Sub-Program 2.6 PASTURE SEEDS · Please contact us for the latest publications catalogue or view it...

RIRDC Completed Projects in 2005-2006 and Research in Progress as at June 2006

Sub-Program 2.6

PASTURE SEEDS

August 2006 RIRDC Publication No 06/074

ii

© 2006 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved. ISBN 1 74151 337 5 ISSN 1440-6845 "RIRDC Completed Projects in 2005-2006 and Research in Progress as at June 2006 - 2.6 Pasture Seeds Publication No 06/074 The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable industries. The information should not be relied upon for the purpose of a particular matter. Specialist and/or appropriate legal advice should be obtained before any action or decision is taken on the basis of any material in this document. The Commonwealth of Australia, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, the authors or contributors do not assume liability of any kind whatsoever resulting from any person's use or reliance upon the content of this document. This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications Manager on phone 02 6272 3186. RIRDC Pasture Seeds Research Manager Ms Annette Sugden Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 02 6271 6497 Fax: 02 6272 5877 Email: [email protected] RIRDC Publications Manager Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 02 6272 3186 Fax: 02 6272 5877 Email: [email protected] Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in August 2006 Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint

iii

Foreword This year RIRDC has produced Research in Progress, June 2006, which contains short summaries of continuing projects as well as those that were completed during 2005-2006 for all of the Corporation’s program areas. The complete report on all the programs is only available in electronic format on our website at http://www.rirdc.gov.au The following report is a hardcopy extract, covering Sub-Program 2.6. It contains all entries from continuing and completed Pasture Seeds research projects funded by RIRDC. It also contains a complete record of entries from past issues, so includes a full record of all projects funded by the program. This program aims to facilitate the growth of a profitable and sustainable pasture seeds industry based on a reputation for the reliable supply, domestically and internationally, of a range of pasture species. This report is the newest addition to our extensive catalogue of over 1500 research reports, videos and CD-Roms of projects supported by RIRDC. Please contact us for the latest publications catalogue or view it on our website: • downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/Index.htm • purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter O’Brien Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

iv

Contents

2.6 PASTURE SEEDS RESEARCH IN PROGRESS PROJECT No PROJECT TITLE RESEARCHER PHONE ORGANISATION PAGE

No Improved Production Efficiency

DAN-209A Developing innovative seed production technologies to ensure the commercial success of new perennial lotus species targeted at reducing recharge in the mid-catchment regions of Australia

Mr. Graeme Sandral (02) 6938 1850 NSW Department of Agriculture 1

DEB-4A Understanding and managing the causes of abnormal seedlings in lucerne Mr. James De Barro (08) 8756 2777 De Barro Agricultural Consulting 3

Improve Seed Production Technologies to maximise Yield, Quality & Processing Efficiency

AUA-1A Improved maintenance and basic seed production of public pasture varieties Mr John Blackstock (03) 9381 2373 Australian Seeds Authority Ltd 4

DAW-117A Soft seeded sulla - a novel approach for lowering seed costs Dr Clinton Revell (08) 9368 3596 Department of Agriculture (WA) 15

SAR-56A Preliminary assessment of the impact of nematodes on pasture seed production Dr Sharyn Taylor (08) 8303 9381 South Australian Research and

Development Institute 6

SAG-6A Investigation of the impact of toad rush (Juncus bufonis) on subterranean clover seed production and evaluation of herbicide control options

Mr. John Seidal (02) 6029 2381 Serve-Ag Pty Ltd 7

US-131A Lucerne yellows disease: testing and extension of disease management strategies A/Prof. Geoff Gurr (02) 6360 5551 The University of Sydney 8

Incorporate Environmental Considerations in Sustainable Production Systems

DEB-6A Conversion from border check to drop tube irrigation for lucerne irrigated with saline water Mr. James De Barro (08) 8756 2777 De Barro Agricultural Consulting 9

Foster Emerging Sciences/Technologies and Risk Assessment

UTS-8A Managing Intellectual Property Rights in Plant Varieties

Dr Rocque Reynolds (02) 9514 3151 University of Technology,

Sydney 11

DAW-115A Establishing a seed scheme for mixed varieties of subterranean clover Mr Mark Holland (08) 9368 3505 Department of Agriculture (WA) 12

2.6 PASTURE SEEDS COMPLETED PROJECTS PROJECT No

PROJECT TITLE

RESEARCHER

PHONE

ORGANISATION

PAGE No

Improved Production Efficiency

CSE-91A Improving lucerne pollination with leafcutter bees – stage 2 Dr. Denis Anderson (02) 6246 4148 CSIRO Entomology 13

Incorporate Environmental Considerations in Sustainable Production Systems

DEB-5A Water balance and quality study for lucerne seed production resources by an underground aquifer Mr. James De Barro (08) 8756 2777 De Barro Agricultural Consulting 15

mailto:[email protected]



v

2.6 PASTURE SEEDS COMPLETED PROJECTS PRIOR TO 2005-2006 PROJECT No

PROJECT TITLE

RESEARCHER

PHONE

ORGANISATION

PAGE No


UWA-65A Seed production limits to sulla and purple clover as fodders Dr. Mike Ewing (08) 9380 1876 University of Western Australia 17

Export and Import Replacement Opportunities

SAR-25A Determine international standards for disease testing of lucerne seed

Dr Kathy Ophel-Keller

(08) 8303 9368

SARDI 19

SAR-10A Development of a bacterial wilt test to facilitate the export of lucerne seed

Dr Kathy Ophel-Keller

(08) 8303 9368

SARDI 20

SBS-1A Seed production of creeping vigna Dr Donald S Loch (07) 32861488 QLD Dept of Primary Industries 21

DAS-31A Development of export markets for cold tolerant annual medics

Dr Ian Kaehne

(08) 8266 8333

SARDI 23

SED-2A Developing management systems for European varieties of white clover for multiplication in Australia and re-export

Mr Ted Higgs

(08) 8234 9333

Seedco

25

SED-3A Development of Four Fodder Legume Seed Species for Export

Dr Ross Downes

(08) 8234 9333

Seedco 26

SED-8A Development of varieties of six species of fodder legumes for sowing seed and hay export

Dr Ross Downes

(08) 8234 9333

Seedco 27

DAW-50A Development of alternative pasture legumes for use in medium rainfall agricultural regions with untapped subsurface water, and to enhance product range in the seed and rhizobial inoculant export markets

Dr S J Carr

(08) 9368 3870

CLIMA

29

Availability of Technical and Economic Information

DAV-169A Practical guidelines for sub clover seed production in south eastern Australia Ms. Angela Avery (02) 6030 4500 Department of Natural

Resources & Environment (Vic) 30

DAV-106A A model for expansion of the Australian domestic temperate pasture seed market

Mr Peter Schroder

(03) 5572 3825

Rural Consulting 31

HAS-5A A study of the costs of production of lucerne, medic and clover seeds

Hassall & Associates Pty Ltd

(02) 9241 5655

Hassall & Associates Pty Ltd 33

KDI-7A Pasture establishment and management publication Mark Casey (08) 9478 3343 Kondinin Group 34

DAN-75A Lucerne seed check: a management support system approach to improving lucerne seed profitability

RB Walker (02) 6391 3174

NSW Agriculture

35

DAV-57A Development of rapid biochemical methods for the identification of medic cultivars

M Mebalds & J Woodward

(03) 210 9226

Agriculture Victoria 37

DAN-76A Developing an agronomic package to maximise profitability of sub clover seed crops Jim Virgona (02) 6938 1999 NSW Agriculture 38

DAW-60A On farm evaluation of the adaptation, distribution and potential value of lucerne in WA Roy Latta (08) 9821 1755 Agriculture WA 40

UA-24A Survey to determine demand factors in pasture legume seed usage in Australia P G Tow (08) 8303 7857 University of Adelaide 41


DAV-196A Effective weed control for the Australian white clover seed industry Ms. Penny Riffkin (03) 5573 0900 Department of Primary

Industries (Vic) 43

US-85A Development of an integrated control strategy for “lucerne yellows” disease in lucerne Dr. Geoff Gurr (02) 6360 5551 The University of Sydney 44

