles and publications. Very useful information for

li k d t d tpolicy makers, educators and parents.

Article about Ruby Payne, Framework for Poverty

New York Times http://www.parsintl.com/14328.pdf

This article provides basic information about the research and writings of Ruby Payne. It provides an overview of the concepts

id d i h iti d k hprovided in her writings and workshops as well as examples educators can relate to.

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Make Poverty History http://www.makepovertyhistory.org/schools/ip p y y g

ndex.shtmlThis website takes a global look at poverty with

lesson plans for teachers to use with students. It also provides links to other resources such as Save the Children and WaterAid. While based in the United Kingdom, the global look at information makes the website useful to all educators.

Poverty USA http://www.nccbuscc.org/cchd/povertyusa/edcp g p y

enter/index.shtmlAt this website you will find a great presentation

about poverty. Go to the URL above, find site resources, and click on take a tour of Poverty USA. Units are available for different grade glevels. While Catholic based, the information is great for educators in the public school setting.

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Education-a Way out of Poverty www.sida.se/shared/jsp/download.jsp?f=Edd12.pdfj p j p p

&a=2792

The information at this site is a PDF file of research presentations at the Poverty Conference, 2001. Sida, Swedish Internatinal Development Cooperation Agency, invited international researchers to present and then compiled the information in a document to help create an awareness of the effects of poverty and the social and education implications.

Print Resources

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Works by Marzano Marzano, R. J. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development Marzano R J Pickering D J & Pollock J E (2001) Classroom instruction that works Alexandria VA Association Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J. & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA, Association

for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Marzano, R. J. & Pickering, D. J. (1997). Dimensions of learning. (2nd ed.). Alexandria,VA, Association for Supervision

and Curriculum.

These publications give educators background information about learning theories and how that relates to the classroom.

Dimensions of Learning outlines five types of thinking: Attitudes and Perceptions, How We Acquire and Integrate Knowledge, How We Extend and Refine Knowledge, How to Use Knowledge Meaningfully and How We Form Habits of the Mind. Each section of the book has classroom example to help lead educators to understand practical applications.

Building Background Knowledge gives the educator a perspective about the value of vocabulary i h l hi t Si t i t h l ith ff ti b l i t tiin school achievement. Six steps are given to help with effective vocabulary instruction.

Classroom Instruction That Works examines research that looks at teaching strategies that most impact student learning. Note taking, group work and using graphic organizers plus other strategies are discussed and researched. The material is organized so that educators see the relationship between the research and how that relates to the classroom.

Works by Payne Payne, R. K. (2001). A framework for understanding poverty. Highlands, TX: aha Process, Inc.

Payne, R.K. (2002). Understanding learning, the how, the why, the what. Highlands, TX: aha! Process, Inc.

Ruby Payne’s work focuses on the differences of values in the economic classes of people. While specifically designed to inform educators how to relate to students of low economic status, specific strategies are discussed on how educators can make learning significant to all students.

A Framework for Understanding Poverty gives case studies of individuals and engages the reader to explore what resources does this individual have or lack that impacts their success. The importance of creating relationships is also discussed.

Understanding Learning, the How, the Why, the What is a resource guide for teachers that takes g g, , y, gthe information presented in A Framework for Understanding Poverty and gives educators practical ready to use ideas. The first three chapters are a refresher course in the CPI model of learning theory. Payne then provides the teacher a handbook of easy to follow strategies to engage students.

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Others Combs, A. W. (1982). A personal approach to teaching: beliefs that make

a difference. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.a difference. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Comer, J. (1995) Lecture given at Education Service Center, Region IV.

Houston, TX. Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. Pearson

Education, Inc. Jenson, E. (2005) Teaching with the brain in mind. Alexandria, VA:

Association for Supervision and Curriculum. Jenson, E. (2007). www.jensonlearning.com. National Centre for Children in Poverty. (2006) Basic facts about low-y ( ) f

income children: birth to age 18. Nieto, S. & Bode, P. (2008) Affirming diversity the sociopolitical context

of multicultural education (5th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc. UNICEF. (2007) Child poverty in perspective: an overview of child well-

being in rich countries. Innocenti Report Card. No. 7. Florence, Italy.

