SUPPORT & MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS Why is locomotion important to animals? escape unfavourable conditions...

SUPPORT & MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS Why is locomotion important to animals? escape unfavourable conditions To escape unfavourable conditions, e.g. predators, food To find food; seek mates To seek mates; disperse To disperse to new habitats; seek favourable environments To seek favourable environments; e.g. shelter Why is locomotion important to animals? escape unfavourable conditions To escape unfavourable conditions, e.g. predators, food To find food; seek mates To seek mates; disperse To disperse to new habitats; seek favourable environments To seek favourable environments; e.g. shelter

Locomotion in Unicellular Organisms Involves using; Pseudopodi Pseudopodia e.g. amoeba. flagellum flagellum e.g. Trypanosoma spp. cilia cilia e.g. Paramecium spp. Involves using; Pseudopodi Pseudopodia e.g. amoeba. flagellum flagellum e.g. Trypanosoma spp. cilia cilia e.g. Paramecium spp.

Locomotion in Multicellular organisms Requires; Muscles Muscles, a contractile tissue, which provide a source of power Skeleton Skeleton, on which muscles can act to bring movement Requires; Muscles Muscles, a contractile tissue, which provide a source of power Skeleton Skeleton, on which muscles can act to bring movement

Types of Skeleton Hydrostatic (hydraulic), Exoskeleton, Exoskeleton, Endoskeleton, Endoskeleton, Hydrostatic (hydraulic), Exoskeleton, Exoskeleton, Endoskeleton, Endoskeleton,

Hydrostatic (hydraulic) Mechanical support is provided by an internal fluid-filled system. E.g. most invertebrates like earthworm, leeches, caterpillars and maggots. Mechanical support is provided by an internal fluid-filled system. E.g. most invertebrates like earthworm, leeches, caterpillars and maggots.

arthropodschitin E.g. arthropods made of chitin, Exoskeleton forms a hard casing Exoskeleton forms a hard casing enclosing the softer tissues of the arthropod body, antagonistic muscles, Jointed limbs movements are due to antagonistic muscles, attached internally, The Muscles are attached internally, arthropodschitin E.g. arthropods made of chitin, Exoskeleton forms a hard casing Exoskeleton forms a hard casing enclosing the softer tissues of the arthropod body, antagonistic muscles, Jointed limbs movements are due to antagonistic muscles, attached internally, The Muscles are attached internally,

Endoskeleton E.g. chordates made up of; bones, cartilage tissue, cartilage tissue, made up of; bones, cartilage tissue, cartilage tissue,

General Functions of the Endoskeleton The Endoskeleton has nine main functions: Provide shape and support, Provide shape and support, Provide Attachment, Provide Attachment, Provide a frame work for Movement, Provide a frame work for Movement, Provide Protection, Provide Protection, Site of Blood cell production, Site of Blood cell production, Provide Storage, Provide Storage, Involved in pH buffering, Involved in pH buffering, Involved in Detoxification, Involved in Detoxification, Involved in Sound transduction, Involved in Sound transduction, The Endoskeleton has nine main functions: Provide shape and support, Provide shape and support, Provide Attachment, Provide Attachment, Provide a frame work for Movement, Provide a frame work for Movement, Provide Protection, Provide Protection, Site of Blood cell production, Site of Blood cell production, Provide Storage, Provide Storage, Involved in pH buffering, Involved in pH buffering, Involved in Detoxification, Involved in Detoxification, Involved in Sound transduction, Involved in Sound transduction,

The Mammalian Skeleton

axial skeleton The axial skeleton has five areas; Skull, Skull, Ossicles bones, Ossicles bones, Hyoid bone in the throat, Hyoid bone in the throat, Vertebral column, Vertebral column, Chest, Chest, The axial skeleton has five areas; Skull, Skull, Ossicles bones, Ossicles bones, Hyoid bone in the throat, Hyoid bone in the throat, Vertebral column, Vertebral column, Chest, Chest,

Appendicular Skeleton

Skull The Skull: Consists of cranium, facial bones and two jaws, At the base of the cranium, are occipital condyles which articulate with the first vertebral bone, atlas, The Skull: Consists of cranium, facial bones and two jaws, At the base of the cranium, are occipital condyles which articulate with the first vertebral bone, atlas, Functions of the Skull; Mechanical protection of brain & sensory organs. Upper & lower jaws used for chewing food.