CSE-86A

Improved pollination of seed lucerne

Dr. Denis Anderson

(02) 6246 4148

CSIRO Entomology 46

IPB-1A Evaluation of lucerne varieties for seed yield and strategies to enhance seed productivity Dr. Ross Downes (02) 6255 1461 Innovative Plant Breeders Pty

Ltd 48

DAN-163A Development of new alternative legumes and appropriate weed control technology Mr. Graeme Sandral (02) 6938 1850 NSW Department of Agriculture 49

DAV-144A Improved seed production: "Towards 1.5 tonnes" Ms Angela Avery (02) 6030 4500 DNRE Victoria 51

DEB-1A Evaluating and managing lucerne seed wasp in lucerne seed crops

Mr James De Barro

(08) 8755 3133

De Barro Agricultural Consulting 53

vi

Improved Production Efficiency DAV-94A

Management of phytophthora root rot in subterranean clover for a viable pasture seeds industry

Dr R Aldaoud, W Guppy, Dr S Flett, T Cook

(03) 5833 5222

Agriculture Victoria

55

US-75A Occurrence and severity of ‘lucerne yellows disease in lucerne seed crops

Dr Geoff Gurr

(02) 6369 5551

Orange Agricultural College 57

CMS-1A Strategies to successfully establish and manage a productive dryland lucerne stand

M Stanley & R Christinat

(08) 8755 1295

Crop Monitoring Services 59

UA-27A Herbicide failure and the need for integrated weed management in legume pasture seed crops

Stephen Powles

(08) 8303 7237

University of Adelaide 60

DAW-36A Developing effective rhizobial inoculants for lucerne in WA

Pedro Evans

(08) 9821 3343

Agriculture WA 62

DAS-33A Control of Rhizoctonia Burr Rot of subterranean clover

Alan Dube

08) 8226 1877

SARDI 64

ARM-1A Review of weed control in lucerne, medic and sub clover seed crops

Charles Kidd

(08) 8842 3591

Australian Rural Management Services Pty Ltd 66

DAS-32A Alfalfa Mosaic Virus (AMV) survey in Lucerne and Medic Seed and development of rapid tests

Evita Alberts

(08) 8372 2349

PIRSA 68

Environmental Issues for Industry

DEB-3A A water balance study for lucerne seed production resourced by an underground aquifier Mr. James de Barro (08) 8756 2777 De Barro Agricultural Consulting 69

HS-1A The development of a more effective harvesting method for shaw creeping Vigna (Vigna parkeri)

Mr Bob Campbell

(07) 5523 4543

Heritage Seeds Pty Ltd 71

DAQ-148A Improved handling of chaffy grass seeds Dr Donald S Loch (07) 3286 1488 QLD Dept of Primary Industries 72 Support Industry Quality Assurance and Self Regulation

SAR-48A Confirmation of pest free area status from bacterial wilt of lucerne in export seed production areas Mr. Rob Rees (08) 8226 0446 South Australian Research and

Development Institute 75

SED-6A Alternative seed certification schemes in Europe and USA for adoption in Australia

Max Jongebloed

(08) 8231 6675

Seedco 77

1

Research in Progress - Improved Production Efficiency

Project Title Developing innovative seed production technologies to

ensure the commercial success of new perennial lotus species targeted at reducing recharge in the mid-catchment regions of Australia

RIRDC Project No.:

DAN-209A

Researcher: Mr Graeme Sandral Organisation: NSW Department of Primary Industies

Wagga Wagga Agicultural Institute PMB, WAGGA WAGGA NSW 2650

Phone: (08) 9287 2851 Fax: (08) 9383 9907 Email: [email protected]

Objectives

• To reduce seed losses from Lotus corniculatus during harvesting so a viable seed industry can be sustained in the long term.

• To examine seed harvesting technologies in South America and NZ for L. corniculatus and L. pedunculatus, and refine these procedures for use in Australia. Output 1. To ensure the current limitations on seed harvesting of L. corniculatus are reduced so viable seed industries can exist.

• To overcome the problem of pod shattering it is proposed that perennial diploid Lotus species will be mutated to eliminate gene expression for pod shattering. Output 2. To produce a small selection of perennial diploid Lotus species that have a substantially reduced potential for pod shattering.

Current Progress One of the major constraints to the commercialisation of perennial lotus

species is the large seed losses that occur from seed shattering prior to and during seed harvesting operations. This project examines two approaches to reduce (eg. using seed harvesting technology) and eliminate (developing non-shattering plant types) seed losses. The first approach looks to refine harvesting technologies and is a low risk strategy with lower returns and the second approach is to develop non-shattering genotypes by eliminating genes controlling shattering. This is a higher risk strategy with higher returns. Harvesting methodologies: A draft technical report has been completed which outlines the pre-harvest and harvesting methods used in commercial seed production for L. corniculatus in South America and New Zealand. These strategies were applied in 2005 to a stand of L. corniculatus established at Waroona WA during 2004. A sub-set of the best treatments will be applied in 2006 to a new area of L. corniculatus that will be sown in June/July 2006 and will be harvested in early 2007. Genetic approach: Diploid (eg L. japonicus cv. Gifu) and tretraploid Lotus species (eg selfing L. corniculatus accession 38041) have been treated with the mutagenic chemical EMS. Seeds from plants showing symptoms of mutation (variegated sections of the plants) were harvested and the M1 seeds will be sown as spaced plants at Shenton Park, WA to monitor at an individual plant level the presence of non-shattering mutants.


2

Harvesting methodologies (low risk approach): To ensure the current limitations on seed harvesting of L. corniculatus are reduced so viable seed industries can exist. This will be achieved by developing harvesting methodologies best suited to Australian conditions. Genetic approach (high risk approach): To make available to breeding programs a non-shattering genotype of Lotus. This will be achieved by producing a mutation that has a substantially reduced potential for pod shattering. If successful the outcomes of this project have the potential to establish a new seed production industry in perennial Lotus species.

3

Research in Progress - Improved Production Efficiency

Project Title Understanding and managing the causes of abnormal

seedlings in lucerne

RIRDC Project No.:

DEB-4A

Start Date: 01-Jul-03 Finish Date: 30-Sep-06 Researcher: Mr James De Barro Organisation: De Barro Agricultural Consulting Phone: (08) 8756 2777 Fax: (08) 8756 2778 Email: [email protected]

Objectives

• To understand the causes of abnormal lucerne seedlings in

commercial certified seed production. Construct research focusing on the predicted and manageable causes of abnormal seedlings based on past research into pasture seeds and legumes as well as current expert lucerne seed production knowledge.

Current Progress 100 seed samples from 23 crops in the 2005/06 season were collected.

Seed has been extracted from the pods of samples harvested by hand prior to mechanical harvest. These samples as well as the samples from headers, field bins and trucks will be cleaned across a gravity table in June ahead of seed germination analysis at Seed Services Australia as per the previous two years. On the basis of the past two seasons the 23 crops were selected to test the hypothesis that the percentage of abnormal seedlings in cleaned and germination tested lucerne seed is higher from crops that were visibly dry prior to desiccation or windrowing. Anecdotal reports of season 05/06 seed quality indicate a higher presence of abnormal seedlings in cleaned seed than in the past two seasons of the research. The assessment of the sampled crops may support the hypothesis in the same way as the anecdotal evidence appears to. In addition, the 100 seed samples will be treated with ferric chloride and examined under a seed microscope to assess any visible signs of seed damage (e.g. cracks or chips) and any relationship between physical damage and abnormal seedling presence may be verified. If there is an evident relationship, the use of the dye technique may assist harvesters in header settings at lucerne harvest time. The samples taken from this season’s crops may be the best source of data compared to the past two seasons in understanding why abnormal seedlings occur.


4

Research in Progress - Improve Seed Production Technologies to maximise Yield, Quality & Processing Efficiency

Project Title Improved maintenance and Basic Seed production of

public pasture varieties

RIRDC Project No.:

AUA-1A

Start Date: 01-Nov-2005 Finish Date: 31-Oct-2006 Researcher: Mr John Blackstock Organisation: Australian Seeds Authority Ltd Phone: (03) 9381 2373 Fax: (03) 9381 2373 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• To complete a survey of maintainers of Australian pasture plant

varieties certified under the OECD Seed Schemes to determine whether or not currently listed varieties remain under active maintenance, work with maintainers to address deficiencies associated with inadequate maintenance plans, identify public varieties required for future trade and establish a process to facilitate the transfer to industry entities of the maintenance responsibility for public varieties needed for future trade but which will not be further maintained by current maintainers.