SHORT STORY: […in order to alter the potential effects of generational poverty…] Students need: 1) direct-teach, 2) relationships, and 3) an environment that teaches coping skills.

Understanding and Working with Students and Adults from Poverty

The hidden rules of the middle class govern schools and work; students from generational povertycome with a completely different set of hidden rules.

by Ruby Payne, Baytown, Texas------------------------------------------------------------------------

"I had to hit him, Miss! He was messin' with me!"

"What did he say?"

"Nothin'! He was lookin' at me, Miss!"

If this incident is familiar to you, then you have encountered the hidden rules of generationalpoverty. Quite simply, one rule is that non-verbal communication is much more important thanverbal communication. A second rule is that physical fighting is often necessary for survival.

To understand and work with students and adults from generational poverty, a framework is needed.This analytical framework is shaped around these basic ideas:

o Each individual has resources that greatly influence achievement; money is only one.o Poverty is the extent to which an individual is without these resources.o The hidden rules of the middle class govern schools and work; students from generational

poverty come with a completely different set of hidden rules and do not know the hiddenrules of the middle class.

o Language issues cause many students from generational poverty not to fully develop thecognitive structures needed to learn at the levels required by state tests.

o Teaching is what happens outside the head; learning is what happens inside the head. Forthese students to learn, direct teaching must occur to build these cognitive structures.

o Relationships are the key motivators for learning for students from generational poverty.

Key Points

Some key points about poverty need to be addressed prior to discussing the ways to work with thoseaffected by it.

1. Poverty is relative. If everyone around you has similar circumstances, the notion ofpoverty and wealth is vague. Poverty or wealth only exists in relationship to knownquantities or expectation

2. Poverty occurs in all races and in all countries. The notion of a middle class as a largesegment of society is a phenomenon of this century. The percentage of the populationthat is poor is subject to definition and circumstance. In the 1990 census data, 11.5million of America's children (individuals under the age of 18) lived in poverty. Of thatnumber, the largest group was white. However, by percentage of ethnic groups, thehighest percentages are minority.

3. Economic class is a continuous line, not a clear-cut distinction. In 1994, the poverty linewas considered $14,340 for a family of four. In 1994, seven percent of the populationmade more than $100,000 per year as indicated on U.S. tax returns. Individuals move andare stationed all along the continuum of income.

4. Generational poverty and situational poverty are different. Generational poverty isdefined as being in poverty for two generations or longer. Situational poverty involves ashorter time and is caused by circumstance, i.e. death, illness, divorce.

5. Thses points are based on patterns. All patterns have exceptions.6. An individual brings with him or her the hidden rules of the class in which he or she was

raised. Even though the income of the individual may rise significantly, many of thepatterns of thought, social interaction, cognitive strategies, remain with the individual.

7. Schools and businesses operate from middle-class norms and use the hidden rules of themiddle class. These norms and hidden rules are never directly taught in schools or inbusinesses.

8. For our students to be successful, we must understand their hidden rules and teach themthe rules that will make them successful at school and at work. We can neither excusethem nor scold them for not knowing; as educators, we must teach them and providesupport, assistance, and high expectations.

9. To move from poverty to middle class or middle class to wealth, an individual must giveup relationships for achievement.

Resources

To better understand students and adults from poverty, the definition of poverty will be the "extent towhich an individual does without resources" including:

o Financial--Having the money to purchase goods and services.

o Emotional--Being able to choose and control emotional responses, particularly to negativesituations, without engaging in self-destructive behavior. This is an internal resource andshows itself through stamina, perseverance and choices.

o Mental--Having the mental abilities and acquired skills (reading, writing, computing) to dealwith daily life.

o Physical--Having physical health and mobility.

o Support Systems--Having friends, family, backup resources and knowledge bases available toaccess in times of need. These are external resources.

o Role Models--Having frequent access to appropriate adults who are nurturing to the child andwho do not engage in self-destructive behavior.

o Knowledge of Hidden Rules--Knowing the unspoken cues and habits of a group.

