Sustainability Challenges in the Agrofood Sector

Sustainability Challenges in the Agrofood Sector

Edited by Rajeev Bhat

Food Science Department, College of Engineering, Science & Technology (CEST), School of Sciences, Campus – Nabua, Fiji National University, Fiji Islands

This edition first published 2017 © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Bhat, Rajeev, editor.Title: Sustainability challenges in the agrofood sector / edited by Rajeev Bhat.Description: Oxford, UK; Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2016046880| ISBN 9781119072768 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119072751 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Sustainable agriculture. | Food industry and trade–Environmental aspects.Classification: LCC S494.5.S86 S84 2017 | DDC 338.1–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016046880

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Cover images (top to bottom): © [Genesis] - Korawee Ratchapakdee/Gettyimages; © Marcel Clemens/Shutterstock; © Len Green/Shutterstock

Set in 10/12pt Warnock by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

v

List of Contributors viiiForeword xiiiPreface xviIntroductory Note: Future of Agrofood Sustainability xviii

1 Food Sustainability Challenges in the Developing World 1 Rajeev Bhat

2 The Role of Small‐scale Farms and Food Security 33 John McDonagh, Maura Farrell and Shane Conway

3 Sustainability Challenges, Human Diet and Environmental Concerns 48 Christian J. Reynolds, Jonathan D. Buckley, Philip Weinstein and 

John Boland

4 Sustainable Challenges in the Agrofood Sector: The Environment Food–Energy–Water Nexus 78

Chanathip Pharino

5 Dynamics of Grain Security in South Asia: Promoting Sustainability through Self‐sufficiency 103

Ghose Bishwajit, Sharmistha Ghosh and Jose Renato Peneluppi, Jr.

6 Local Food Diversification and Its (Sustainability) Challenges 119 Eni Harmayani, Lily Arsanti Lestari, Puspita Mardika Sari and 

Murdijati Gardjito

7 Sustainable Supply Chain Management in Agri‐food Chains: A Competitive Factor for Food Exporters 150

Ulla Lehtinen

8 How Logistics Decisions Affect the Environmental Sustainability of Modern Food Supply Chains: A Case Study from an Italian Large‐scale Retailer 175

Riccardo Accorsi, Riccardo Manzini and Chiara Pini

Contents

Contentsvi

9 Strengthening Food Supply Chains in Asia: Challenges and Strategies 197Sapna A. Narula and Kalpana Vishnoi

10 Revolutionizing Food Supply Chains of Asia through ICTs 212Sapna A. Narula

11 Sustainability, Materiality and Independent External Assurance: An Exploratory Study of the UK’s Leading Food Retailers 227Peter Jones, Robin Bown, David Hillier and Daphne Comfort

12 Environmental Sustainability of Traditional Crop Varieties: Reviewing Approaches and Key Issues for a Multilevel Evaluation 255Alessandro K. Cerutti, Dario Donno, Maria Gabriella Mellano and Gabriele L. Beccaro

13 Cradle‐to‐gate Life Cycle Analysis of Agricultural and Food Production in the US: A TRACI Impact Assessment 274Yong Shin Park, Gokhan Egilmez and Murat Kucukvar

14 Ensuring Self‐sufficiency and Sustainability in the Agrofood Sector: Sustainability Challenges in Agriculture and Modelling 307Prashant Goswami and Shivnarayan Nishad

15 Sustainability Challenges Involved in Use of Nanotechnology in the Agrofood Sector 343Gabriela Elena Viacava, Francisco Javier Vázquez, Jesús F. Ayala‐Zavala and María R. Ansorena

16 Sustainability of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods 369Santad Wichienchot and Wan Rosli Wan Ishak

17 Innovation and Sustainable Utilization of Seaweeds as Health Foods 390Fook Yee Chye, Birdie Scott Padam and Seah Young Ng

18 Agrofoods for Sustainable Health Benefits and Their Economic Viability 435Zakia Khanam and Irshad Ul Haq Bhat

19 Sustainability Challenges in Food Tourism 451Yeoh Tow Kuang and Rajeev Bhat

20 Diversification, Innovation and Safety of Local Cuisines and  Processed Food Products: Emerging Issues and  the Sustainability Challenges 482Yeoh Tow Kuang and Rajeev Bhat

21 Soil Health, Crop Productivity and Sustainability Challenges 509Kulandaivelu Velmourougane and DeSouza Blaise

Contents vii

22 Analysing the Environmental, Energy and Economic Feasibility of Biomethanation of Agrifood Waste: A Case Study from Spain 532Almudena González González, Francisco Cuadros Blázquez and Francisco Cuadros Salcedo

23 Agricultural Waste for Promoting Sustainable Energy 551Thi‐Thu‐Huyen Do and Thi‐Thu‐Hang Pham

24 Membrane Technology in Fish‐processing Waste Utilization: Some Insights on Sustainability 575Wirote Youravong and Sutida Marthosa

25 Sustainability Issues, Challenges and Controversies Surrounding the Palm Oil Industry 596Piyarat Boonsawang and Wirote Youravong

26 Sustainability Challenges in the Coffee Plantation Sector 616Kulandaivelu Velmourougane and Rajeev Bhat

27 Food Safety Education: Training Farm Workers in the US Fresh Produce Sector 643Angela M. Fraser and Otto D. Simmons

28 Sustainability Challenges and Educating People Involved in  the Agrofood Sector 660Caroline Opolski Medeiros

Index 675

Riccardo AccorsiDepartment of Industrial EngineeringUniversity of Bologna Alma Mater StudiorumBologna, Italy

María R. AnsorenaChemical Engineering DepartmentFood Engineering GroupEngineering FacultyNational University of Mar del PlataMar del Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina;National Research Council (CONICET)Mar del PlataBuenos Aires, Argentina