Current Progress The survey of maintainers has been completed and has identified 85

‘orphan’ varieties for which the current maintainer has indicated the intention not to continue active maintenance and 103 varieties nominated by maintainers for deletion from the Australian and/or OECD list of varieties eligible for certification. Results of the survey have been widely circulated to industry for comment by 30 June 2006. In November 2005 ASA established the Public Variety Maintenance Panel (PVMP) to review feedback from industry on the survey and make recommendations on further action to be taken by ASA. This may result in maintainers choosing to commission the PVMP to transfer the total responsibility for variety maintenance and the production and marketing of Basic Seed for some varieties to another entity. The PVMP has developed a procedure for the Expression of Interest process for the transfer of maintenance responsibility and has appointed a new maintainer for the white clover variety Haifa. Legal advice on a template variety maintenance agreement has been obtained and it is anticipated that the agreement will be finalised by 30 June 2006. Calls for Expressions of Interest for the maintenance responsibility for the lucerne variety Aurora and perennial ryegrass variety Victorian have been circulated to industry and it is anticipated that new maintainers will be appointed by July 2006.


5


Project Title Soft seeded sulla – a novel approach for lowering seed

costs

RIRDC Project No.:

DAW-117A

Start Date: 01-Jul-2005 Finish Date: 31-Jul-2008 Researcher: Dr Clinton Revell Organisation: Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia (DAFWA)

Pasture Science Group Locked Bag 4 Bentley delivery centre WA 6983

Phone: 08 9368 3596 Fax: 08 9368 2958 Email: [email protected]

Objectives

This project has two key objectives: (i) Confirm genetic stability and validate field performance of the soft-

seeded sulla (Hedysarum coronarium) selections identified in UWA 065-A.

(ii) Commercialise an elite soft-seeded genotype of sulla for domestic

and export forage/seed markets. Selected germplasm will be progeny tested over two generations in the field to quantify levels of soft seed. Parent material of the softest lines will be selected to produce the new cultivar. Elite parent material will be poly-crossed to ensure adequate genetic diversity for other agronomic characteristics.

Current Progress

The progeny of several sulla plants from the original soft seeded selection trial were poly-crossed at 2 separate sites in 2005. In addition, 9 other soft seeded selections were also grown out as individual plants, totalling 340 plants. Pods were hand harvested from each plant in late January 2006 and the final assessment of soft seed testing is currently being undertaken. The crowns of the single plants with the highest levels of soft seed from 2005 are to be retained and will be interspersed with other accessions with high levels of soft seed. The aim is to allow all the soft seeded selections to cross pollinate to increase the overall genetic diversity of the population while also attempting to stabilise the soft-seeded characteristic. Cross pollination of the soft seeded sulla selections by hand in the glasshouse has not been successful to date. This work was undertaken very late in the season with old plants, which we believe is sub-optimal. However, it has allowed us to refine the crossing methodology for sulla which should improve the chances of success in a second round of crossing later this year. Reappointment of a technical officer to this project is expected by late July 2006. This will allow faster throughput of the soft seed testing at the end of this season.


6


Project Title Preliminary assessment of the impact of nematodes on

pasture seed production RIRDC Project No.:

SAR-56A

Start Date: 01-Sep-2005 Finish Date: 31-Aug-2006 Researcher: Dr Kathy Ophel Keller Organisation: South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) Phone: (08) 8303 9368 Fax: (08) 8303 9393 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• To determine the incidence of plant parasitic nematodes in white

clover and lucerne seed and crops in Australia and to validate a DNA based test for stem nematode in white clover and lucerne seed.

Current Progress A survey of lucerne plants for stem nematode was undertaken in

conjunction with annual phytosanitary inspections. 417 samples were tested covering approximately 8,000 hectares and 31 varieties. No stem nematode was found in any of the lucerne samples. White clover stands have not been sampled to date. A seed survey is underway and will be undertaken on seed harvested from the 2006 crops in SA, NSW and Victoria. In total 50 lucerne seed samples and 20 white clover samples will be tested for the presence of stem nematode. A DNA test for stem nematode in white clover and lucerne seed is being calibrated on samples spiked with the nematode to assess sensitivity.

7


Project Title Investigation of the impact of toad rush (Juncus

bufonis) on subterranean clover seed production and evaluation of herbicide control options

RIRDC Project No.:

SAG-6A

Start Date: 01-Jul-2004 Finish Date: 30-May-2007 Researcher: Mr. John Seidal Organisation: Serve-Ag Pty Ltd Phone: (02) 6029 2381 Fax: (02) 6029 2448 Email: [email protected]

Objectives

• To quantify the impact of toad rush infestations on seed production

in subterranean clover pastures. • To measure subterranean clover herbage dry matter and soil

nitrogen input when toad rush is removed from the subterranean clover system.

• To identify the herbicide(s) and time of application that will provide satisfactory control of toad rush in subterranean clover pastures.

• To provide farmers with a better understanding of the impact of toad rush on subterranean clover pastures and to provide guidelines to minimize the impact of toad rush infestations.

Current Progress The field component of this project was commenced later than desired

as the opening rains were only received in early to mid June, 2005. This meant that subterranean clover germination was very late compared to normal growth patterns. Despite the very late seasonal break, six trials were initiated across south-eastern Australia - three in NSW, two in Victoria and one in South Australia. Trials were conducted to determine the optimum time of toad rush removal to maximise seed production and herbicides were screened for effectiveness on toad rush and safety to the clover. Due to the late break, toad rush infestations were not as dense as normally experienced. The herbicide screening trial revealed significant differences in herbage production, crop safety and toad rush control. A weed commonly associated with toad rush is lesser loosestrife (Lythrum hyssopifolia). This weed was also present in the NSW trials and valuable herbicide effectiveness information was gathered. There were significant effects on herbage production between herbicides. Seed production assessments were conducted in February 2006. Unfortunately, due to the late break and variable end to the season in NSW and Victoria, toad rush numbers were not high enough to significantly reduce seed production. Likewise, soil nitrogen tests did not reveal any difference between treated and untreated plots. However in SA, a significant increase in seed yield was achieved. A field day was held at the Mangoplah site. Trial results were discussed and general discussion was held on the importance of toad rush and how farmers approached the control of this weed. This season, 2006, is also shaping up to be a late seasonal break but it is planned to conduct similar field experiments to 2005.


8


Project Title Lucerne yellows disease: testing and extension of

disease management strategies

RIRDC Project No.:

US-131A

Start Date: 02-Jul-2004 Finish Date: 30-Nov-2006 Researcher: A/Prof. Geoff Gurr Organisation: The University of Sydney (in transition to Charles Sturt University

ownership) Pest Biology & Management Group Faculty of Rural Management PO Box 883 ORANGE, NSW, 2800

Phone: (02) 6365 7551 Fax: (02) 6365 7590 Email: [email protected]

Objectives

• The aim of this project is to build on earlier RIRDC-funded work in

which the pathogen and vectors responsible for Australian lucerne yellows disease were determined and in which tentative disease management strategies were identified. This project will produce a 'toolkit' of disease management approaches that growers will be able to draw from to better manage this important plant disease. These strategies will include measures to reduce immigration into lucerne crops of disease-carrying leafhopper insects and remove the non-crop hosts of the pathogen as well as management to alleviate the severity of symptoms in infected plants. Reflecting the regional differences in lucerne production and integrated pest management (IPM) practices, research will take place in both NSW and South Australia. The optimal disease management strategies will be extended to growers by an illustrated, colour 'ute guide'-type tool with more detailed information available on a farmer-friendly web site. The rigour of the outcomes will be assured by submitting findings to a peer-reviewed journal (Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture).