In working with students and parents, it is important to analyze the resources that are available. Forexample, if a parent is illiterate, then tasks that can be requested of that parent are much differentfrom those requested of a parent who is highly educated. Likewise, a student may have financialwealth but not have many of the other resources, particularly a nurturing role model. This lack maygreatly affect his achievement.

Language and Story Structure

To further understand why achievement and discipline are such issues for students from generationalpoverty, awareness of the registers of language is particularly helpful (Jobs, 1967). There are five

registers of language: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate. Formal register is standardbusiness and educational language. Formal register features complete sentences and specific wordchoice. Casual register is characterized by a 400- to 500-word vocabulary, broken sentences, andmany non-verbal assists.

A California researcher, Maria Montano-Harmon, has found that many low-income students do notspeak formal register and only know casual register. State assessments test at the formal registerlevel. Most of the discipline referrals occur because the student has spoken in casual register.

For example, if a student tells the teacher that an assignment "sucks," the teacher most probably willissue a reprimand. Yet, if a student tells the teacher that the assignment is not congruous with herearlier purpose, the student will most probably not be reprimanded. Yet, both students expressed thesame notion. Because the structure and specificity of language is not available to those students whoonly know casual register, their achievement lags. This is complicated by the story structure used incasual register. In formal register, the story structure focuses on plot: it has a beginning and ending,and it weaves sequence, cause and effect, characters, and consequences into the plot. In casualregister, the focus of the story is characterization.

Typically, the story starts at the end (Joey busted his nose) and proceeds with short vignettesinterspersed with participatory comments from the audience (He hit him hard. BAM-BAM. Youshouda seen the blood on him.) and finishes with a comment about the character. To see this inaction, watch a TV talk show where many of the participants use this structure. The parts of the storyhave emotional significance for the teller. It is an episodic, random approach with many omissionsand does not have sequence, cause and effect, or consequence.

Cognitive Issues

Cognitive research indicates that early memory is linked to the predominant story structure that anindividual knows. Furthermore, stories are retained in the mind longer than many other memorypatterns for adults.

Consequently, if a student has not had access to a story structure with cause and effect, consequenceand sequence, and is in an environment with no routine and structure, then the student cannot plan.According to Feuerstein (1980):

• If an individual cannot plan, he or she cannot predict.

• If an individual cannot predict, he or she cannot identify cause and effect.

• If an individual cannot identify cause and effect, he or she cannot identify consequence.

• If an individual cannot identify consequence, he or she cannot control impulsivity.

• If an individual cannot control impulsivity, he or she has an inclination to criminalbehavior.

Mediation

Feuerstein, an Israeli educator, worked for 50 years with students who came to school with noexperience with formal story structure and referred to them as "unmediated." He worked with

students who at 12 and 13 years of age drew pictures of themselves with their arms coming out oftheir heads. With his interventions, they successfully completed school. Some went on to receivedoctorates. Non-mediation is reversible.

A simplified definition of mediation would be that an adult makes a deliberate intervention and doesthree things: points out the stimulus (what is to be paid attention to), gives it meaning, and thenprovides a strategy or way to deal with the stimulus. For example, we might say to a child:

• Don't cross the street without looking. (stimulus)

• You could be killed. (meaning)

• Look twice both ways before you cross the street. (strategy)

Mediation builds cognitive strategies for the mind. The strategies are analogous to the infrastructureof a house-the plumbing, electrical and cooling/heating systems that make the house livable. Whencognitive strategies are only partially in place, the mind can only partially accept the teaching.Feuerstein indicates that these students miss as much as 50 percent of what is on a page.