Jesús F. Ayala‐ZavalaCentro de Investigación en Alimentación y DesarrolloHermosilloSonora, México

Gabriele L. BeccaroDepartment of AgricultureForestry and Food ScienceUniversity of TorinoGrugliasco (TO), Italy

Irshad Ul Haq BhatFaculty of Earth ScienceUniversiti Malaysia KelantanCampus Jeli, JeliKelantan, Malaysia

Rajeev BhatFood Science DepartmentCollege of EngineeringScience & Technology (CEST)School of SciencesCampus – NabuaFiji National UniversityFiji Islands

Ghose BishwajitSchool of Social MedicineTongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan, China

DeSouza BlaiseCentral Institute for Cotton ResearchICAR, NagpurMaharashtra, India

Francisco Cuadros BlázquezDepartment of Applied PhysicsUniversity of ExtremaduraBadajoz, Spain

John BolandCentre for Industrial and Applied Mathematicsand the Barbara Hardy InstituteUniversity of South AustraliaAustralia

List of Contributors

List of Contributors ix

Piyarat BoonsawangDepartment of Industrial BiotechnologyFaculty of Agro‐IndustryPrince of Songkla UniversityHat Yai, Thailand

Robin BownThe Business SchoolUniversity of GloucestershireCheltenham, UK

Jonathan D. BuckleyAlliance for Research in ExerciseNutrition and ActivitySansom Institute for Health ResearchUniversity of South Australia, Australia

Alessandro K. CeruttiDepartment of AgricultureForestry and Food ScienceUniversity of TorinoGrugliasco (TO), Italy;IRIS (Interdisciplinary Research Institute on Sustainability)University of TorinoTorino, Italy

Fook Yee ChyeFaculty of Food Science and NutritionUniversiti Malaysia SabahKota KinabaluSabah, Malaysia

Daphne ComfortThe Business SchoolUniversity of GloucestershireCheltenham, UK

Shane ConwaySchool of Geography & ArchaeologyNUI Galway, Galway, Ireland

Thi‐Thu‐Huyen DoInstitute for Environment and ResourcesVietnam National UniversityHo Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Dario DonnoDepartment of AgricultureForestry and Food ScienceUniversity of TorinoGrugliasco (TO), Italy

Gokhan EgilmezDepartment of Mechanical and Industrial EngineeringUniversity of New HavenWest HavenCT, USA

Maura FarrellSchool of Geography & ArchaeologyNUI GalwayGalway, Ireland

Angela M. FraserClemson UniversityDepartment of FoodNutritionand Packaging SciencesClemson, SCUSA

Murdijati GardjitoUniversitas Gadjah MadaPusat Studi Pangan Dan GiziGedung PauJl. Teknika UtaraBarek, YogyakartaIndonesia

Sharmistha GhoshSchool of Public AdministrationHuazhong University of Science and Technology, WuhanHubei, China

Almudena González GonzálezDepartment of Applied PhysicsUniversity of ExtremaduraBadajoz, Spain

List of Contributorsx

Prashant GoswamiCSIR National Institute for ScienceTechnology and Development StudiesNew Delhi, India

Eni HarmayaniUniversitas Gadjah MadaCenter for Food and Nutrition StudiesPAU BuildingJl. Teknika UtaraBarek, YogyakartaIndonesia

David HillierCentre for Police SciencesUniversity of South WalesPontypridd, UK

Wan Rosli Wan IshakSchool of Health SciencesUniversiti Sains Malaysia Health CampusKubang KerianKota BharuKelantanMalaysia

Peter JonesThe Business SchoolUniversity of GloucestershireCheltenham, UK

Zakia KhanamFaculty of Agro Based IndustryUniversiti Malaysia KelantanCampus Jeli, JeliKelantanMalaysia

Yeoh Tow KuangSchool of Hospitality,Tourism and Culinary ArtsTaylor’s UniversitySubang Jaya,Selangor, Malaysia

Murat KucukvarAssistant ProfessorDepartment of Industrial EngineeringIstanbul Sehir University, Turkey

Ulla LehtinenSenior Research FellowOulu Business SchoolOulu University, Finland

Lily Arsanti LestariUniversitas Gadjah MadaPusat Studi Pangan Dan GiziGedung PauJl. Teknika UtaraBarek, YogyakartaIndonesia

Riccardo ManziniDepartment of Industrial EngineeringUniversity of Bologna Alma Mater Studiorum, Bologna, Italy

Sutida MarthosaDepartment of Industrial Management TechnologyFaculty of Science and Industrial TechnologyPrince of Songkla UniversityThailand

John McDonaghSchool of Geography & ArchaeologyNUI GalwayGalway, Ireland

Caroline Opolski MedeirosDepartment of NutritionFederal University of ParanáCuritiba, PR, Brazil

Maria Gabriella MellanoDepartment of AgricultureForestry and Food ScienceUniversity of TorinoGrugliasco (TO), Italy

List of Contributors xi

Sapna A. NarulaDepartment of Business Sustainability,TERI UniversityNew Delhi, India

Seah Young NgFaculty of Food Science and NutritionUniversiti Malaysia SabahKota KinabaluSabah, Malaysia

Shivnarayan NishadDepartment of MathematicsFaculty of Science and HumanitiesMS Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences, BangaloreIndia

Birdie Scott PadamFaculty of Food Science and NutritionUniversiti Malaysia SabahKota KinabaluSabah, Malaysia

Yong Shin ParkUpper Great Plains Transportation Institute (UGPTI)North Dakota State UniversityFargo, NDUSA

Jose Renato Peneluppi, Jr.School of Public Administration,Huazhong University of Science and Technology,Wuhan, HubeiChina;Visiting ResearcherThe University of Oslo, OsloNorway