Current Progress Experiments testing the efficacy of herbicide or insecticide application to

the vegetation beside lucerne seed crops were conducted in the Lachlan Valley, New South Wales (NSW) and Keith, South Australia (SA). Experiments testing the efficacy of insect barriers on the edges of lucerne seed crops were conducted on sites close to Orange, Forbes and Griffith NSW. None of the imposed treatments resulted in statistically significant effects but numbers of symptomatic lucerne plants were low this year on all sites and numbers of leafhopper vectors were also low on most sites, especially in SA. Field experiments will be repeated in the coming year. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers have been designed to specifically amplify candidatus Phytoplasma aurantifolia or candidatus P. australiense. Both phytoplasmas have been amplified from lucerne plants expressing symptoms of lucerne yellows disease. The new primers will allow better tracking of the phytoplasmas in lucerne, weedy hosts and vector insects during testing of disease management strategies. Preliminary PCR testing has detected phytoplasmas in second grade lucerne seed and growth chamber-reared seedlings from such seed so current work is pursuing the possibility of seed transmission.


9

Research in Progress - Incorporate Environmental Considerations in Sustainable Production Systems

Project Title Conversion from border check to drop tube irrigation

for lucerne irrigated with saline water

RIRDC Project No.:

DEB-6A

Start Date: 01-Jul-2005 Finish Date: 30-Sep-2007 Researcher: Mr James De Barro Organisation: De Barro Agricultural Consulting Phone: (08) 8756 2777 Fax: (08) 8756 2778 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• The project aims to evaluate the success of a drop tube centre pivot

irrigation system as an alternative and significantly more efficient ground water-sustainable system, for the irrigated production of certified lucerne seed and hay production using saline water above 4000 ppm total dissolved salts. Salinity in excess of 4000 ppm will not be tolerated by lucerne seed crops under a conventional centre pivot spray system and results in reduced seed and forage production. Success of a drop tube system could revolutionise irrigation application methods for the lucerne seed industry in South Australia. The research will quantify the reduction of the volume of saline water pumped and applied for irrigated lucerne seed and hay production, whilst maintaining profitable yields, in comparison to existing flood irrigation of lucerne for the same purposes.

Current Progress Research sites were operating on 22/11/05 ahead of any initial irrigation.

Each site had a C-probe soil moisture monitoring device which permitted the scheduling of irrigation on the two centre pivots and the flood irrigation sites. Water meters on the flood and centre pivot pumps recorded flow rates and total flow through the irrigation period. Both the centre pivots (var. Flairdale) and the flood paddock (var. Aurora) were irrigated for lucerne seed production after two hay cuts, which were irrigated as required. All production inputs such as fertilising, spraying, hay production (i.e. mowing, raking, baling and carting), crop consultant monitoring, windrowing, harvesting, seed cleaning, fuel and labour were recorded and costed. Income from cleaned seed and hay sales was recorded. The costs of production were similar for both irrigation systems with the major difference being a three fold labour expense for managing flood irrigation ($217/ha for the flood compared to $80/ha for the pivot). The drop tube irrigation system was observably a very effective and efficient method of irrigating lucerne for seed. Irrigation was best applied to these crops by large irrigations (75 – 125 mm per irrigation event) as it wet the soil surface more evenly and permitted more even infiltration. The nature of the non wetting sand did create an uneven initial growth pattern that, in conjunction with variable soil type across the irrigated area, remained throughout the season and was likely to have negatively influenced the total seed yield. From commencement of the next irrigation season the large irrigation events will be implemented to assist in creating more even production. Both pivots yielded well with an average clean yield of 713 kg/ha compared to the flood, which yielded 587 kg/ha. Together with hay income, the gross margin for drop tube irrigation was $1665/ha, which

10

was 13% greater than the flood irrigation being $1425/ha. With the inherent ability of Flairdale to produce more seed/ha than Aurora the yield advantage would be less than 10%. The centre pivot required 4.16 ML/ha to be pumped and applied for seed/hay production compared to 8.26 ML/ha for the flood irrigation. The season’s results indicate the drop tube irrigation process requires less water to be pumped than the flood irrigation with no reduction in the comparable gross margin. It creates significant evidence that the system can be used as a replacement for flood irrigation where the water salinity is too high for conventional spray centre pivot systems to provide optimal yields, and hence provides the potential to significantly reduce pumping requirements.

11

Research in Progress - Foster Emerging Sciences/Technologies and Risk Assessment

Project Title Managing Intellectual Property Rights in Plant Varieties

RIRDC Project No.:

UTS-8A

Start Date: 15-Dec-2004 Finish Date: 30-Aug-2006 Researcher: Dr Rocque Reynolds Organisation: University of Technology, Sydney Phone: (02) 9514 3151 Email: [email protected]

Objectives

• The objective of this project is to prepare a report on the

management of intellectual property rights in plant varieties including plant breeder's rights, patents, trade marks, copyright, passing off and confidentiality agreements in the grain and seed industries. In particular the report will focus on the incidence, status and content of IP contracts and licensing agreements, including growing agreements, and the exhaustion of IP rights under IP sales agreements. The report will analysis existing standard contracts in these industries and comment on the legality of effectiveness of existing industry practices.

Current Progress The start of the project was delayed due to contract signing problems.

The project therefore commenced in February 2005 rather than December 2004. Since the last report, an excellent Steering Committee comprising industry leaders, including growers and a seed breeder, has been established. We have completed our research (including an analysis of growing contracts) and conducted a survey of growers regarding management of IP in the pasture seeds industry and contract growing. The results of the survey have been collated and are being written up in a user friendly format. We are drafting a survey for seed companies and seed breeders based on the outcomes of that research and that survey will be conducted in late June 2006. A Final Report will be ready by August as planned and two articles will have been submitted for publication by that time as well. As part of the project we have undertaken to produce educational pamphlets in co-operation with industry bodies. We would like to delay the negotiation of these publications until the Final Report has been completed.


12

Research in Progress - Foster Emerging Sciences/Technologies and Risk Assessment

Project Title Establishing a seed scheme for mixed varieties of

subterranean clover

RIRDC Project No.:

DAW-115A

Start Date: 01-Jul-2005 Finish Date: 30-Mar-2008 Researcher: Mr Mark Holland Organisation: Department of Agriculture (WA) Phone: (08) 9368 3505 Fax: (08) 9474 2658 Email: [email protected]

Objectives

• The project aims to develop a seed test to identify varieties of

subterranean clover and to use that test in a seed certification scheme to accredit seed lots of multiple varieties of subterranean clover. The outcome from this research will be the establishment of a seed accreditation scheme for subterranean clover. It is estimated that up to 1000 tonnes of currently uncertified subterranean clover of mixed varieties could be certified annually under the proposed scheme. A premium of 50 cents per kilogram could be expected from the certified product. Pastures sown with accredited seed are likely to be more productive by increasing the amount of seed of known varietal composition in the domestic marketplace.

• This seed scheme can be used to accredit seed that fails to meet the certification varietal purity or germination standards (95%).

• The test may be used to extend the stand-life of crops in the Limited Generation Certification Scheme by quantifying the contamination level of visually indistinguishable varieties.

• The test may be used as an alternative to field post (pre) control tests of certified subterranean clover seed lots and serve as a model for deployment of the technology to species having even more onerous post control requirements. Through the generation of a leviable product this test and scheme will expand the funding base of the Australian Seeds Authority and RIRDC.

Current Progress Authentic seed of all commercial varieties has been sourced and a

protein extraction procedure is under development. The Australian Seeds Authority endorsed the concept at its last meeting and formed a working party to assist development of the seed scheme.


13

Completed Projects - Improved Production Efficiency

Project Title Improving lucerne pollination with leafcutter bees -

stage 2

RIRDC Project No.:

CSE-91A

Researcher: Dr Denis Anderson Organisation: CSIRO Entomology Phone: (02) 6246 4148 Fax: (02) 6246 4000 Email: [email protected] Objectives

The outcome will be increased profitability for the lucerne seed industry, achieved by improving seed yield through the use of leafcutter bees as pollinators. The deliverables: • Cost-effective quarantine procedures for importing Canadian

leafcutter bees. • Improved methods for managing imported Canadian leafcutter bees

under Australian conditions.

Background Seed yields from lucerne crops in Australia are, on average, much smaller than those obtained in Canada and the United States. The higher overseas yields are mostly attributed to better pollination achieved through the use of the leafcutter bee, Megachile rotundata. The establishment of this bee in Australia, and its wide adoption as a pollinator of lucerne, will improve lucerne seed yields. Major obstacles have prevented the rapid establishment of the leafcutter bee in Australia. During an earlier stage of the current project the complex quarantine and environmental issues involved with importing the bee from Canada and getting it established in the field were resolved. The thrust of the current project was to assist the rapid establishment of the bee in Australia by improving importation and quarantine processes to enable very large numbers of bees to be imported in single shipments.