Why are so many students coming to school with a need for mediation? Poverty forces more time tobe spent on survival. Many of the students from poverty are in single parent situations. If there isonly one parent, regardless of the gender, there is not time and energy to both mediate the childrenand work to put food on the table. Additionally, if the parent is still a child or was non-mediated, theability to mediate his/her own children will be significantly lessened as well.

For students from this situation, more time in school will need to be spent addressing the cognitivestructures necessary for learning. Remember that teaching occurs outside the head; learning occursinside the head.

To facilitate the learning of students who are only partially mediated, four learning structures mustbe built as a part of direct teaching:

1. the structure of each discipline;2. cognitive strategies;3. conceptual frameworks, and4. models for sorting the important from the unimportant in text.

Hidden Rules

One of the key resources for success in school and at work is an understanding of the hidden rules.Hidden rules are the unspoken clues that individuals use to indicate membership in a group. Thechart on hidden rules (see p. 5) provides details, but generally, in middle class, work andachievement tend to be the driving forces in decision-making. In wealth, the driving forces are thepolitical, social, and financial connections. In generational poverty, the driving forces are survival,entertainment, and relationships. That is why you will have a student whose Halloween costume cost$30 but the textbook bill is not paid. Relationships and entertainment are more important thanachievement.

Hidden Rules

Generational Poverty Middle Class WealthThe driving forces for decisionmaking are survival,relationships, andentertainment.

The driving forces for decisionmaking are work andachievement.

The driving forces for decisionmaking are social, financial,and political connections.

People are possessions. It isworse to steal someone’sgirlfriend than a thing. Arelationship is valued overachievement. That is why youmust defend your child nomatter what he or she has done.Too much education is fearedbecause the individual mightleave.

Things are possessions. Ifmaterial security is threatened,often the relationship is broken.

Legacies, one-of-a-kind objects,and pedigrees are possessions.

The "world" is defined in localterms.

The "world" is defined innational terms. The nationalnews is watched; travel tends tobe in the nation.

The "world" is defined ininternational terms.

Physical fighting is how conflictis resolved. If you only knowcasual register, you do not havethe words to negotiate aresolution. Respect is accordedto those who can physicallydefend themselves.

Fighting is done verbally.Physical fighting is viewedwith distaste.

Fighting is done through socialinclusion or exclusion andthrough lawyers.

Food is valued for its quantity. Food is valued for its quality. Food is valued for itspresentation.

Note: Material on this page is from the work of Ruby Payne and others. All items aregeneralizations, based on large populations. As such, we should remember that individuals withineach group may have different experiences and values.

Other Rules

Generational Poverty Middle Class WealthYou laugh when you aredisciplined; it is a way to saveface. Your mother is the mostimportant person in your life.Many times, the mother is thekeeper of the soul. An insultagainst your mother isunforgivable.

The noise level is higher, non-verbal information is moreimportant than the verbal,emotions are openly displayed,and the value of yourpersonality to the group is yourability to entertain.

Destiny and fate govern. Thenotion of having choices isforeign. Discipline is aboutpenance and forgiveness, notchange.

Tools are often not available.Therefore, the concept of repairand fixing may not be present.

Formal register is always usedin an interview and is often anexpected part of socialinteraction.

Work is a daily part of life.

Discipline is about changingbehavior. To stay in the middleclass, one must be self-governing and self-supporting.

A reprimand is taken seriously(at least the pretense is there),without smiling, and with somedeference to authority.

Choice is a key concept in thelifestyle. The future is veryimportant. Formal education isseen as crucial for futuresuccess.

The artistic and aesthetic arekey to the lifestyle and includeclothing, art, interior design,seasonal decorating, food,music, and social activities.

For reasons of security andsafety, virtually all contacts aredependent upon introductions(connections).

Education is for the purpose ofsocial, financial and politicalconnections, as well as toenhance the artistic andaesthetic.

One of the key differencesbetween the well-to-do and thewealthy is that the wealthyalmost always are patrons tothe arts and often have anindividual artist to whom theyare patrons as well.

Note: Material on this page is from the work of Ruby Payne and others. All items aregeneralizations, based on large populations. As such, we should remember that individuals withineach group may have different experiences and values.