Thi‐Thu‐Hang PhamInstitute for Environment and ResourcesVietnam National UniversityHo Chi Minh CityVietnam

Chanathip PharinoAssociate ProfessorDepartment of Environmental EngineeringChulalongkorn UniversityBangkok,Thailand

Chiara PiniDepartment of Industrial EngineeringUniversity of Bologna Alma Mater StudiorumBolognaItaly

Christian J. ReynoldsDepartment of GeographyFaculty of Social SciencesThe University of SheffieldSheffield, UK;Centre for Industrial and Applied Mathematicsand the Barbara Hardy InstituteUniversity of South AustraliaAustralia

Francisco Cuadros SalcedoDepartment of Applied PhysicsUniversity of ExtremaduraBadajoz, Spain

Puspita Mardika SariUniversitas Gadjah MadaPusat Studi Pangan Dan GiziGedung Pau, Jl. Teknika UtaraBarek, YogyakartaIndonesia

Otto D. SimmonsDepartment of Biological and Agricultural EngineeringNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleigh, NC, USA

List of Contributorsxii

Francisco Javier VázquezCentro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo,HermosilloSonora, México

Kulandaivelu VelmourouganeCentral Institute for Cotton ResearchICAR, NagpurMaharashtra, India

Gabriela Elena ViacavaChemical Engineering DepartmentFood Engineering GroupEngineering Faculty,National University of Mar del PlataMar del Plata,Buenos Aires, Argentina;National Research Council (CONICET)Mar del Plata,Buenos Aires, Argentina

Kalpana VishnoiResearch Associate (formerly); All India Coordinated Project on Pesticide Residues,IARI, New Delhi,India

Philip WeinsteinSchool of Pharmacy and Medical SciencesDivision of Health Science, and the Barbara Hardy InstituteUniversity of South AustraliaAustralia and School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide,Australia

Santad WichienchotInterdisciplinary Graduate School of Nutraceutical and Functional FoodPrince of Songkla UniversityHat Yai, SongkhlaThailand

Wirote YouravongDepartment of Food Technology,Faculty of Agro‐IndustryMembrane Science and Technology Research Center Prince of Songkla University,Hat YaiThailand

xiii

Foreword

Proposed solutions for feeding the world’s population while protecting the environment are rife with theories and examples, few of which can be applied globally. Much of the challenge lies in the understanding of what ‘sustainable’ really means, and what com-promises people are prepared to accept between price of food, agricultural system in which it was produced and environmental impacts. The conundrum of achieving pro-duction and protection is termed a ‘wicked’ problem – and the information in this book brings to the fore some sensible steps towards potential success.

Food in developed countries is cheaper, more varied, more prepared and safer to eat than it has ever been in the past. Understandably, people in developing countries want the same opportunity to eat inexpensive, varied, easy‐to‐access, safe food. The problem is that the production of any food has unintended consequences. The very act of har-vesting and digesting plant material separates the carbon and nitrogen that the plant has combined during photosynthesis, and returns chemicals surplus to the nutrient requirements of the digester to the environment. The ‘return’ usually occurs in a differ-ent place from the harvesting, thereby causing potential problems. This is particularly the case for the chemicals in dung and urine which the animal deposits on the soil in concentrated form. In addition, the form of the chemicals excreted is different from that ingested. A small proportion of the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere combined dur-ing photosynthesis is returned to the atmosphere as methane by ruminants. Nitrogen is converted by various processes variously to nitrate and nitrous oxides. Methane and nitrous oxides are of concern in the greenhouse gas calculations; nitrate can become a contaminant in waterways.

A further problem for agriculture is the impact of animals and machinery on soil. Erosion from fields and paddocks becomes sediment in lakes and rivers, carrying nutri-ents such as phosphorus with it. Micro‐organisms such as faecal coliforms can also be involved.

Keeping animals in high‐tech shelters allows excreta to be ‘managed’, thereby reduc-ing impact on the environment, but feeding them requires mechanical harvesting of crops, potentially impacting negatively on the soil whilst using fossil fuel and creating more greenhouse gases. In addition, housing of animals in large numbers increases the likelihood of disease, and consequently the use of antibiotics.

And on all systems the pressure to increase productivity is high: equipment has become larger; chemicals to reduce insect, weeds and diseases have become more spe-cific; and all chemicals, including fertilisers, have been applied with more precision.

­orreorrxiv

As a result, productivity has increased, and the risks to production have decreased, particularly where irrigation is available to compensate for lack of rainfall, and frost protection can be used to mitigate low temperatures.

The overall effect has been seen in prices: food is cheaper as a proportion of income in developed countries than it has ever been. However, the effect has also been seen on the environment. Waterways are carrying greater sediment loads, with more nutrients.

This impact is seen in developed countries as being unsustainable. Protecting the potential of soil and water to meet the needs of future generations is the third tenet of sustainability in Smyth and Dumanski’s 1993 discussion paper FESLM: An international framework for evaluating sustainable land management (published by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations). Building on increased productivity and decreased risk to production, the Smyth and Dumanski concept of protection included the suggestion that additional conservation priorities, such as maintaining genetic diversity or preserving individual plant or animal species, would be needed. Conservation puts the emphasis on improved productivity and reducing risk to produc-tion if the population is increasing. The last two tenets of the Smyth and Dumanski framework are economic viability and social acceptability.

The latter includes animal welfare and human welfare: are the animals in the produc-tion system being treated humanely and with respect for life? Are the employees receiv-ing a living wage, operating in a safe environment with reasonable hours and holidays? Both are compromised if the prices paid for the product don’t cover the cost of produc-tion. This threatens economic viability, and reduces the ability to attract into and retain good people in agriculture, all along the value chain from farm to fork, or soil to saliva. Research, development and technologies are required in all countries to ensure that farmers and growers are able to operate efficiently and are enabled to adapt the new technologies to their operation.