Research Approximately 1 million leafcutter bees were imported from Canada during each year of the project (2002/03, 2003/04 and 2004/05). Shipping procedures were streamlined and shorted, reducing bee losses. Upon arrival in Australia the bees were introduced into a high security quarantine centre at CSIRO Entomology in Canberra. Modifications made to the way bees were processed in quarantine, particularly modifications made to containers used to remove bees from incubation chambers, resulted in faster processing times and the release of healthier bees. Improvements made to on-farm practices for managing bees released from quarantine, particularly to the ways bees were released and held on crops, resulted in fewer bee losses. Recovery of cells (leaf-covered cocoons containing immature new bees) from each batch of released bees was below expectation, being adversely affected by poor weather shortly after the bees were released, or by inappropriate insecticide use once the bees were established on crops. The holding of recovered cells at 2oC for two days during the over-wintering phase was found to be an effective control against a local parasitoid, Melittobia hawaiensis.

14

Outcomes • Streamlined processes for safely importing large numbers of

Canadian leafcutter bees in single shipments. • Improved methods for (a) delivering imported bees from quarantine

to lucerne crops and, (b) managing leafcutter bees on lucerne crops under Australian conditions.

• A DNA based diagnostic method for distinguishing imported leafcutter bees (Megachile rotundata) from native leafcutter bee species.

Implications This project has allowed for large numbers of leafcutter bees to be

imported from Canada in single shipments, thus overcoming the last major obstacle for establishing leafcutter bees in Australia. It is now up to the Australian lucerne industry to exploit this opportunity and move toward establishing the bee as a means to improving lucerne seed yields.

Publications Lawrence, L. & Anderson, D. (2004). Leafcutter bees lift lucerne seed production. Farming Ahead, 152: 60-62. Lawrence, L. & Anderson, D. (2004). Using leafcutter bees to improve the pollination of seed lucerne. Australian Grain, Nov-Dec, i-ii.

15

Completed Projects - Incorporate Environmental Considerations in Sustainable Production Systems

Project Title Water balance and quality study for lucerne seed

production resources by an underground aquifer

RIRDC Project No.:

DEB-5A

Researcher: Mr James De Barro Organisation: De Barro Agricultural Consulting Phone: (08) 8756 2777 Fax: (08) 8756 2778 Email: [email protected]

Objectives

• Quantify the movement of salt from the applied irrigation water,

through the soil, beyond the lucerne root zone en route back to the ground water during and between irrigation seasons.

• Produce a reliable, cost-effective method for monitoring salt accessions in irrigated lucerne seed production. Combined with the water balance study (DEB-3A) and undertaken in the same trial sites, the research will provide information to assist the understanding and management of irrigation water quality both in the research area as well as irrigated lucerne elsewhere. The research is important in developing water quality parameters for use in water allocation policy and licencing systems and is critical for the long-term future of irrigated lucerne seed production in the southeast region of South Australia. The research is pivotal in maximising the irrigation volumes available to lucerne seed producers and forces the DWLBC to be fair and honest in its development of the future licencing system.

Background The irrigated lucerne seed producer’s ability to irrigate provides an

opportunity to obtain yields above that of a dryland system and generate an income that otherwise would not be possible. The right to irrigate comes with inherited responsibilities to use the resource in an efficient and ecologically sustainable manner. Such responsibility is under increasing political and social scrutiny as the demand for the resource increases. Present day and future lucerne seed irrigators need to be seen by all sections of the community to be actively researching a solution to efficient and effective water use thereby justifying existing demand for irrigation in a sustainable system. The research aimed to develop a reliable method for quantifying the movement of salts from the applied irrigation water, through the soil, beyond the root zone en route back to the ground water during and between irrigation seasons. Research such as this is needed for irrigated lucerne seed producers to quantify the impact of their irrigation practices on their water quality. This information will provide the benchmark data for development of sustainable irrigation practices for the future. In the short and long term the research is essential for irrigated seed producers to quantify the direct impact of their irrigation practices on the underground aquifer to enable them to support their requirements in water allocation policy and licencing system implementation. This research is significantly funded from irrigated lucerne seed producers and will provide information upon which to develop improvements in efficiency whilst at least maintaining production and will be evidence to relevant government authorities and communities of irrigators consciousness of the importance of developing management systems that permit profitable yet ecologically sustainable irrigation


16

water use. Irrigators require their own independent research to collect data that can be used to support their business interests and they need to be an active participant in the research so as to achieve a fair and equitable result.

Research Five field trial sites were established in lucerne seed crops in the Keith region of South Australia. Four of the trial sites were situated on soil types typical of border check flood irrigation in the Tatiara Prescribed Wells area. A fifth site was established under a centre pivot and was located in the Coombe area, north of Keith in Tintinara Coonalpyn Prescribed Wells Area. The centre pivot site was only installed to monitor the ground water salinity and lysimeter data. The water balance aspect of this project was performed for the flood irrigation according to the methodology outlined in ‘Dividing the Droplet’ (RIRDC Pub.No. 05/116). Three lysimeters were created at each site and proved to be an effective means of sampling soil water. Lysimeter depths were approximately 1, 2 and 3 metres deep. The lysimeter enabled soil stored water to be sampled via the ceramic tip at the depth of interest. The soil water sample was analysed for salinity using the DWLBC salinity tester at the Naracoorte office. This is the same device used for salinity analysis of the district’s observation wells. Each flood site had a groundwater monitoring well installed. The wells were situated in the middle of the bay of the flood irrigated crops and halfway between the pivot’s centre and circumference. The wells were constructed to the same depth as the irrigation bore supplying the irrigation water. Each well had a continuously recording water level and salinity sensor installed. The well was located adjacent to the C-Probe and lysimeters. The water level and salinity sensor was calibrated by manual sampling. The data was recorded and transmitted by telemetry to a base computer.

17

Completed Projects (prior to 2005-2006) - Improved Production Efficiency

Project Title Solving seed production limits for sulla and purple clover

as fodders

RIRDC Project No:

UWA-65A

Researcher: Dr Mike Ewing Organisation: University of Western Australia Phone: (08) 9380 1876 Fax: (08) 9380 1140 Email: [email protected] Objectives

The project will deliver for sulla and purple clover: • Commercial cultivars of sulla and purple clover with good adaptation

and acceptable harvest/processing characteristics. • A detailed understanding of current best practice for commercial

harvest and seed processing of the target species. • A detailed understanding of the plant characters that will confer

improved harvestability and handling. • Selection methodologies for use in practical plant breeding programs

for enhanced harvest and handling characteristics. • Cohorts for further field evaluation that will provide second generation

cultivars with elite harvest/processing abilities.

Background Purple clover (Trifolium purpureum) and sulla (Hedysarum coronarium) were identified in RIRDC project UWA-30A “Sulla and Other Forage Species for Southern Australia” (Publication No. 00/41) as being highly productive species with great potential as high quality forage legumes in new farming systems for southern Australia. A major constraint to their adoption, however, is in the provision of low-cost seed, while Paratta, the original purple clover cultivar, failed commercially due to its susceptibility to clover scorch disease (Kabatiella caulivora).

Research The project identified 74 accessions of purple clover with resistance to clover scorch disease. This is the first record of resistance to the disease. The 13 promising purple clover genotypes in UWA-30 were further evaluated in WA and NSW. CPI 139465 and CIZ12Pur-A, both with resistance to clover scorch and good threshing characteristics, were identified as the best performing varieties and underwent selection for uniformity of leaf markers. CPI 139465NM, has subsequently been short-listed for cultivar release. Eighteen elite lines have also been selected for national field evaluation trials. Field evaluation of promising sulla genotypes from UWA-30 identified HRN83-A as one of the best performing line. It has been short-listed for cultivar release. New softseeded sulla genotypes that would not require post harvest dehulling have also been identified. Their further development is the subject of a new RIRDC project. Threshability experiments, using both commercial and experimental machinery, were conducted on both species to develop improved seed processing efficiencies.