Front view & Lateral view of Human skull Cranium bones include; Nasal bones, Frontal bones, Parietal bones, Temporal bones, Zygomatic arches, Occipital bones, Cranium bones include; Nasal bones, Frontal bones, Parietal bones, Temporal bones, Zygomatic arches, Occipital bones,

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN Backbone consists of Vertebrae (Singular- vertebra) grouped into; Cervical vertebrae Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae, Thoracic vertebrae, Lumbar vertebrae, Lumbar vertebrae, Sacral vertebrae, Sacral vertebrae, Caudal vertebrae (coccyx), Caudal vertebrae (coccyx), Backbone consists of Vertebrae (Singular- vertebra) grouped into; Cervical vertebrae Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae, Thoracic vertebrae, Lumbar vertebrae, Lumbar vertebrae, Sacral vertebrae, Sacral vertebrae, Caudal vertebrae (coccyx), Caudal vertebrae (coccyx),

A TYPICAL VERTEBRA A main parts of typical vertebra; neural canal neural canal- passage of spinal cord, Neural arch Neural arch- surrounds neural canal, Neural spine- Neural spine- projects upwards/dorsally, Centrum Centrum (plural-centra)- ventrally located and fits into intervertebral discs on both sides Transverse processes Transverse processes- on either side of neural arch, Zygapophyses Zygapophyses (singular- zygapophysis)- articulation smooth facets with adjacent vertebra, A main parts of typical vertebra; neural canal neural canal- passage of spinal cord, Neural arch Neural arch- surrounds neural canal, Neural spine- Neural spine- projects upwards/dorsally, Centrum Centrum (plural-centra)- ventrally located and fits into intervertebral discs on both sides Transverse processes Transverse processes- on either side of neural arch, Zygapophyses Zygapophyses (singular- zygapophysis)- articulation smooth facets with adjacent vertebra,

Cervical Vertebrae Comprising of ; 1 st Cervical vertebra (Atlas vertebra), 2 nd Cervical vertebra (Axis vertebra), 3 rd -7 th cervical vertebrae, Comprising of ; 1 st Cervical vertebra (Atlas vertebra), 2 nd Cervical vertebra (Axis vertebra), 3 rd -7 th cervical vertebrae,

Distinguishing features of cervical vertebrae All 7 cervical vertebrae have; vertebrarterial canals, transverse processes flattened out to form cervical ribs, large neural cavity, small centrum, All 7 cervical vertebrae have; vertebrarterial canals, transverse processes flattened out to form cervical ribs, large neural cavity, small centrum,

Atlas vertebra dorsal view Features of the Atlas vertebra; Very large Neural canal, Prominent cervical ribs (transverse processes), Large hollow facets (articulate with occipital condyles) Reduced centrum, Reduced neural spine, Large Postzygapophyses to articulate with prezygapophyses of axis, Features of the Atlas vertebra; Very large Neural canal, Prominent cervical ribs (transverse processes), Large hollow facets (articulate with occipital condyles) Reduced centrum, Reduced neural spine, Large Postzygapophyses to articulate with prezygapophyses of axis,

Atlas anterior view Showing the articulation surface with the occipital condyles of the skull

Atlas posterior view

Axis vertebra lateral view Features of Axis vertebra; Large centrum forming Odontoid process, large neural spine, large neural spine, Flat cervical ribs, Flat cervical ribs, postzygapophyse s postzygapophyse s Features of Axis vertebra; Large centrum forming Odontoid process, large neural spine, large neural spine, Flat cervical ribs, Flat cervical ribs, postzygapophyse s postzygapophyse s