Part of the research must be on what Smyth and Dumanski term ‘indicators, criteria and thresholds’. Indicators are environmental statistics that measure or reflect environ-mental status or change in condition (for example tonnes/ha of erosion; rate of increase/decrease in erosion). Criteria are standards or rules (models, tests or measures) that govern judgements on environmental conditions (such as impact assessment of the level of erosion on yield, water quality etc.). Thresholds are levels beyond which a sys-tem undergoes significant change  –  points at which stimuli provoke response (for example a level beyond which erosion is no longer tolerable).

The recognition of ‘thresholds’ (by applying ‘criteria’ to measurements of ‘indicators’) will provide powerful tools in deciding whether or not a chosen land use will be sustain-able. At the moment, most countries are still in the discussion phase rather than in the agreement or action phases.

At the same time it is vital that society as a whole understands the issues – that every time they throw food away they are not only creating the potential for greenhouse gas generation during decomposition but also wasting the chemicals, including water, that went in to creating the food; that each time they make a cheap choice in the supermar-ket, they are increasing the pressures on farmers and growers to increase productivity, with potential impacts on the environment.

­orreorr xv

There are no easy answers, but every single person has an influence through choices made. Sustainability Challenges in the Agrofood Sector will help inform those choices, and the path to action. Finally, my appreciation goes to the editor (Dr Rajeev Bhat) and all the authors for their expert inputs provided on various challenging and emerging sustainability issues discussed in this book.

Dr. Jacqueline S. RowarthFormerly Professor of Agribusiness, The University of Waikato

Hamilton, New Zealand; Chief Scientist (Currently) Environmental Protection Authority, Lambton Quay

Wellington, New Zealand

xvi

‘Agrofood sustainability’ is a strategic term in the present world scenario with several novel and impressive works being proposed and pursued by various researchers, acad-emicians and policymakers around the world. This book takes a comprehensive approach to identify various challenges offered by agrofood (agrifood) sustainability. On a global level, several critical factors cover the issues pertaining to sustainability challenges in the agrofood sector. Transforming and communicating lab‐ or office‐ generated knowledge to the local population is an important phase to face the over-whelming sustainability challenges in the agrofood sector.

The overall outlook of this book concerns the current knowledge and challenges incurred in the agrofood sector with an onward focus on the future of sustainability. Various multidisciplinary aspects and a range of topics have been covered by leading international experts who have endeavoured to update and provide the latest informa-tion on sustainability challenges from around the world. The sustainability issues cov-ered in the chapters includes those concerning the impact of environment or climatic changes on the agrofood sector, the food—water—energy nexus, geopolitical and cli-matic unrest, supply chain management, challenges incurred in the food crops sector, food diversification issues, diet and health effects, food waste, sustainable food process-ing technologies, food tourism, the importance of judicial and regulatory issues and educating consumers on the significance of sustainability. All the experts have explored and identified existing gaps and have tried to propose innovative solutions, which can be implemented to benefit local populations (consumers) around the world.

As the book takes an ‘easy to read’ approach with up‐to‐date information, it will ben-efit all those who are engaged in teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students, agrofood scientists, industrial professionals and policymakers as a readily assessable reference material. Until now, there have been no books in the market which have con-tained the views of so many leading researchers/experts from different countries.

I thank all the authors who had contributed to this book, way before the stipulated deadline. Much appreciation goes to my present Vice‐Chancellor, Professor Nigel Healey of Fiji National University, Fiji Islands for all the support.

My sincere gratitude and indebtedness go to all the members of the Wiley‐Blackwell publishing team involved in this book, for their sincere commitment and enormous support. A special note of appreciation goes to Professor Dr Karl R. Matthews (Rutgers University, USA) and to Professor Dr Jacqueline Rowarth (University of

Preface

Preface xvii

Waikato, New Zealand and currently Chief Scientist, Environmental Protection Authority, Wellington, New Zealand) for writing the introductory notes and fore-word, respectively. I am also grateful to my wife, Ranjana, and daughter, Vidhathri, for all their benefaction and patience, and I dedicate this book to them with much love.

Dr Rajeev Bhat

xviii

The global population is projected to increase to more than nine billion by 2050. Concomitantly, the global food demand will double and strain agrofood supply chains. Now is an interesting time where dietary habits of consumers in developed countries have led to a seemingly exponential increase in the clinically overweight, while in devel-oping countries food insufficiency results in starvation. Astonishingly, in developed countries high percentages of food never make it to market, often exceeding the entire food production of certain regions of the world.

Food is essential to life. One of the greatest threats to a healthy environment is agri-culture. Seeking a balance to achieve food sustainability is not a trivial task. A seismic shift in consumer preference is underway. This is linked to the desire to have foods which are functional in nature and nutritious. The advent of foods developed based on the genetic profile of a consumer is not out of reach. Simply increasing food production will not satiate the appetite of the world’s population. In the future, the primary source of protein may shift from being meat‐based to being insect‐based. Such changes will be difficult to accept for consumers from parts of the world for which insects have not been part of the diet. The extent to which such a shift will impact the environment will likely not be realized until well into the future.

