Sustainable Management of Groundwater in India

Department of Business Economics

Submitted by

Prakash MRichard Sarkar

ChaitanyaVardan Singh

Abstract

In this project, sustainable management of ground water in India is analyzed. By understanding

the sources of ground water and the factors depleting the water sources, we analyzed the current

situation in some parts of India and the exploitation of ground water sources by industries is

analyzed. Few cases of Coca Cola’s plants’ exploitation in Rajasthan and few other states are

also analyzed. To attain sustainable ground water management, few government policies,

government initiatives against industrial purpose, macro policy recommendations, modern

ground water bill, cropping patterns are reviewed. Few micro recommendations are also drawn

towards ground water sustainability.

1. Introduction:

The Basics Of Groundwater Science

Groundwater

Water held underground in the soil or in pores and crevices in rock. Groundwater makes up to

20% of worlds fresh water supply.

Water exists as a solid (ice), liquid, or gas (water vapour). Oceans, rivers, clouds, and rain all

contain water, and all are in a continuous state of change. Surface water evaporates, cloud water

precipitates, and rainfall infiltrates the ground. Despite its various dynamic states, the total

volume of water on earth has remained virtually unchanged for the last three billion years, at

roughly 1.4 billion km3 (Powell, 1997; Shiklomanov, 2000). Of course, the distribution of water

on earth varies; some locations have an abundance while others have very little. Of the total

volume of water, about 97.5 per cent is saline; of the remaining 2.5 per cent, about two-thirds is

isolated in polar ice and glaciers, and almost all of the remaining one-third is buried

underground. The remaining surface-water fraction, which is our traditional source of freshwater,

amounts to only about 0.3 per cent of the planet’s freshwater (Gleick, 1996). The circulation and

conservation of the Earth’s water is called the ‘hydrological cycle’

The Hydrological Cycle Solar energy continuously transfers water among the hydrosphere,

biosphere, lithosphere, cryosphere and atmosphere in a process that is governed by a water

balance. The water balance is an accounting of the water flowing in and out of a defined area in a

given time. The area could be an urban garden or the St. Lawrence River watershed. Although at

any given moment all the water in the global water balance must add up to the 1.4 billion km3

total, some segments of the cycle are moving very slowly, specifically deeper groundwater and

glaciers. They are considered ‘stored water’ as their volumes are replaced only over very long

time frames. Other segments of the cycle, precipitation and rivers for example, are considered

‘flowing water’ because they are replenished almost on a daily basis.

Evaporation of surface water by the warmth of the sun drives the cycle. Surface-water features

such as oceans, lakes, and rivers provide approximately 90 per cent of the moisture in the

atmosphere via solar evaporation; the remaining 10 per cent is evaporated by plants through

transpiration. Evaporation is controlled by the energy supply of the environment and is expected

to increase with climate change where water supply permits. At any given time, it is estimated

that almost 13,000 km3 of water is present in the atmosphere, or roughly 0.001 per cent of the

earth’s total volume of water. Precipitation occurs as water vapour cools and eventually

condenses, usually on tiny particles of dust in the atmosphere. It is estimated that approximately

45,000 km3 of precipitation falls on the global landmass each year.

Rainfall or snowmelt in excess of evapotranspiration and infiltration produces runoff to

wetlands, streams and lakes. A fraction of the precipitation water infiltrates into the ground. The

rate of infiltration depends on soil type, soil moisture content, slope steepness and the presence

of cracks or fractures in the ground. The rate of infiltration and the runoff and evaporation

patterns determine, on a local basis, the fraction of water applied to the surface that moves

through the soil to become groundwater. Thus groundwater is the residual from precipitation,

after evapotranspiration and runoff have been accounted for.

Groundwater represents the largest stock of freshwater in the global water cycle, although it is

estimated that somewhat less than half of this volume is freshwater, the rest being in deeper

saline aquifers. Only about three per cent of total groundwater is active in the hydrological cycle

on an annual basis (Gleick, 1996).

Water cycle is the source of groundwater, which is unseen but very important.

Aquifier:

An aquifer is a layer of porous substrate that contains and transmits groundwater.