18

Outcomes CPI 139465NM purple clover and HRN83-A sulla, have been short-listed

for release as new cultivars, subject to satisfactory pre-basic seed increase. A final decision on their release will be made in early 2006, in consultation with RIRDC. Elite germplasm of both species, with improved seed processing capabilities and disease resistance, has also been identified for further variety development. Reliable screening techniques in both species have been developed for threshability, while the mechanical, physical and climatic parameters for harvesting are better understood.

Implications This project has taken two relatively unknown species to Australian agriculture to the point of commercial release. This will provide industry with two new highly productive and sustainable forage options. While some seed production and processing hurdles still need overcoming to markedly reduce seed costs, this project has identified genotypes and harvesting technologies to make significant inroads towards this objective.

Publications Gajda, K. and Snowball, R. (2002). Morphological diversity of purple clover. Proceedings of the 12th Australasian Plant Breeding Conference, September 2002, Perth Western Australia, 218-221.

19

Completed Projects (prior to 2005-2006) – Export and Import Replacement Opportunities Project Title

Determine international standards for disease testing of lucerne seed

RIRDC Project No:

SAR-25A

Researcher: Dr. Kathy Ophel Keller Organisation: South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI)

Field Crops Pathology Unit Phone: (08) 8303 9368 Fax: (08) 8303 9393 Objectives

• Development of accredited protocols for bacterial wilt pathogen of lucerne

seed.

Background The export trade in lucerne seed is worth $12 million pa in Australia. All importing countries require declarations of freedom from bacterial wilt. All importing countries use tests of varying standards to accept or reject shipments. The lack of international standards for bacterial wilt (Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. insidiosus) or Verticillium wilt of lucerne exposes seed companies to potentially large losses if a shipment is rejected. The International Seed Health Initiative (ISHI) was formed by the Seed Trade Federation (FIS) to standardise disease testing and remove restrictions based on non-acceptance of disease test standards between countries. An ISHI Technical Committee was formed in 1998 to standardise testing for herbage and grass seeds. Lucerne is the first seed crop to be evaluated. There are two objectives for lucerne: to establish standards for Bacterial Wilt and Verticillium Wilt, and to select the test most suitable for routine use by testing laboratories.

Research In 1999/2000 the Technical Committee evaluated three selective media for bacterial wilt and the ELISA test developed by SARDI (SAR10A). The group also examined variation between Cmi strains internationally and commenced a comparison of methods for Verticillium wilt testing. SARDI participated in evaluation of all protocols and coordinated the evaluation of the ELISA test.

Outcomes The SARDI ELISA test worked well in 3 out of 5 laboratories. It was evident from the ELISA and media kit ring testing that stability of reagents and cultures shipped overseas is an issue. There will be continuing work to stabilise reagents to finalise adoption of the ELISA test for bacterial wilt.

Implications Acceptance of the test by the International Seed Testing Association will facilitate lucerne seed export.

Publications J Gooden, DA Samac, D Caffier, K Ophel Keller and J. Sheppard (2000). Method validation by ringtesting to establish international standards for seed testing: a case study. Poster presentation. International Conference on Plant Pathogenic Bacteria (PPB2000).

20

Completed Projects (prior to 2005-2006) – Export and Import Replacement Opportunities

Project Title

Development of a bacterial wilt test to facilitate the export of lucerne seed

RIRDC Project No:

SAR-10A

Researcher: Dr. Kathy Ophel Keller Organisation: Field Crops Pathology Unit, South Australian Research and Development

Institute (SARDI) Phone: (08) 8303 9368 Fax: (08) 8303 9393 Objectives

• A specific and rapid detection assay for bacterial wilt of lucerne will be

developed.

Background The lucerne seed industry has a total value of $8 to $10 million pa. All countries importing lucerne seed require declarations of freedom from bacterial wilt. Bacterial wilt of lucerne is caused by Clavibacter michiganense subsp. insidiosus (Cmi). Existing methods of detecting the pathogen are unreliable because they are based on plating of bacteria and subsequent visual examination of bacterial colonies. The bacterium is very difficult to isolate on growth media. A test was required which would be more sensitive and reliable and did not require plating.

Research The research project has developed an ELISA-based detection for Clavibacter michiganense subsp. insidiosus, (Cmi), the causal agent of Bacterial Wilt in lucerne, in seed.

Outcomes The availability of a test for bacterial wilt will facilitate export of lucerne seed. The test developed in this project will be tested against other methods of bacterial wilt detection as part of an International Seed Health Initiative aimed at standardisation of seed testing internationally.

Implications Availability of the test and acceptance of the test by the International Seed Testing Association will facilitate lucerne seed export.

Publications International Seed Testing Association/ International Seed Health Initiative Comparative Test Plan: Bacterial Wilt of Lucerne. Published on ISTA Web Site.

21


Project Title Seed production of creeping vigna

RIRDC Project No:

SBS-1A

Researcher: Dr Donald S. Loch Organisation: Queensland Department of Primary Industries Phone: (07) 3286 1488 Fax: (07) 3286 3094 Email [email protected]

Objectives

In relation to Vigna parkeri, • to document development and seed production of seed crops; • to determine environmental factors controlling flowering, and to explore

possible manipulation of flowering in seed crops; • to develop appropriate commercial seed production strategies and

methods, including defoliation and irrigation practices and herbicide use; • to enhance field establishment by developing effective methods for

reducing hardseededness; and • to evaluate seed production characteristics of Vigna germplasm

approaching release.

Background Vigna parkeri (creeping vigna), a cool-growing highland tropical legume from East Africa, is well adapted to the humid Australian subtropics (>1100 mm rainfall annually). Its growth habit - combining a stoloniferous mat with twining lateral ‘vines’ - ensures that it is very persistent under heavy grazing, and allows it to form stable and productive mixed pastures with a range of grasses including strongly competitive species such as kikuyu, setaria and signal grass. The cv. Shaw (released in 1984) is recognised as the premier summer legume for dairy pastures in coastal southern Queensland and northern NSW, but its widespread commercial use is constrained by seed availability.

Research The pattern of vegetative and reproductive development, and the progressive production and loss of seed in a commercial crop of cv. Shaw were recorded. The effects of day-length and moisture stress on flowering were investigated in controlled environment experiments. Pre- and post-emergence herbicides (for selective control of broadleaf and grass weeds) were screened in glasshouse and field experiments. The effectiveness and reliability of different methods of reducing hard seed levels were assessed. Seed production characteristics of promising new Vigna accessions were assessed under nursery conditions

Outcomes ‘Shaw’ did not respond to short-day conditions under controlled environment conditions, and both high temperatures and moisture stress were detrimental to plant growth. The safest herbicides for post-emergence control of broadleaf weeds are the imidizolinones (imazethapyr, imazaquin), bentazone, acifluorfen and flumetsulam, but there is the risk of some stunting of V. parkeri seedlings. The strategic use of selective grass herbicides at sub-lethal rates in late summer/early autumn was investigated to manipulate the level of the grass component in mixed swards for maximum seed production potential. In wet years, Colletotrichum and Rhizoctonia spp. can devastate maturing seed crops. Hot water treatment (20 minutes at 70°C) was the most effective means of reducing hard seed levels.


22

Implications V. parkeri is best grown for seed mixed with a grass (eg. Pennisetum

clandestinum), which can be slowed down by a sub-lethal dose of herbicide (haloxyfop, sethoxydim, etc) in January to provide a strong leafy canopy for flowering. It should not be cut back during the heat of summer, and requires good soil moisture throughout the growing season to develop a strong vegetative framework prior to flowering in February-March. Flowering in cv. Shaw appears to be triggered by a significant rainfall event once the temperature falls consistently below a temperature threshold, though the field behaviour of a second blue-flowered line (CPI 100846) is suggestive of a short-day response.

Publications Wade, J. (1999) Optimising the conditions for growth and reproductive development of Vigna parkeri, a sub-tropical legume. B.Sc. Honours Thesis, Department of Botany, University of Queensland. 30 pp.

23


Project Title Development of export markets for cold-tolerant annual

medics

RIRDC Project No:

DAS-31A

Researcher: Dr Ian Kaehne Organisation: Northfield Research Laboratories Phone: (08) 8266 8333 Fax: (08) 8261 4688 Objectives

To develop export markets for cold-tolerant annual medics by: • further demonstrating that cold-tolerant cultivars with export potential

can be economically grown in Australia • consolidating and servicing an established overseas network of

collaborators who are testing the adaptation of cold-tolerant medics in target countries

• supporting product development and encouraging evaluation of farming systems for using medics in target countries

• developing those procedures which will achieve further product improvement.