Axis Vertebra Anterior view

Axis Vertebra posterior view

3 rd 7 th Cervical vertebra anterior view All 7 cervical vertebrae have; vertebrarterial canals, transverse processes flattened out to form cervical ribs, large neural cavity, small centrum, All 7 cervical vertebrae have; vertebrarterial canals, transverse processes flattened out to form cervical ribs, large neural cavity, small centrum,

3 rd -7 th Cervical vertebrae Posterior view

Adaptations of cervical vertebrae broad neural arch for protection of the spinal cord. forked and short transverse processes for the attachment of neck muscles. Atlas has broad surfaces for articulation with the occipital condyles of the skull to permit nodding movement of the skull. vertebrarterial canals for passage of neck blood vessels and nerves. broad neural arch for protection of the spinal cord. forked and short transverse processes for the attachment of neck muscles. Atlas has broad surfaces for articulation with the occipital condyles of the skull to permit nodding movement of the skull. vertebrarterial canals for passage of neck blood vessels and nerves.

continued Axis has odontoid process; a projection of the centrum to permit rotator movement of the skull. The odontoid process acts as a pivot; for the atlas and skull. short neural spine for attachment of neck muscles. wide neural canal for passage of the enlarged spinal cord. Axis has odontoid process; a projection of the centrum to permit rotator movement of the skull. The odontoid process acts as a pivot; for the atlas and skull. short neural spine for attachment of neck muscles. wide neural canal for passage of the enlarged spinal cord.

Thoracic Vertebrae (lateral view) Distinguishing features of a thoracic vertebra; Long neural spine projecting upwards & backwards, Short transverse processes, Tubercular facet (on ventral side of transverse processes), Capitular demi-facet, Other features; Large centrum, Large neural canal, Prezygapophyses, Postzygapophyses, Neural canal, Distinguishing features of a thoracic vertebra; Long neural spine projecting upwards & backwards, Short transverse processes, Tubercular facet (on ventral side of transverse processes), Capitular demi-facet, Other features; Large centrum, Large neural canal, Prezygapophyses, Postzygapophyses, Neural canal,

Thoracic vertebra Anterior view

Adaptations of thoracic vertebrae neural arch for protection of the spinal cord. centrum for attachment of the transverse processes. pre and post zygapophyses facets for articulation with those of the next vertebrae. neural arch for protection of the spinal cord. centrum for attachment of the transverse processes. pre and post zygapophyses facets for articulation with those of the next vertebrae.

Continued tubercular and capitular facets for articulation with the tuberculum and capitulum of the rib, reduced transverse processes for attachment of muscles, long neural spine for attachment of the back muscles, tubercular and capitular facets for articulation with the tuberculum and capitulum of the rib, reduced transverse processes for attachment of muscles, long neural spine for attachment of the back muscles,

Lumbar Vertebrae (Anterior view) Distinguishing features of a lumbar vertebra; Broad neural spine pointing upwards & forward, Large, thick centrum, (supporting the weight of the animal), Large transverse processes, (abdominal muscle attachment), Metapophyses, (abdominal muscle attachment), Anapophyses, (abdominal muscle attachment), Hypapophyses, (abdominal muscle attachment), Distinguishing features of a lumbar vertebra; Broad neural spine pointing upwards & forward, Large, thick centrum, (supporting the weight of the animal), Large transverse processes, (abdominal muscle attachment), Metapophyses, (abdominal muscle attachment), Anapophyses, (abdominal muscle attachment), Hypapophyses, (abdominal muscle attachment),

Lumbar vertebrae (anterior & lateral view)

Lumbar Vertebra Dorsal view

Lumbar vertebra posterior view

Rabbits Lumbar vertebra lateral view

Lumbar vertebrae (anterior & lateral view)

Adaptation of lumbar broad neural spine for attachment of powerful back and abdominal muscles. long and well developed transverse processes for attachment of muscles that maintain posture and flexes the spine. metapophyses projections provide additional surface for muscle attachment. broad neural spine for attachment of powerful back and abdominal muscles. long and well developed transverse processes for attachment of muscles that maintain posture and flexes the spine. metapophyses projections provide additional surface for muscle attachment.