2. Relevance in India:

Groundwater in India

Monitoring of ground water regime is an effort to obtain information on ground water levels and

chemical quality through representative sampling. The important attributes of ground water

regime monitoring are ground water level, ground water quality and temperature. The primary

objective of establishing the ground water monitoring network stations is to record the response

of ground water regime to the natural and anthropogenic stresses of recharge and discharge

parameters with reference to geology, climate, physiography, land use pattern and hydrologic

characteristics. The natural conditions affecting the regime involve climatic parameters like

rainfall, evapotranspiration etc., whereas anthropogenic influences include pumpage from the

aquifer, recharge due to irrigation systems and other practices like waste disposal etc.

Number of monitoring stations: 12,492

Factors contributing to groundwater

• gravity is the dominating driving force

• water flows from high elevation to low elevation and from high pressure to low pressure,

gradients in potential energy (hydraulic head) drive groundwater flow

• recharge and discharge

• in recharge areas water is added to groundwater

• in discharge areas water is lost from groundwater

• in recharge (discharge) areas, the hydraulic head decreases (increases) with depth

• recharge occurs from the unsaturated zone or from surface waters

• groundwater discharge occurs into rivers, lakes, springs, or by evapotranspiration

Groundwater recharge

Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process where water

moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method that water

enters an aquifer.

3. ANALYSIS:

A Case Study on Over-depletion of Ground-Water Resource by Coca Cola in Kaladera,

Rajasthan

Overview:

Kala Dera is a large village outside the city of Jaipur. Agriculture is the primary source of

livelihood.

Coca-Cola started its bottling operations in Kala Dera in 2004, and within a year, the

community started to notice a rapid decline in groundwater levels.

Groundwater levels in Kala Dera, the site of CocaCola's controversial bottling plant in

India, have plummeted 5.83 meters (19 feet) in just one year between May 2007 and May

2008, according to government data obtained by the India Resource Center from the

Central Groundwater Board.

The area of Kala Dera has also been declared a drought area by the government, adding

to the water shortages in the area.

Adding further to the severe water crisis as a result of dropping groundwater levels and

drought are Coca Cola’s bottling operations. The company reaches peak production

capacity in the summer months using the most amount of water exactly when the water

shortages for the community are the most pronounced.

Farmers and the community in the Kala Dera area rely largely on the groundwater

resource to meet all their water needs, the same source of water used by Coca Cola for its

bottling operations.

(Pic: Wells go dry at Kaladera as there is a clash over competing water uses – Agriculture

and industrial- Coca Cola plant)

Community response in Kaladera against Coca Cola

"The Coca-Cola company is denying our fundamental human right to water by

continuing to extract groundwater from a rapidly falling aquifer. Every drop of water that

Coca-Cola extracts from the groundwater is water taken away from the children, women

and men who are unable to meet their basic water needs, leave alone the farmers who are

seeing their crops fail,"

- (Mahesh Yogi of the Kala Dera Sangharsh Samiti, a local community group in

Kala Dera opposing Coca-Cola since 2002.)

"Coca-Cola's operations in Kala Dera are an assault on the community. The community

has primary rights over groundwater, and meeting basic water needs such as drinking and

for agriculture have to be met first. We have drought in Kala Dera and accessing water is

extremely difficult for people. Coca-Cola has no place here. They must shut down."

- (Sawai Singh of the Jan Sangharsh Samiti who had petitioned the Rajasthan state

government, including Chief Minister Ashok Gehlot, seeking closure orders on the

bottling plant.)

"Coca-Cola's continued operations in Kala Dera are criminal. Water levels have

plummeted because of Coca-Cola, the rains have been deficient, the area is experiencing

drought, people have no drinking water, farmers have no water to cultivate their land and

have lost their livelihoods, yet Coca-Cola continues to withdraw millions of liters of

groundwater to make Coca-Cola. And if those weren't enough reasons to shut down the

plant, Coca-Cola's own study has recommended closure of the bottling plant. All the

signs point towards one resolution - shut down the Coca-Cola bottling plant in Kala

Dera."