Foods that are functional, medicinal and medical must be developed particularly for feeding developing countries. The utilization of highly nutritious ingredients such as seaweed, algae and kale that are not cost prohibitive and can achieve health and well‐being is paramount. The food must also be safe and free from chemical and microbiology hazards that negatively impact human health. Achieving a safe food supply requires education and training. An unintended consequence of focusing only on ‘yield per acre/hectare’ is the abuse of chemicals: pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides. The use of modern genetics such as the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) interference technique can be used to modify the genes of food crops without the stigma of GMOs. Agricultural and processing practices must incorporate effective training and strategies to provide foods intended to be consumed raw that are microbiologically safe. Each year, millions of cases of foodborne illness linked to foods contaminated with viruses, bacteria and parasites occur in part because of a lack of worker training and consumer knowledge.

Introductory Note: Future of Agrofood Sustainability

Karl R. Matthews

Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, NJ, USA

Introductory Note: Future of Agrofood Sustainability xix

The development and strengthening of food supply chains is needed to shift food from abundant areas to areas of need. Incredibly, malnourishment occurs in countries that have adequate food production. The global agrofood supply chain is under stress. In some regions, more than 50% of the food supply is imported. Measures must be taken to provide market access to small producers, a step that may alleviate some of the supply chain stress. Indeed, failure to address supply chain issues can contribute to other concerns such as food waste. Food waste for low‐income countries typically occurs during production, while in developed countries it occurs at consumption. Astonishingly, it has been estimated that between 30 and 50% of all food produced around the world is lost or wasted. Combatting food waste requires the development of specific approaches for developed and developing countries. There is no one‐size‐fits‐all solution.

The technology required to initiate and achieve sustainability need not be complex or sophisticated. Government and development agencies often forgo simplicity in favour of high‐tech methods since they draw greater appeal and awe. That said, the appropri-ate use of technology can significantly move forward sustainability. Nanotechnology has potential application in nanofilters and nanobiocides; hurdles exist, however, in the form of public perception and environmental impact. Implementation of measures to promote sustainability along the entire food chain including processing is paramount. Vertical greenhouses in urban settings are viable with the advent of new technologies that can control environmental conditions, nutrient and water usage with minimal use of scarce land.

Agricultural practices currently implemented result in high productivity but are based on a strong dependence on natural resources such as water, nutrients (e.g. phos-phorus), and fossil fuels. This is underscored by estimates that greater than 1.4 billion people live where water cannot meet agricultural and environmental needs. This model is not sustainable to feed a population projected to reach nine billion by 2050. New production paradigms that make the agrofood system more sustainable are needed.

Agrofood sustainability will be achieved through the interdependency between infra-structure, production, distribution and environmental resources. The topic areas cov-ered in this book highlight the diversity required to achieve agrofood sustainability. The book begins with chapters exploring food security, the environment food–energy–water nexus and discussion of Asia food supply chains. Shifts in diet and desire for functional-ity of food are highlighted in several chapters, including exploring contribution of local cuisines and food tourism. The closing chapters address several commodity areas of global significance and the need for training and educating farm workers and those involved in the agrofood sector.

Sustainability Challenges in the Agrofood Sector, First Edition. Edited by Rajeev Bhat. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

1

1

1.1 Introduction

In a global context, ‘sustainability’ has been defined as ‘the ability to accomplish the needs of our present generation by ensuring that the desires of the future generation remain uncompromised’. According to Asheim (1994), sustainability is expressed as a requirement of the present generation to manage its resources in such a way that the current average quality of life can potentially be enjoyed by all future generations. Sustainability is from the Latin (sustinere) and means to ‘hold up’, ‘support’ or ‘maintain.’ However, according to Phillis and Andriantiatsaholiniaina (2001), sustainability is very difficult to define or to be measured as it is an ambiguous and complex concept about which there is no consensus as to its definition or on how it is to be measured. And so Phillis and Andriantiatsaholiniaina developed the Sustainability Assessment by Fuzzy Evaluation model, which provided a reliable mechanism to measure sustainability development that considers both ecological and human inputs.

Before we look at sustainability issues in any depth and the various challenges the world is facing now, a few basic questions need to be answered. For example: Why sustainability? Does sustainability matter? If it does matter, then to whom? Why do we

Food Sustainability Challenges in the Developing WorldRajeev Bhat

Food Science Department, College of Engineering, Science & Technology (CEST) School of Sciences, Campus – Nabua, Fiji National University, Fiji Islands

SUMMARY

This chapter highlights some of the current issues and topics of concern facing the agriculture and food sustainability sectors. Special emphasis is placed on the various challenges facing low‐ and medium‐income countries. Some of the major obstacles to sustainability and the factors affecting it are examined, as are novel approaches to the management strategies employed for various issues in agriculture (e.g. biodiversity, agricultural development, pests/rodents, organic farming, livestock, poultry and aquaculture) and food security (e.g. poverty, hidden hunger and diseases, stability of food supply and access to safe, high‐quality food, food diversification, dietary health supplements, food wastage, food safety and challenges in the food industry).

Sustainability Challenges in the Agrofood Sector2

need to be concerned about the agrofood sector? Well, the answer to all these questions is simple: there is only one earth where rich biodiversity and life exists, and hence sus-tainability matters! The majority of the world’s population, it seems, including expert researchers, believes that sustainability is just about ecology and going green. However, technically, sustainability goes beyond this. Indeed, what does ‘agriculture sustainability’ and ‘food sustainability’ mean precisely? Are there any appropriate definitions available? What is the link between these two concepts? This chapter focuses on current sustain-ability issues and the trends and challenges facing the agrofood sector, especially in the developing regions of the world.

1.2 Agriculture and the Food Sustainability Sector

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), ‘Sustainable agriculture needs to nurture healthy ecosystems and support the sustainable management of land, water and natural resources, while ensuring world food security.’ Besides, it has been clearly stated (FAO 2015a) that sustainable agriculture should encompass a global governance system which can respond to the various issues of food security (e.g. trade regime, trade policies and agricultural policies) in order to promote agricultural marketing locally and regionally. When agriculture is of concern, sustaina-bility is referred to as a complete system involved in producing high‐quality and safe agrofood products that also takes care of the social and economic conditions of farmers, as well as that of the surrounding environment.