continued hypapophyes projections provide additional surface for muscle attachment. Thick and compact centrum for support. pre and post zygapophyses for articulation between the vertebrae hypapophyes projections provide additional surface for muscle attachment. Thick and compact centrum for support. pre and post zygapophyses for articulation between the vertebrae

SACRAL VERTEBRAE (Ventral view) Distinguishing features of Sacral vertebrae; sacral vertebrae are fused to form, sacrum, 1 st Sacral vertebrae transverse processes are large & fused with the pelvic girdle, Numerous foramen (canals), Reduced metapophyses, Large centrum, Narrow neural canal, neural spine reduce posteriorly, Distinguishing features of Sacral vertebrae; sacral vertebrae are fused to form, sacrum, 1 st Sacral vertebrae transverse processes are large & fused with the pelvic girdle, Numerous foramen (canals), Reduced metapophyses, Large centrum, Narrow neural canal, neural spine reduce posteriorly,

Sacral vertebrae Sacrum dorsal View Sacrum lateral view

Adaptations of the Sacral Vertebrae Numerous canals for passage of blood vessels and nerves, Sacral vertebrae are fused to provide strength and firmness, Numerous canals for passage of blood vessels and nerves, Sacral vertebrae are fused to provide strength and firmness,

continued The 1 st sacral vertebra has well developed transverse processes, which are fused to the pelvic girdle to provide support and mechanical protection to lower abdomen organs. The 1 st sacral vertebra has Large neural spine & transverse processes provide attachment to lower back & thigh muscles, The 1 st sacral vertebra has well developed transverse processes, which are fused to the pelvic girdle to provide support and mechanical protection to lower abdomen organs. The 1 st sacral vertebra has Large neural spine & transverse processes provide attachment to lower back & thigh muscles,

Coccyx (caudal) vertebrae Consists of four coccygeal vertebrae, Neural spine, transverse processes & neural canal reduced, Consists of four coccygeal vertebrae, Neural spine, transverse processes & neural canal reduced,

Ribs Twelve ribs; Seven true ribs, Three False ribs, Two floating, The rib has two parts; Vertebral part; bearing tuberculum & capitulum,, Sternal part; Twelve ribs; Seven true ribs, Three False ribs, Two floating, The rib has two parts; Vertebral part; bearing tuberculum & capitulum,, Sternal part;

Rib cage

sternum Consists of three sections; Manubrium articulates with 1 st two pairs of ribs, Body articulates to ribs 3 rd -7 th, Xiphoid cartilage supports abdominal muscles, Consists of three sections; Manubrium articulates with 1 st two pairs of ribs, Body articulates to ribs 3 rd -7 th, Xiphoid cartilage supports abdominal muscles,

Appendicular Skeleton Forelimb & Pectoral Girdle Hind limb & Pelvic girdle Appendicular Skeleton

Pectoral girdle & Forelimb Scapula (Shoulder blade) Clavicle (collar bone) Pectoral Girdle

Scapula Adaptations of the scapula; Spine; large surface area for shoulder muscles attachment, Acromion; for clavicle articulation & muscle attachment, Glenoid cavity; form a ball socket joint with head of humerus, Adaptations of the scapula; Spine; large surface area for shoulder muscles attachment, Acromion; for clavicle articulation & muscle attachment, Glenoid cavity; form a ball socket joint with head of humerus,

Forelimb humerus Radius & ulna forelimb

Humerus Humerus; proximal end has a large, broad head, The head of humerus is covered with cartilage, Bears Tubercles/ tuberosities, the greater tubercle and below it is deltoid ridge/lesser tubercle, At the distal end the bone ends in two condyles / trochlea, Humerus; proximal end has a large, broad head, The head of humerus is covered with cartilage, Bears Tubercles/ tuberosities, the greater tubercle and below it is deltoid ridge/lesser tubercle, At the distal end the bone ends in two condyles / trochlea,