Please remember that these hidden rules are patterns that one sees in the collective group; however,individuals within that group may or may not exhibit these patterns.

Hidden rules shape what happens at school. Many of the greatest frustrations teachers andadministrators have with students from poverty is related to knowledge of the hidden rules. Thesestudents simply do not know middle-class hidden rules nor do most educators know the hidden rulesof generational poverty.

For example, if the rule a student brings to school is to laugh when disciplined and he does so, theteacher is most probably going to be offended. Yet, laughing is to him the appropriate way to dealwith the situation. At the same time, we know that if an employee laughs at a boss when beingdisciplined, he will most probably be fired. So the student needs to know that this response does notbring success.

The recommended approach is simply to teach the student that he needs a set of rules that bringssuccess in school and work and a set that brings success outside of school. If the student learns therules, but chooses not to use them, that is an individual choice. However, how can the choice bemade if the student has no knowledge of the rules?

Relationships Are the Key Motivators for Learning

For students from generational poverty to learn, a significant relationship must be present. Whenindividuals who made it out of poverty are interviewed, virtually all cite an individual who made asignificant difference for them. Not only must the relationships be present, but academic tasks needto be referenced in terms of relationships.

For example, rather than talk to students from generational poverty about the future and going tocollege, which has little motivation (although it is beneficial for them to hear), the conversationneeds to be about how the learning will impact relationships.

One of the teachers I work with had the following conversation with a 17-year-old student in analternative school who did not do his math homework on positive and negative numbers. She said,"Well, I guess it will be all right with you when your friends cheat you at cards."

He was furious at that idea.

She continued, "Well, you won't know whether they are cheating you or not because you don't knowpositive and negative numbers, and they aren't going to let you keep score, either."

He told her he could keep score and then proved it with a deck of cards.

She said, "Then you know positive and negative numbers. I expect you to do your homework."

Interestingly, he did his homework from that time on and kept an A average. The teacher simplycouched the importance of the task according to the relationships the student would have.

Conclusion

First of all, students from generational poverty are going to need direct teaching to build cognitivestructures necessary for learning. Secondly, the relationships that will motivate them to learn need tobe established. Third, hidden rules must be taught so they can choose the appropriate response ifthey so desire.

This is a beginning to address their learning. Are they less capable or less intelligent? No. Theysimply have not been mediated in the strategies or hidden rules that contribute so much to success inschool and then at work.

Will we save all children from generational poverty? No. However, if we would make a differencefor an additional 10 to 20 percent of the students, it would make a significant impact for thosechildren and for our future as a country. As playwright Noel Coward stated, "Our children are aliving legacy to a time we will not see."------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ruby K. Payne, founder and president of aha! Process, Inc., is author of more than a dozen booksfor educators and social service professionals. She started her career as an educator in 1972,serving as a secondary teacher and department chairperson, an elementary principal, and central-office administrator.

This article is a reprint from Instructional Leader (Volume IX, No. 2, March 1996), a publication ofthe Texas Elementary Principals and Supervisors Association.

References

Feuerstein, Reuven, et al. (1980). Instrumental Enrichment: An Intervention Program for CognitiveModifiability. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Co..

Joos, Martin. (1967). The Styles of the Five Clocks. In Abrahams, R. D. and Troike, R. C., Eds.(1972). Language and Cultural Diversity in American Education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Prentice-Hall.

AASA, (1992). Making Schools Work for Children in Poverty: A New Framework. Prepared by theCommission on Chapter 1. Washington, DC: Author.

Montano-Hannon, Maria Rosario. (1991). Discourse Features of Written Mexican Spanish: CurrentResearch in Contrastive Rhetoric and Its Implications. Hispania. 74(2), 417-425.

Montano-Harmon, Maria Rosario. (1994). Presentation given to Harris County Texas, Department ofEducation on the topic of her research findings.

Wheatley, Margaret J. (1992). Leadership and the New Science. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.