-(Amit Srivastava of the India Resource Center, an international campaigning

organization that works with the community in Kala Dera to oppose the plant.)

Coca-Cola's Outrageous Claims in response to allegations

1. When Coca-Cola was asked to verify the actual numbers behind its claim of recharging

six times the amount of water in Kala Dera, Coca-Cola admits it does not have metering

mechanisms to measure how much water is recharged.

2. Using their 2004 actual groundwater usage in Kala Dera, Coca-Cola's claims of

recharging six times the amount of groundwater it used in Kala Dera translates into

recharging about 1.3 billion liters of water annually - just in Kala Dera alone. It is enough

water to meet the basic drinking water needs for a million people - for an entire year! If

Coca-Cola's claims are to be believed, there would be no water shortages in the area.

3. Precipitously falling groundwater levels in Kala Dera, particularly since Coca-Cola began

operations in Kala Dera in 2000, suggest a massive depletion of groundwater, and not a

recharge or replenishment, as Coca-Cola claims. Coca-Cola's claims contradicted

government data on groundwater levels.

4. There is not enough rainfal in the Kala Dera area to meet such ambitious water recharge

numbers given the number of rainwater harvesting structures set up by Coca-Cola. Kala

Dera receives less that 600 mm of rain annually under normal circumstances and it is a

drought prone area. Nine of the last twenty six years have been drought years.

5. About 80% of the rainfall in Kala Dera falls in a matter of 3 to 4 days, according to Dr.

M. S. Rathore, a natural resource expert on Kala Dera who is deeply skeptical of Coca-

Cola's claims. Under such rainfall patterns, Coca-Cola's claims become even more

exaggerated because it suggests that they are recharging just over 1 billion liters of water

in just a matter of four days. Such a feat is impossible, especially in Kala Dera.

6. All of Coca-Cola's rainwater harvesting structures in and around Kala Dera are in

"dilapidated" conditions, according to the 2008 TERI study the company paid for.

(Graph showingRapid decline of Ground Water in Kaladera since installation of plant in

2000)

(Image showing Groundwater stressed blocks of India and Kaladera’s status in the stressed

blocks)

Other similar cases of Ground water exploitation by Coca Cola plants in India

1) Plachimada, Kerala:

The single largest CocaCola bottling plant in India, in Plachimada, Kerala, remains shut

down since March 2004. Initially ordered to shut down until June 15 (for arrival of

monsoon rains) by the state government to ease drought conditions, the Plachimada

bottling plant has been unable to open because the local village council (panchayat) is

refusing to reissue CocaCola a license to operate.

The village council has maintained that the plant needs to shut down because it has

destroyed the water system in the area as well as polluted the area. The struggle in

Plachimada is the oldest struggle against CocaCola in India and there has been a 24/7

vigil directly in front of the factory gates since April 22, 2002. The struggle in

Plachimada has also enjoyed significant victories.

In December 2003, the High court, in an extremely significant decision, ruled that

CocaCola HAD to seek alternative sources of water and that it could extract only as much

water from the common groundwater resource as a farmer owning 34 acres of land could.

The justification being that the plant is located on 34 acres. Furthermore, the court held

that the groundwater belonged to the people and the Government had no right to allow a

private party to extract such a huge quantity of ground water which was "a property held

by it in trust''.

13) Mehdiganj, Uttar Pradesh

More so than other struggles against CocaCola in India, the communities in Mehdiganj, a

village about 20 kms from the holy city of Varanasi, have more of an uphill battle

because the local and state officials are turning a blind eye to the concerns of the

communities. So far the water table has declined between 2540 feet in the last four years,

and CocaCola has been discharging its waste water into the surrounding fields, and now

into a canal that feeds into the river Ganges, a holy river for millions of Indian. The

landscape is very rural, and farming is the main source of livelihood in the area. Many

farmers have yet to be compensated for the land that was taken from them in order to

build the CocaCola bottling facility.