Adaptations of the Humerus The Humerus has a large head that fits in the glenoid cavity of the scapula, to form a ball & socket joint, The cartilage on the humerus head reduces friction in the ball & socket joint, The greater tubercle & deltoid ridge both provide surfaces for muscle attachment, Humerus condyles articulate with the sigmoid notch of radius and ulna to form the hinge joint, The Humerus has a large head that fits in the glenoid cavity of the scapula, to form a ball & socket joint, The cartilage on the humerus head reduces friction in the ball & socket joint, The greater tubercle & deltoid ridge both provide surfaces for muscle attachment, Humerus condyles articulate with the sigmoid notch of radius and ulna to form the hinge joint,

Radius & Ulna Radius & Ulna form the elbow joint /hinge joint with the humerus, The ulna is longer than the radius, The ulna fits with humerus trochlea at the sigmoid notch, The ulna extends to form the olecranon process/elbow, Radius & Ulna form the elbow joint /hinge joint with the humerus, The ulna is longer than the radius, The ulna fits with humerus trochlea at the sigmoid notch, The ulna extends to form the olecranon process/elbow,

Adaptations of the radius & Ulna the olecranon process; provides insertion for triceps muscle Olecranon process; prevents the overstretching of the joint, Radius; has an insertion for the biceps muscles; ulna & radius; articulates with humerus condyles in the sigmoid notch and forms the hinge joint at the elbow, Radius & ulna; form flexible joints allowing for forearm twisting, the olecranon process; provides insertion for triceps muscle Olecranon process; prevents the overstretching of the joint, Radius; has an insertion for the biceps muscles; ulna & radius; articulates with humerus condyles in the sigmoid notch and forms the hinge joint at the elbow, Radius & ulna; form flexible joints allowing for forearm twisting,

Pelvic girdle & hind limb iliumPubisischium Pelvic Girdle

PELVIC GIRDLE (Ventral view)

Pelvic girdle Adaptations

Continued/pelvic girdle adaptations

Functions of the Pelvic Girdle

Femur Femur small head that fits into the acetabulum socket of the pelvic girdle forming a ball and socket joint, The head of femur is covered with cartilage, femur bears condyles which articulates with tibia to form the knee joint, Femur has projections trochanters, Femur small head that fits into the acetabulum socket of the pelvic girdle forming a ball and socket joint, The head of femur is covered with cartilage, femur bears condyles which articulates with tibia to form the knee joint, Femur has projections trochanters,

Femur Note the rounded head of the femur

Adaptations of Femur Femur has a smaller head that fits into the acetabulum socket of the pelvic girdle forming a ball and socket joint that permits movement in all planes. The head of femur is covered with cartilage that reduces friction during locomotion. Femur has a smaller head that fits into the acetabulum socket of the pelvic girdle forming a ball and socket joint that permits movement in all planes. The head of femur is covered with cartilage that reduces friction during locomotion.

Continued adaptations of femur At the distal end femur bears two rounded condyles which articulates with tibia to form the knee joint which is an example of a hinge joint. Femur has a long shaft for muscle attachment and for support. Femur has projections, trochanters that provide surfaces for muscle attachment. At the distal end femur bears two rounded condyles which articulates with tibia to form the knee joint which is an example of a hinge joint. Femur has a long shaft for muscle attachment and for support. Femur has projections, trochanters that provide surfaces for muscle attachment.

Tibia & Fibula Tibia & fibula are fused on distal end, to form tibio- fibula, Tibia Tibia (larger) articulates with the femur, Enemial crest Enemial crest of the tibia, provide a firm attachment of muscles, Fibula Fibula (smaller) long to provide muscle attachment, Tibia & fibula are fused on distal end, to form tibio- fibula, Tibia Tibia (larger) articulates with the femur, Enemial crest Enemial crest of the tibia, provide a firm attachment of muscles, Fibula Fibula (smaller) long to provide muscle attachment,

Tibia & Fibula tibio-fibula Note the tibio-fibula

JOINTS A joint is a point of articulation, Joints are classified on the basis of; Function, Structure, A joint is a point of articulation, Joints are classified on the basis of; Function, Structure,