Theoretically, sustainable agriculture symbolizes a system that integrates socio‐economic equity with that of economic success and environmental health. The concept of agricultural sustainability is presented effectively by Corwin et al. (1999), who stated that this is about finding the elusive balance between maximizing crop productivity while minimizing destructive effects on the environment and sustaining the economic stability of the whole system. Several novel methods have been proposed and reviewed with regard to agricultural sustainability, all of which concentrate on sustainability indi-cators, including considering socio‐economic and environmental issues (Binder et al. 2010; Rao and Rogers 2006; Roy and Chan 2012; Speelman et  al. 2006). And yet an agricultural system that aims at sustainability can also have a negative impact. In many developing countries, the inappropriate sharing of knowledge on technological innova-tions and engineering, and mistimed practical applications of the new techniques, have had a devastating effect on the natural flora and fauna of the agriculture region. Today’s modern agricultural practices have added to global warming (e.g. deforestation to grow crops as well as to raise livestock), climatic changes, increased greenhouse gases (e.g. methane released from agriculture farms and nitrous oxide from fertilizers) and pol-luted water and soil (e.g. run‐off water from fields nourished with fertilizers and organic manure). The scarcity of natural water resources and the depletion of ground-water resources have tremendously increased in recent years, owing to human inter-vention (Hoekstra 2015; Pfeiffer 2006). In fact, stress has been laid on the importance of rain‐dependent agriculture in order to improve global food security and assure environ-mental sustainability (Bastos et al. 2013; Yang et al. 2006). Approximately 85% of the natural water resource in developing countries is used for irrigation (IAASTD 2008). The importance and threats of cultural eutrophication, acidification of fresh water,

Food Sustainability Challenges in the Developing World 3

depletion of natural resources or biodiversity and emerging respiratory diseases (owing to elevated levels of nitrate concentrations in the water as well as in the air) have been identified by the European Nitrogen Assessment forum (Sutton et al. 2011). Added to this, natural disasters can have serious implications for the agriculture system as a whole. According to Misselhorn et  al. (2012), almost one billion people experience famine or suffer from malnutrition in the world today. Developing an ecological and agriculture/food footprint as well as a water footprint for an individual region/country is very important to overcome recurring issues. In Figure 1.1, a conceptual model based on the concepts of ecological footprints, trust and human values is depicted.

Further, when it comes to food sustainability, can ‘food sustainability’ or ‘sustainable foods’ be segregated from ‘agriculture sustainability’ or are they interdependent con-cepts? From a broader perspective, food sustainability encompasses a wide array of multidisciplinary themes, which can have an extensive paradigm (development and implementation of novel concepts, hypotheses, policies, theories and ideas, etc.) rele-vant to the socio‐economic state of affairs of the agro‐ecological food sector. Food sus-tainability is linked to ensuring food security (quality and safety, overcoming hidden hunger, population explosion and poverty, food loss/wastage, food governance and food crisis, food trade, etc.) as well as attaining successful sustainable food production. Food sustainability relies on ensuring nutritional security without foregoing the long‐term health of the surrounding ecosystem and the vital cultural scenario providing the basic food needs. Further, according to the FAO, and as outlined by the Panel of Experts on

Consumer characteristicse.g., Socio-demographics

Values and beliefs

Generalized trust:

Trusting beliefs

Human values:

Social & Personal orientation

Consumer attitudes

Emotional engagement Trusting intentions

Choice of ecologically footprint-labeled product

Perceived values of product attribute combinations withvarying attribute levels (here: price, carbon & water footprint)

Figure 1.1 Conceptual model. Source: Grebitus et al. 2015. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Sustainability Challenges in the Agrofood Sector4

food security and nutrition ‘a sustainable food system is a food system that delivers food security and nutrition for all in such a way that the economic, social and environmental bases to generate food security and nutrition for future generations are not compro-mised’ (FAO 2016). Hence, ultimately, is it ‘sustainable foods’, ‘sustaining the foods’ or ‘sustainable food production’ that we need to refer to?

The success of sustainability in any region or country depends directly on the linkages between food, energy and water (Bhat 2015). Hence, it is vital to assure these three components go hand‐in‐hand. Moreover, population increase, food scarcity, scarcity of fertile agricultural land, recurring environmental issues (mainly climate change) and high levels of economic instability can be the major challenges to be overcome in low‐ or medium‐income countries. For the majority of developing countries (or rather low‐ and medium‐income groups of countries), sustainable production and the sustainable consumption of food is vital to fulfil the ever‐growing demands of local populations without depleting natural resources or causing any ill effects on human health (Bhat 2015; Pretty 2008; Verain et al. 2015).

Further, when a ‘sustainable agrofood system’ is referred to, it indicates a consolida-tion of crops and livestock production and effective land use, and includes the overall well‐being of farmers, animals, consumers and environmental health. Van Wijk (2014) has developed an excellent overview of land use and food production on a global basis (Figure 1.2).