The movement to shut down the CocaCola plant has been growing rapidly for the last

year. In August 2003, community members entered the office of the Regional Pollution

Control Board in Varanasi, and to protest their inaction, dumped sacks full of sludge from

the CocaCola plant on the table of the regional officer. In September 2003, over 500

people marched to the CocaCola factory gates and were physically attacked and beaten

by police and private security guards. In October 2003, a march was organized from the

Coke plant in Mehdiganj to a Pepsi plant in Jaunpur, about 150 km away. And in mid

December 2003, ten activists went on a Five day hunger strike in front of the plant. They

were supported by fifty people sitting with them each day, and about 300 people went on

hunger strikes of varied duration. And in June 2004, hundreds conducted a sitting in front

of the state assembly in Lucknow.

(Farmer Urmila Vishwakarma stands for a photograph near the Coca Cola Co. bottling

plant in Mehediganj, Varanasi. Vishwakarma said she takes water from 240 feet down,

versus 65 feet in prior years. “Our biggest battle is for water,” she said. “Our situation has

become critical.” Photographer: Prashanth Vishwanathan/Bloomberg)

Coca-Cola finally shuts down plant at Kala Dera, Rajasthan due to exhaustion of

Groundwater level

In February 2016, CocaCola India has stopped production at three plants ahead of the

peak summer season, citing inadequate demand, including one in Kaladera, Rajasthan

where activists have alleged water depletion. The other plants that were shut are in

Andhra Pradesh and Meghalaya.

Activist body India Resource Center (IRC) had said Wednesday that one of the primary

reasons for the closure of the Kaladera plant in Jaipur was the increased difficulty in

accessing groundwater from a depleted aquifer, in addition to incurring financial losses.

Activist group IRC said it has proof that a CocaCola representative told workers that

production at Kaladera was shut down on January 25, 2016, and there is no possibility of

resuming in the future, the plant has incurred financial losses, the availability of

groundwater and raw materials has become difficult and that the plant will now serve as a

storage and distribution centre.

(Newspaper extract from Economic Times- dated 11th February, 2016- stating the closure

decision of Coca Cola plant in Kaladera)

Sustainability Initiatives taken by Government of India against Ground water depletion for

Industrial purpose

Until late 2015 now, it was mandatory for all new industries to apply f or an NOC. But

following November 2015 Government order, when the revised guidelines came into

effect, all existing industries were also directed to obtain NOC. "All existing industries or

projects which are drawing ground water and have not obtained NOC for groundwater

withdrawal either due to its coming into existence prior to formation of CGWA or due to

exemption from obtaining NOC as per earlier guidelines shall apply to CGWA f or NOC

f or groundwater withdrawal with immediate eff ect," the new guidelines stated.

The applications can be submitted online and the grant of NOC will be considered as per

prevailing guidelines. The processing fee for every new NOC is Rs 1000 and Rs 500 for

renewal of NOC. It would be also mandatory for industries to submit water quality report

of effluents.

(Newspaper extract from Times of India-dated 18th November 2015- stating CGWA order

to take NOC for industrial use of Groundwater)

Defining Ground Water Vulnerability:

From the data of Central Groundwater Board, (district level data sets 1995 and 2004) below are

the states with unsustainable levels

State Annual

Replenishable

Ground water

resource

Net Avalability Net Draft Net draft/Net

Availability*100

Haryana 9.31 8.63 9.45 109

Punjab 23.78 21.44 31.16 145

Rajasthan 11.56 10.38 12.99 125

Note: Water measurement in Billion Cubic Metres(BCM)

Policy Recommendations:

4. Policy and legal framework for groundwater management

National Water Policy

The main policies affecting groundwater management are the 1998 National Water Policy

(NWP) and the 2002 amended version. Both have no statutory status, and thus cannot be legally

enforced. They are the outcome of intensive political discussions. State governments could find

them useful in developing their own water policies by adapting them to their specific agro-

climatic and socioeconomic characteristics leading to the implementation of the Expert Group

recommendations:

Water resources should be managed in the context of the environment, ecology,

sustainability, equity, social justice, conservation, participation of stakeholders, and role of

women.

There should be a periodical reassessment of the groundwater potential on a scientific basis,

taking into consideration the quality of the water available and economic viability of its

extraction.