Types of joints (structural basis) Fibrous joint; fibrous tissues support articulating, Cartilaginous joint; cartilage join two bones, Synovial joint; synovial fluid & ligaments join two bones, Fibrous joint; fibrous tissues support articulating, Cartilaginous joint; cartilage join two bones, Synovial joint; synovial fluid & ligaments join two bones,

Types of joints (functional basis) Immovable joint; e.g. sutures in the skull, (fibrous tissue join the bones) Slightly movable joint; e.g. pubis symphysis (cartilage bind the bones),intervertebral joints, Freely movable joint; e.g. elbow joint, knee joint Immovable joint; e.g. sutures in the skull, (fibrous tissue join the bones) Slightly movable joint; e.g. pubis symphysis (cartilage bind the bones),intervertebral joints, Freely movable joint; e.g. elbow joint, knee joint

Movable joints The main structures of a synovial joint A cartilage lines the end of the bones which reduce friction between the two bones. synovial fluid which absorbs physical shocks. Synovial fluid nourishes the cartilage. synovial membrane secretes & nourishes the synovial fluid, The two bones are held together by the capsular ligament, which is flexible but tough; Preventing dislocation of the two bones. The main structures of a synovial joint A cartilage lines the end of the bones which reduce friction between the two bones. synovial fluid which absorbs physical shocks. Synovial fluid nourishes the cartilage. synovial membrane secretes & nourishes the synovial fluid, The two bones are held together by the capsular ligament, which is flexible but tough; Preventing dislocation of the two bones.

SYNOVIAL JOINT The main structures of a synovial joint cartilage synovial fluid synovial membrane capsular ligament, The main structures of a synovial joint cartilage synovial fluid synovial membrane capsular ligament,

Types of Movable Joints Hinge joint; allows one bone to move like a door swings open or shut at its hinges. e.g. elbow, the knee, digits of the fingers and toes, the atlas and axis vertebrae, Ball and socket joint; the rounded end, (head) of a bone fits into a rounded cavity of another bone. Ball and socket joint permits rotational and swinging movements of the arm e.g. hip and shoulder. Hinge joint; allows one bone to move like a door swings open or shut at its hinges. e.g. elbow, the knee, digits of the fingers and toes, the atlas and axis vertebrae, Ball and socket joint; the rounded end, (head) of a bone fits into a rounded cavity of another bone. Ball and socket joint permits rotational and swinging movements of the arm e.g. hip and shoulder.

Continued Types of movable joints Pivot joint: occurs between the skull and the atlas vertebra, permits the nodding up and down movement, of the head rotational movement (side-to- side movement) of the head. Gilding Joints: e.g. between cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, metacarpals, and metatarsals. One bone is separated from the other by cartilage, and allow one bone to slide smoothly against the other. Gliding joints make the vertebral column flexible, allowing the bending or curving of the back, Pivot joint: occurs between the skull and the atlas vertebra, permits the nodding up and down movement, of the head rotational movement (side-to- side movement) of the head. Gilding Joints: e.g. between cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, metacarpals, and metatarsals. One bone is separated from the other by cartilage, and allow one bone to slide smoothly against the other. Gliding joints make the vertebral column flexible, allowing the bending or curving of the back,

Hinge joint e.g. elbow joint Showing the three joint bones; humerus, radius & ulna,

Hinge joint /close up Note the olecranon process, the sigmoid joint, and the three bones involved in the joint,

Types of joints

Comparing the Hip joint & Knee joint Hip jointKnee joint Freely movable Rotational motionAngular motion Ball-like head fits into a cup-like depression Convex surface fits into a concave surface

MUSCLE TISSUE Types of muscles ; skeletal (or striated) muscle, attached to endoskeleton, visceral (or smooth) muscle, occurs in visceral organs, cardiac (or heart) muscle, occurs in the heart, Types of muscles ; skeletal (or striated) muscle, attached to endoskeleton, visceral (or smooth) muscle, occurs in visceral organs, cardiac (or heart) muscle, occurs in the heart,

Common Features of Muscles Muscles are all contractile, Muscles contain numerous mitochondria, Muscle cell membrane is electrically charged, Muscles are all contractile, Muscles contain numerous mitochondria, Muscle cell membrane is electrically charged,