Background Annual medics were developed in southern Australia for use in pastures and

in ley farming systems in conjunction with cereal crops. Since the 1970s, this practice has also been advocated in the Mediterranean and Western Asian regions of the Old World and, as a result, significant quantities of Australian medic seed has been exported to these regions. Most Australian medic cultivars have been developed from naturalised introductions or by screening accessions from overseas, and all have been developed in the Mediterranean type environment of southern Australia. In export destinations, except for certain areas, the lowest extremes of winter temperatures are generally lower than in southern Australia. In these areas having colder winters Australian cultivars often failed because they were killed or severely damaged by frost. Consequently, in the early 1980s the export of Australia cultivators contracted as customers found that they were poorly adapted to frost-prone areas. The redevelopment of the export industry therefore required the identification of genotypes of annual medics which were adapted to the frost regimes which would be expected in target areas, and which also would have seed yielding capability so that they could be produced economically for export.

Research In Australia sites were established at Mallala and Yongala in SA, to determine levels of seed production and the grazing tolerance of the various cultivators and lines selected for evaluation. Mallala is a centre for medic seed production, and Yongala is a potential centre but is sometimes subject to severe frosts. From 1991 to 1993 various lines and check cultivators were also evaluated at La Fage in southern France, and at Tulake in northern California, USA. Attempts to evaluate material in north Africa were frustrated by drought (morocco), and civil unrest (muslim fundamentalism in Algeria).

24

Outcomes As a result of testing both in Australia and overseas, a short list of thirteen

genotypes from five species of Medicago have been chosen for further commercial assessment by the commercial partner, Seedco. Three of the species have not previously been advanced for commercial consideration in Australia.

Implications There is strong commercial interest in this project from around the world. It is difficult to predict what the demand for seed will be, but a realistic estimate is 1000 tonnes per annum for markets not currently supplied with Australian cultivators. One of the strong features of this project has been the close involvement of the commercial partner, Seedco who bring considerable experience in developing export markets.

25


Project Title Developing management systems for European varieties

of white clover for multiplication in Australia and re-export

RIRDC Project No:

SED-2A

Researcher: Mr Ted Higgs Organisation: SEEDCO Phone: (08) 8234 9333 Fax: (08) 8234 6133 Objectives

Multiply European vanities of white clover for export by: • identifying the optimum varieties suitable for multiplication in Australia • developing optimal management systems for these species.

Background White clover seed production in Australia increased following the registration of the cultivar Haifa in March 1971, and has been concentrated in the south east district of South Australia and adjacent Western Victoria. Haifa has been the dominant cultivar grown for seed. Attempts to cultivate other species have not been very successful.

Research An overview of the industry was prepared and three experiments were conducted. Experiment one compared Haifa and Huia species, also Aran, Karina, Zaoican and Grasslands Kopu were considered. Experiment two considered the species Tamar, Lune de Mai, and Crau. Experiment three gave specific regard to vernalisation and its impact on inflorescences.

Outcomes Haifa outperformed all other species. The lower success rate of these other species is proportional to the degree that the species vary from Haifa particularly in their adaptation to high latitudes and low winter temperatures.

26


Project Title

Development of Four Fodder Legume Seed Species for Export

RIRDC Project No:

SED-3A

Researcher: Dr Ross W Downes Organisation: SEEDCO Phone: (08) 8234 9333 Fax: (08) 8234 6133 Objectives

• To develop suitable varieties of fodder legumes so that seed can be

produced in Australia for export as sowing-seed.

Background In this program, varieties of species important in Europe have been modified so that high yields of quality seed can be produced by Australian seed-growers with minimal use of chemical sprays. The disease-resistant varieties that have been developed can also be used by Australian farmers interested in exporting quality hay to Asian markets.

Research The four species of fodder crops are: Trifolium alexandrinum (berseem clover), T. resupinatum (Persian clover), Vicia villosa (woolly-pod vetch) and V .sativa (common vetch). The research approach varied with species, but involved hybridisation, various forms of selection and progeny testing, and evaluation. Much of the research was conducted on commercial seed farms to ensure that the varieties produced are well adapted to the seed-growing environment.

Outcomes For Persian clover, two varieties, ‘Laser’ and ‘Leeton’, from this program are in commercial production. They have high yields of seed and are rust-resistant so that fungicides are not required. For the other three species, seeds have been sown for increase so that varieties will be released for commercial use in 1995 and 1996.

27


Project Title

Development of varieties of six species of fodder legumes for sowing-seed and hay export

RIRDC Project No:

SED-8A

Researcher: Dr Ross W Downes Organisation: Seedco Phone: (08) 82349333 Fax: (08) 82346133 Objectives

• To modify selected fodder species in order to enhance seed yield and

forage production for improved export potential.

Background Tall-growing annual fodder legumes have a long history of use in Europe for green manure, silage and hay. In Australia they have found little acceptance in contrast to the prostrate annual legumes such as sub clover and medics used for grazing. When opportunities to export quality sowing-seed to the EU arose, Australia could provide quality through seed certification schemes but not the high seed yielding varieties of fodder legumes. This program was designed to produce the required varieties for seed export with emphasis on seed yield and disease resistance under Australian farm conditions to make the varieties competitive and requiring minimal chemical inputs to seed production. At the same time, changes in the prosperity of Australian farming systems have suggested a place for fodder legumes for hay production and in crop rotations on Australian farms.

Research Following market research, six species were selected for modification. The aim was to increase their seed production in the southern Australian winter rainfall environment by adapting the crops’ growth patterns to seasonal rain expectation and to increase disease resistance under these conditions. Accessions were accumulated from various sources, direct selections were made in the field, and the most appropriate stocks were identified. Recombination was achieved by manually crossing plants to produce hybrids, or by allowing recombination to be achieved by cross-pollination by bees. Plants were selected in various locations and potential varieties were compared in plots. Plants were checked for disease resistance in the field or with artificial inoculation in glasshouses. Varieties commercialised were sown in nurseries for description and inspection in order to obtain Plant Breeders Rights.

Outcomes The following outcomes were achieved: • In common vetch (Vicia sativa) the varieties Vedura, Velero and

Vestar were released and requirements for Plant Breeders Rights have been completed. These varieties have high seed yield potential and differ in maturity, providing the opportunity for vetch to be grown in different rainfall zones. Two other selections, one early and one late flowering are also available for commercialisation

• Two varieties of woolly-pod vetch (Vicia villosa) have also been produced. One is Capello with soft seed, while Haymaker Plus has uniform flowering and high seed yield. Both have been described for Plant Breeders Rights protection

• Elite II, a variety of berseem clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) selected for high seed yield and tolerance to Kabatiella attack has been released and PBR applied for

• In persian clover (Trifolium resupinatum var majus) the varieties Laser and Leeton were selected for rust resistance and high seed yield have

28

been described for PBR and are available commercially • A selection of arrowleaf clover (Trifolium vesiculosum) is performing

very well in both fodder and seed production in trials and is being considered for commercialisation.

• Despite intensive efforts to locate suitable types of red clover (Trifolium pratense) for seed production in a winter rainfall environment, all accessions evaluated flowered over an extended period and well into the summer. It appears that this crop not is suited for seed production in regions with winter rainfall.

Implications The eight varieties developed, and three potential varieties of fodder

legumes emerging from this program have significant potential for sowing-seed export. In addition, many of the varieties have considerable possibilities in Australia. They are being evaluated for weed control, for hay and silage production, as green manure crops in the cotton and rice industries, as cover crops for lucerne and as alternatives to grain legumes. They can increase the flexibility of farming rotations, fixing nitrogen and breaking disease cycles.

29


Project Title Development of alternative pasture legumes for use in

medium rainfall agricultural regions with untapped subsurface water, and to enhance product range in the seed and rhizobial inoculant export markets

RIRDC Project No:

DAW-50A

Researcher: Dr. S.J. Carr Organisation: Agriculture WA/CLIMA Phone: (08) 9368 3870 Fax: (08) 9367 2625 Objectives

• To develop new deep-rooted herbaceous legume species and their

root nodule bacteria adapted to the sandy and duplex soils common in medium rainfall regions of southern Australia. These species will exploit excess subsurface moisture and thereby reduce waterlogging and secondary salinity. They will increase on-farm productivity by extending the effective growing season, and their development will be exploited by the seed and inoculant export industries to expand product range in Europe and North Africa.