The abstraction of groundwater resources should be regulated so as not to exceed the safe

yield while ensuring social equity.

The detrimental environmental consequences of over-abstraction of groundwater need to be

prevented by the central and state governments.

Groundwater recharge projects should be developed and implemented for improving both the

quality and availability of groundwater resources.

Integrated and coordinated development of surface water and groundwater resources and

their conjunctive use should be considered from the project planning stage, and should form

an integral part of project implementation.

Over-abstraction of groundwater should be avoided, especially near the coast, to prevent

ingress of seawater into freshwater aquifers.

Both surface water and groundwater should be regularly monitored for quality.

A phased program should be undertaken for improvements in water quality.

For effective and economical management of India’s water resources, there needs to be

considerable improvement in knowledge by intensifying research efforts in various areas.

Legal framework

Groundwater in the Indian legal system falls within a complex, multilayered framework,

consisting of a range of constitutional and statutory provisions at the central and state levels.

The right to groundwater has traditionally been seen as following the right to land, based on the

Indian Easements Act of 1882. However, this long-established ―real property groundwater right

is challenged by the emerging public interest dimension of groundwater use. In 1996, the

Supreme Court, ruling under the Environment (Protection) Act (1986), instructed the

government of India to establish the Central Groundwater Authority (CGWA) to regulate and

control groundwater development with a view to preserving and protecting this resource. The

decisions made in a more recent case involving the Coca-Cola Company also affirm the

government’s right and obligation to protect groundwater under the right to life guaranteed by

the Constitution of India.

The Constitution lists “water supplies “ which is understood to include groundwater under the

state List, thereby giving the states jurisdiction to regulate and control groundwater. However,

the central government also has a concurrent power to make laws with respect to any matter for

any part of the territory of India. Accordingly, the central government has sought to support

states in a pragmatic way through the issuance of the Model Groundwater Bill.

Model Groundwater Bill

The rationale for the bill is to provide a template for consideration by state governments, which

can modify and adopt it according to their needs. It was first developed in 1970 and has

subsequently been revised and circulated many times. Among other things, the bill recommends

the establishment and empowerment of some form of ―state groundwater management agency,

and registration and control of at least the larger groundwater users. It is important to note that

only a handful of states have enacted groundwater legislation based on the bill.

Institutions and capacity for groundwater management and protection

Through the National Environmental Policy and National Water Policy, the central government

is expected to play a role in the direction of groundwater development and management in the

country. The Central Groundwater Authority (CGWA) is charged with the regulation and

development of groundwater as a prime natural resource of national importance. The CGWA

includes the representative of and is headed by the chair of the Central Groundwater Board

(CGWB), which is a dedicated groundwater research/resource assessment and monitoring

agency on the national level(under the Ministry of Water Resources). The CGWB provides

support to the State Groundwater Boards (SGBs), who are responsible for these activities on the

state level.

In addition to the CGWA and CGWB, the various agencies at different levels in the government

that are important actors in groundwater development and use are shown in Table . This large

number of agency players impacting a vital resource without effective coordination or regulatory

oversight translates into a significant governance challenge for groundwater management in

India. Other challenges are:

The roles and responsibilities between state and central groundwater institutions are not

sufficiently defined.

The CGWA’s rules for regulation, development, and management of the resource are still

pending approval and many states have reservations regarding its mandate given that

groundwater is primarily a state subject.

Although the CGWA and CGB have the potential to become champions of sustainable

groundwater management in India, the continued lack of clarity over their status and chronic

understaffing means central government institutions cannot properly fulfil their functions and

effectively support state agencies.

Source: WORLD BANK

Financing

Given the millions of water wells in India mainly drilled, operated, and maintained by private

users and the scant institutional enforcement capacity, it cannot currently be expected that users

can contribute toward groundwater management costs. There is, however, an outstanding issue

that merits discussion: the ―groundwater-energy nexus, and one possible way forward through

up-scaling where feasible Gujarat’s promising Jyotigram Scheme.