Comparison between skeletal, visceral & cardiac muscl e skeletalVisceral/smoothcardiac Alternative names Striated, striped, voluntary Non-striated, unstriped, involuntary, smooth structure Fibres formed from many cells fused Many nuclei in surface layer of sarcoplasm Fibres consisted of individual cells, with a central nucleus, Individual cells with a central nucleus, cell branched & linked by intercalated discs

continued skeletalVisceral/smoothcardiac size longestsmallestmedium myofibrils conspicuousinconspicuousconspicuous Physiology/ function Contractions rapid & powerful but short-lived, Contractions slow & sustained Rapid contractions spread through linked network,

continued skeletalVisceral/smoothcardiac controlNeurogenic; contraction triggered by motor neurons of CNS Neurogenic; but involves autonomic nervous system spread from cell to cell, Myogenic; contraction triggered by muscle itself; but rated controlled by autonomic nervous system, location Muscles attached to bones, skin, diaphragm, Visceral organs, blood vessels, Ciliary muscles of the eye Heart only

Role of muscles in movement of the arm in humans

FISH: LOCOMOTION

Explain how finned fish like tilapia are adapted to swimming? streamlined body to reduce resistance of water; fins and scales face backward to reduce the resistance; fish secrets mucus; to lubricate its body ;reducing friction as it moves; streamlined body to reduce resistance of water; fins and scales face backward to reduce the resistance; fish secrets mucus; to lubricate its body ;reducing friction as it moves;

continued the myotomes; which are found on either side of the vertebral columns; the backbone has little flexibility therefore when the myotomes contracts the large caudal fin creates a propulsive effect. Myotomes relax and contract antagonistically; to brings about lateral movements in the caudal fin; The paired fins (the pectoral and pelvic fins) help to maintain balance & steer fish; the myotomes; which are found on either side of the vertebral columns; the backbone has little flexibility therefore when the myotomes contracts the large caudal fin creates a propulsive effect. Myotomes relax and contract antagonistically; to brings about lateral movements in the caudal fin; The paired fins (the pectoral and pelvic fins) help to maintain balance & steer fish;

continued pectoral and pelvic fins also control pitching; (the tendency of the interior body parts to plunge fish vertically downwards) The caudal fin has a large surface area; and when it is slashed from side to side it displaces a lot of water and creates forward movement; The caudal fin acts as a rudder; and kneel to control direction; of movements and keep fish in an upright position; pectoral and pelvic fins also control pitching; (the tendency of the interior body parts to plunge fish vertically downwards) The caudal fin has a large surface area; and when it is slashed from side to side it displaces a lot of water and creates forward movement; The caudal fin acts as a rudder; and kneel to control direction; of movements and keep fish in an upright position;

continued Presence of the swim bladders; between the gut and vertebral column in some fishes enable them to change their position in water; when the swim bladder is filled with air and fish becomes lighter to float at higher water levels however the fish moves deeper by emptying the air in the swim bladders and allowing water to flow in making it to be heavier; The unpaired fins, (the dorsal, anal and caudal fins) and yawing (the lateral deflection of the interior part of the body as a result of propulsive action); The large surface area; of the body sides also reduces yawing; The large surface area highly sensitive; enables the fish to respond to changes in vibration and pressure of water; Presence of the swim bladders; between the gut and vertebral column in some fishes enable them to change their position in water; when the swim bladder is filled with air and fish becomes lighter to float at higher water levels however the fish moves deeper by emptying the air in the swim bladders and allowing water to flow in making it to be heavier; The unpaired fins, (the dorsal, anal and caudal fins) and yawing (the lateral deflection of the interior part of the body as a result of propulsive action); The large surface area; of the body sides also reduces yawing; The large surface area highly sensitive; enables the fish to respond to changes in vibration and pressure of water;

SUPPORT & MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS Why is locomotion important to animals? escape unfavourable conditions...

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Transcript of SUPPORT & MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS Why is locomotion important to animals? escape unfavourable conditions...