Today, the major emerging challenging themes in the agrofood sustainability sector are global climatic changes, global loss in biodiversity, global food security issues, global food health and global water crisis, trailed by the issues of desertification and the deple-tion of marine flora and fauna. In addition, disaster risk management and mitigation and issues related to trade, human rights and labour are of highest concern. Recently witnessed disasters in the environment include natural disasters, namely floods or famine (in some Asian countries), haze and burning of crop waste in agricultural fields

Landsuitability

Land useallocation

Crop & Livestockproductivity

Price formationSupplyDemand

Macro-scaleeconomic model

Large scale

Pixel level

Figure 1.2 Generic structure of large‐scale economic impact assessment tools. The circles indicate the entry points where incorporating information from small‐scale, bottom‐up approaches can improve model reliability. Source: van Wijk, M. T. (2014). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Food Sustainability Challenges in the Developing World 5

(e.g. those recently witnessed in the oil palm plantations of Indonesia/Malaysia), nuclear leaks in Japan and snow disasters in Mongolia, to name just a few. Besides these, changes to traditional farming methods, new plant diseases and resistant pathogens and new field vectors are also causing problems in the agrofood sector. In the majority of low‐ and medium‐income countries, the rise in unemployment, changing economic policies, globalization and/or trade liberalization, a lack of appropriate marketing strategies for farmers coupled with unstable governance have become the major contributing factors to instability. Also, movement of family‐based farmers from rural to urban regions is on the rise, especially in developing countries (Bhat 2015). So how can we overcome these incurring problems? The international task force set up for managing these crises includes experts coming from leading organizations such as the FAO, the World Health Organization (WHO) and other local governmental and non‐governmental organiza-tions, who all have played a pivotal role. However, it is imperative that local populations also play a role in identifying the richness of their region and how sustainability princi-ples can be applied to benefit them. Further, encouraging family farms, buying local produce or foods (and preferably seasonal foods) can all help to achieve self‐sufficiency and ensure sustainability (Bhat 2015; Graeub et al. 2015; Medina et al. 2015; van Vliet et al. 2015).

1.2.1 Biodiversity and Agriculture

Irrespective of the region and agricultural practices involved, there is an interdependent link between an agriculture system, biodiversity and agro‐ecosystem services (a system which imparts direct or indirect benefits to humans). This linkage is of immense help to predict changes in weather conditions and the surrounding environment (Altieri 1999; Bàrberi et al. 2010; Bengtsson 1998; Power 2010). When it comes to minimizing the damage done to biodiversity, it has been opined that limiting various human necessities from land use as well as integrating the conservation ideas and policies affecting a food system will be the vital factors in restricting the impact on biodiversity, and thus enhanc-ing global food production (Phalan et  al. 2011). However, globally, certain recurring sustainability challenges in the agriculture sector include environmental change (pollu-tion, climatic changes, water scarcity, etc.), lack of space, decline in the profit or the margin gained in growing traditional food crops, overdependence on landraces (local variety/local crop cultivars), genetic or hybrid varieties, monoculture production and gaps in identifying potential drivers of productive crop diversification. In some devel-oping countries, the monoculture system of farming remains popular. Nevertheless, how far this system can be productive and how new approaches can be adopted for improvement needs to be evaluated.

In the US alone, it has been reported that some ecosystem services – such as pollina-tion, pest control and water storage practices – have contributed tremendously to the increase in crop production resilience (Daily 1997; Losey and Vaughan 2006; Lovell 2010). Besides, urban agriculture (including domestic gardening that cultivates spice plants, vegetables or fruit‐yielding tress and involves the domestication of poultry, cow or goat rearing, etc.) is also expected to gain importance and be profitable in the coming years (Lovell 2010). In fact, in a majority of countries, rainwater harvesting, afforesta-tion and mixed cropping systems have all yielded good results and have contributed substantially to the success of agrofood sustainability. In certain cases, in some of the

Sustainability Challenges in the Agrofood Sector6

tropical regions, increases in agricultural biodiversity (e.g. the use of non‐timber forest products) have been recommended as a way of minimizing natural resource degrada-tion as well as an effective way of tackling poverty in rural areas (Vadez et al. 2004). Agro‐forestry and the practice of apiculture (beekeeping) for producing highly prized honey in plantations (e.g. in coffee or tea plantations) have also been a success in the majority of developing countries. It has been opined that various strategies put forth towards bio‐diversification in a region should first target staple food production, fol-lowed by the implementation of various marketing policies to enhance food security (Delgado 1995). So how about new genetically modified (GM) food crops, which have been suggested as an answer for the ‘green revolution’? The challenges to the acceptabil-ity of biotechnology still remain in the majority of countries. Will the ‘gene revolution’ be an answer to the ‘green revolution’? Only time will tell.

In contrast, in the majority of the developing regions (low‐ or middle‐income coun-tries), there is a lack of dissemination of up‐to‐date information among the local com-munities or the farmers involved in agriculture practices, which can be a hindrance to achieving sustainability. Nevertheless, disseminating knowledge of crop diversity among community leaders and heads of households in rural areas has led to a growth of crop diversity in those regions (Bottazzi et al. 2014). Also, designing appropriate com-modity‐based crop development programmes (e.g. growing crops for food sovereignty) in rural regions can also be of immense benefit.

1.2.2 Agricultural Development

Some of the challenges facing the agricultural development sector include increasing crop productivity, encouraging green farming, overcoming competition from local market unions, strengthening links with other sectors and designing and maintaining a timeline for the implementation of new policies (both locally and regionally). Further, when it comes to sustainable energy, it is vital that a holistic approach be adopted for the efficient tapping of bio‐energy for land rehabilitation and for the effective utilization of biomass or agro‐wastes for generating energy. And climate change mitigation also has to be kept in mind. Use of renewable energy technologies – such as hydropower, solar power (solar energy) or wind power (wind energy) in agriculture fields – can reap enormous benefits for farmers (Baruah 1995; Frey and Linke 2002; Resch et al. 2008; Omer 2008). Application of biofuel systems in small‐scale organic farms is reported to positively affect food production (Johansson et al. 2014).