In recent years, the excessive consumption of electricity by Indian agriculture (currently a

colossal 87,000 GWhr) has been hotly debated and remains a critical topic for the nation’s

future. Most electricity consumed by agriculture goes to ―pumping groundwater, or at least

trying to pump groundwater. Energy-supply policy (especially the level and effectiveness of

rural electrification) and pricing (especially the adoption of flat-rate tariffs according to pump

capacity) have exerted a great influence on groundwater use for irrigated agriculture, but there

are major differences among various Indian regions .For example, some areas (much of Gujarat,

Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh) have high coverage of rural electrification and the supply

(although intermittent) is ―sufficiently predictable overall‖ for farmers to rely exclusively on

pumpsets driven by electric engines, which receive a major subsidy via ―flat-rate tariffs and pay

only 20 percent of the cost of the energy consumed. In other areas (such as much of Rajasthan

and Uttar Pradesh) where rural electrification is more limited and/or where service levels are

poor, farmers depend much more on diesel-engined pump sets, paying higher use-related rates

for energy consumption.

The widespread depletion of groundwater over the last 10–15 years due to intensive abstraction

for irrigated agriculture has become a major concern. In many areas, this has occurred more-or-

less year-on-year, except for a partial (but temporary) recovery following years of exceptional

monsoon rainfall. Depletion of the resource base has already had other impacts, such as yield

failure or quality deterioration in public-supply water wells. Flat-rate electricity tariffs are not the

primary cause of excessive groundwater exploitation and declining water level, because this

condition also occurs in areas where farmers use diesel-engined pumpsets. Moreover, energy

consumption (even without subsidy) represents only a minor proportion of total crop production

costs. The underlying reason is the growth of dry-season abstraction for crop irrigation to levels

well beyond the average rate of aquifer replenishment from monsoon rainfall.

Framework for Sustainable Management:

• Mapping aquifiers incorporating variations in hydrogeological

• Mapping should take place at the scale of watershed of the order 1000-200 0 hectares

(Tamilnadu, 13 million hectares , 60000 points)

• Maps can be aggregated at a more regional scale rather than move down

• Aggregated village level data support to take informed decisions

• Informed decisions

Protection of the recharge area

controlling the depth and spacing of wells

regulating capacity and efficiency of pumps used

Water saving irrigation methods

Regulating of cropping pattern – drip irrigation

Government subsidies – electricity , pumps

Combine with programmes MGNREGA, IWMP, Artificial recharge

• Ground water quality

Salinity

Specific to aquifier

Estimation of ground water recharge

Rainfall, canal seepage, return flow from irrigation,rivers

Cropping Pattern

The below photos shows the cultivation of Maize, Groundnut and Paddy. Among these paddy

will require more water to cultivate. We have to choose the right crop to cultivate according to

the rainfall and canal water availability.

We have mentioned this because, in village over exploitation of ground water is undertaken to

cultivate these crops. Government should intervene and water saving irrigation methods should

be taught to the farmers like drip irrigation and right choice of crops should be cultivated. This

not only saves water but also sustainability of water will be maintained.

Micro Recommendations:

Policy Area Description

Current situation and action

needed

Crop Policy

Food crop procurement – purchases

and price guarantees

MSP – water intensive crops

like paddy

Subsidies on inputs Electricity

Free for irrigation pumping –

realistic tested measures req

Moisture management – mulching,

composting Project and Pilot support

Recharge Programs Rainwater harvesting and recharge

Challenge is maintenance,

farmers investment and link to

demand management

Policy Area Description Current situation and action

Maize Cultivation Groundnut Cultivation Paddy Cultivation

needed

Sand and gravel mining

Key in storing flood water and

in recharge, uncontrolled to

controlled state

Land use planning

Protection of recharge areas,

Housing, Solid waste disposal

Houses with roof water

collection, waste seal to

prevent contamination

REFERENCE

Central Ground Water Board. 2005. Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Ground

Water in India. New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry ofWater Resources

(http://cgwb.gov.in/documents/MASTER%20PLAN%20Final-2002.pdf, accessed May

16, 2009)

Bhatia, R. 2005. Water and Growth. Washington, DC: World Bank

Planning Commission. Report of the Expert Group on Groundwater Management and

ownership. New Delhi: GoI