Further, when development in the agriculture sector is concerned, it is worth consid-ering the effects on human health (maternal and child health), wherein modern agricul-tural practices are reported to contribute to poor health conditions and the occurrence of infectious and chronic diseases, mainly caused by the extensive use of pesticides (e.g. various risks associated with occupational health), human and livestock diseases, etc. (Kataki and Babu 2002; Lipton and de Kadt 1988; Nugent 2004). Additionally, success of agricultural development relies on encouraging agricultural practices with less depend-ence on rain, adopting rainwater harvesting, limiting the degradation of natural water resources, using drought‐resistant crop varieties, soil conservation, rotational grazing, enhancing agriculture productivity by employing modern technologically versatile irri-gation facilities, etc. Reports are available on the importance of virtual water trade and water scarcity linked with food security. These reports have highlighted some of the

Food Sustainability Challenges in the Developing World 7

challenges faced when developing international policies to deal with sustainability and food security (Hoekstra and Hung 2005; Oki and Kanae 2004; Yang et al. 2003, 2006). Besides, recurring problems of microbial pathogens affecting food crops during pre‐harvest (agriculture fields) or post‐harvest stages, as well as pests and vectors problems, need to be managed effectively for agricultural development.

Apart from the above‐mentioned norms, appropriate care should be taken to under-stand and work towards some of the trade‐related issues and policies, for example trade agreements proposed by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the European Union (EU), the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) and that between Canada and the EU (CETA), etc. Above all, human rights and labour‐related issues, child labour, farmer suicide owing to debts (e.g. in some states in India) need to be sorted out regionally with the help of local governments, NGOs and other reliable international organizations.

The way ahead rests mainly on freezing the agriculture footprint, which can be achieved by avoiding deforestation, preventing the conversion of agriculture lands for urban development, enhancing farm productivity through using natural resources, more competent use of natural fertilizers and adopting organic farming, etc. Above all, the promotion and development of a sustainable agriculture system should focus on individual regional conditions based on the adaptation and cultiva-tion system which can establish and syndicate productivity with sustainability. For this, some of the facts that need to be carefully considered include: inter‐cropping systems, replacing the mono‐crop culture system, crop rotation, cover crops and the  use of local organic manures, using disease‐ and pest‐resistant plant stocks, employing various bio‐fumigation techniques and adopting all available farmer‐friendly techniques.

1.2.3 Agriculture: Pests and Rodents

Pests and rodents have been a part of the agriculture system in the majority of the world’s agricultural fields. In fact, the damage caused by rodents in the agricultural field (e.g. mice, rats and voles) is substantial and can greatly risk food security in a region. Moreover, on a global scale, it has been stated that damages incurred during pre‐h arvest (on structural damage to plants) and post‐harvest stages (during storage) can contribute significantly to malnourishment and reduced food security (Belmain et  al. 2015; Brown et al. 2008, 2013; Meerburg et al. 2009; Oerke 2006). Besides, individuals work-ing in the farming sector can also get infected, as rodents in the fields can be carriers of human pathogens and this can lead to various disease transmissions (such as arena viruses, murine typhus, leptospirosis, etc.) (Bausch and Mills 2014; Meerburg et  al. 2009). Here, sustainability could get a severe setback, especially in those regions/coun-ties whose economies are wholly agrarian‐based. Hence, proposing appropriate meas-ures for rodent control using biological methods, using safer rodenticides, employing an integrated approach to designing appropriate trapping systems, planting trap crops, understanding the life history and damaging seasons can all be of practical help. However, use of chemical fertilizers needs to be limited. In addition, monitoring crop harvest loss incurred by rodents is a necessity for food security. Around the world, researchers are exploring various mechanisms for developing host plants’ and crops’ resistance to pests. The use of biocontrol agents and the adoption of integrated pest

Sustainability Challenges in the Agrofood Sector8

management (IPM) strategies have been success stories (Brunner 2014; Kloosterman and Mager 2014; Lazarovits et al. 2014; Trematerra 2013).

Apart from the rodents, plant parasitic nematodes can also have huge economic losses and can affect agrofood security (Auwal Hassan et al. 2013; Becker 2014; Sasser and Freckman 1987). Hence, overcoming this problem shouldn’t be neglected.

1.2.4 Agriculture and Organic Farming

Many people associate or confuse the term ‘organic agriculture system’ with ‘sustainable agriculture system.’ Even some researchers suggest organic farming to be comparable with green farming or as a sustainable agriculture system (Henning et al. 1991; York 1991).

So why is there a need for organic farming? Today, there is much criticism and public concern about the extensive use of chemical fertilizers and the presence of their resi-dues, which has led to a focus on organic farming. Various types of chemicals used in farms not only are expensive but also have wide implications for the environment, ani-mal and human health and food quality and safety when they enter the food chain (Altieri 1999; Dorne and Fink‐Gremmels 2013). Organic agriculture influences the impact of the nitrogen cycle, as chemical fertilizers are not used. Further, organic farm-ing can provide the required control strategies for the certification process along the entire production chain (Castellini et al. 2006). Moreover, it is a well‐accepted fact that crop rotation using leguminous cover crops can be highly effective and can fix adequate amounts of nitrogen in the soil from the atmosphere. An overview of an organic and a conventional production system is provided by Nakajima and Ortega (2015). It high-lights various components involved in the system (Figure 1.3 and Figure 1.4). Researchers

SeedsOrganicsFertilizers

Electricityandfuel

Othermaterials

LaborExternalservices

Environmentalservices

PropertyFamily

Generalinfra

structure

InfrastructureWater

lake

Food

Greenhouse

Bed

SeedingSun

Wind Native localpreserved area

Regionalcooperative

VegetablemarketTransportPacking

Composting

$

Organiccompound

Rain

Figure 1.3 Organic production diagram. Source: Nakajima, E. S. and Ortega. E. 2015. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.