Background The underlying concept was to identify species able to remain green for

extended periods during late spring/early summer when rainfall in Mediterranean climates declines. Our assumption is that such pasture plants are able to use a higher proportion of the incident rainfall, an important consideration in decreasing the rate of secondary salinisation. Another selection criteria pertained to seed production. Historically pasture species such as sub-clover have been suction harvested in a slow, environmentally damaging and certainly non-sustainable process. We aimed to select species with high seed yielding capacity and that does not require suction harvesting.

Research The research conducted was split between standard field evaluation of known pasture plants (eg. crimson clover) used in Mediterranean regions, and more basic research to identify new species with the attributes we considered desirable (eg. Biserrula pelecinus). In meeting the selection criteria we had set, we concluded the plant ideotypes we were targeting were generally more suited to ‘cut and carry’ types rather than regenerating farming rotational pasture species. Hence, we were not constrained by attempting to fit in with parameters such as conventional hard seed levels.

Outcomes Three new pasture legumes (Trifolium vesiculosum cv Cefalu; Trifolium incarnatum cv Caprera and Biserrula pelecinus cv Casbah) and a specific rhizobial inoculant for each cultivar were commercialised during the final stages of this research program, and the commencement of a related fodder project (UWA-30). Several other species with commercial prospects were also identified, and are subject to further evaluation.

Implications The transition of these three new pasture legumes into commerce has recently commenced. Unlike new varieties of standard pasture species like subterranean clover which blend immediately into current management systems, these new products require additional support. The ultimate success in increasing the profitability and sustainability of agriculture in Mediterranean regions will rely heavily on appropriate developmental support from government, seed industry representatives and private agronomists.

30

Completed Projects (prior to 2005-2006) - Availability of Technical and Economic Information Project Title Practical guidelines for sub clover seed production in south

eastern Australia

RIRDC Project No:

DAV-169A

Researcher: Angela Avery Organisation: Agriculture Victoria Rutherglen Phone: 02 60 304 500 Fax: 02 60 304 600 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• To increase the profitability, sustainability and the market profile of the

subclover seed production industry (including the RIRDC Pasture Seed Program) through the development and publication of production based guidelines.

Background Trifolium subterraneum (subclover) is an important legume for farming systems

in South Eastern Australia. The subclover seed industry is small when compared to other agricultural industries but is of great importance to Australian agriculture as it supplies affordable, high quality legume seed to many grazing and cropping enterprises. Economic viability and long-term sustainability are major challenges for this industry, with industry analysis revealing increased production costs, declining seed yield and a fall in the number of growers. The continued ability of Australia to produce quality seed at an acceptable price for both the domestic and export markets is critical. Guidelines and benchmarks to support decisions relating to subclover seed production will increase the competitiveness and economic and environmental sustainability of the industry. Before this project there were no guidelines available for the production of subclover for seed production.

Research Guidelines based upon information from past and current research, seed certification officers and case studies of leading farmers/enterprises have been developed. Scientists, farmers and industry for accuracy, relevance and practicality reviewed these guidelines before being published. The guidelines detail critical areas for the production of quality seed, for example soil phosphorus levels, weed densities and disease and grazing sequences to optimise seed production.

Outcomes/ Implications

The guidelines provide useful information, however in some areas available data and knowledge restricted the detail and further refinement of guidelines. Clearly continued research and development is required to continue to improve efficiency and sustainability of subclover seed production. There is a need to work with subclover seed grower groups on-farm and in-crop to establish benchmarks and useful monitoring programs. While the publication is targeted to subclover growers much of the information will be relevant to all growers of subclover pastures. Improved contribution of subclover to the grazing and cropping industry is likely to build further confidence in this species.

Publications The final product of this project was the publication “Practical guidelines for subclover seed production in south-eastern Australia”, RIRDC publication No R01/159

31

Completed Projects (prior to 2005-2006) - Availability of Technical and Economic Information Project Title A model for expansion of the Australian domestic temperate

pasture seed market

RIRDC Project No:

DAV-106A

Researcher: Mr Peter Schroder Organisation: Rural Consulting Phone: (03) 5572 3825 Fax: (03) 5572 3828 Email: [email protected] Objectives

To develop a promotional model that will double the demand for pasture seed in temperature Australia where grazing is the main enterprise.

Background Australia produces about 28,000 tonnes of pasture seed annually with an estimated value of $67 million. Certified temperate pasture seed production statistics from 1980 – 81 to 1992 – 93 show a stagnant market situation. A National Seed Industry Workshop held in Canberra in 1990, which was funded by RIRDC, identified improving market penetration as one of six priority areas. The future viability of the pasture seed industry depends on action being taken on this. ‘Growing’ the domestic pasture seed market is particularly attractive as the infrastructure is already in place. This means expansion can be achieved quickly, at a relatively low cost and with minimal risk. The goal will not be achieved by tinkering around with product, price, promotion and place.

Research The project involved five integrated steps: 1. Qualitative market research, from which flowed a model. 2. Implementation of the model over 2 years. 3. Evaluation of the impact of the implementation. 4. Quantify the size and attitudinal profile of the different market segments

identified. 5. Testing, in other regions, to verify the validity of the model.

The first 4 steps were done in one district in south west Victoria. The fifth step involved work in several other ares in Victoria and with one rural merchandise group.

Outcomes The strongest impression gained from the qualitative research was graziers lacked a detailed understanding of the system they managed and the key drivers of its profitability. Two main groups were identified – intensive and extensive graziers. The intensive group had a productivity orientation, aimed to run their enterprise as a business and were comfortable working with anyone who may be able to help them. The extensive group focussed on reducing costs, over coming problems and relied heavily on rural merchandisers for information. Peers influenced decisions in both groups but this was particularly strong in the extensive group. Over 2 years 5 groups of intensive graziers were taken through a program by the author that challenged them to take a managing directors view of their business and to identify it’s key profit drivers. In this time 3 groups of intensive graziers were taken through a program, in their paddocks, by a rural merchandiser, to solve a problem which was of concern to them. Evaluation of the program found there had been a significant change in the way pastures were considered by both groups. These changes flowed through into increased sales of pasture related inputs. Testing parts of the model in other areas indicated it could be applied successfully with very little modification.

32

Discussions with rural merchandisers added further to this belief. The quantitative research in the main study are found 35% of graziers fitted into the intensive group, 21% into the extensive group and would be receptive to the program and 46% were unlikely to ever become more interested in pastures no matter what approach was taken.

Implications Change to the consumption of pasture seed will be largely determined by the actions taken by local service providers to the grazing industry. It is recommended that an extension program be put in place to sell the vision flowing from this project to these providers and ensure they have the knowledge, skills and follow up support required to get local programs well established. The follow up support is crucial because of the sharp change in mind set required by all these providers.

Publications Schroder, P M, (2001). A model for expansion of the Australian domestic temperate pasture seed market. RIRDC Publication No: R01/132. Schroder, P M, O’Keeffe, M J and Marks, N L (1997). A model to double the demand for temperate pasture seed in Australia. Wool Technology and Sheep Breeding, 45 (1) pp 81–87. Schroder, P M and O’Keeffe, M J. (1997). Getting more people to sow more pasture more often. 2nd Australasia and Pacific Extension Conference, Albury November 1997. Pp 541-546.

33

Completed Projects (prior to 2005-2006) - Availability of Technical and Economic Information

Project Title A study of the costs of production of lucerne, medic and

clover seeds

RIRDC Project No:

HAS-5A

Researcher: Hassall & Associates Pty Ltd Organisation: Hassall & Associates Pty Ltd Phone: (02) 9241 5655 Fax: (02) 9241 5684 Objectives

• To provide an overview of the industry, analyse the costs of

production, identify the role of environmental regulation and identify future research priorities for the industry.

Background The production of temperate pasture seeds in Australia is diverse. In

addition, the pasture seed industry within Australia has also been subject to significant changes in recent years. Detailed information is not available on the costs of production, assembly and distribution. This information is essential for providing some benchmarks to allow individual growers to gauge their performance and also to guide future directions for research and development (R&D).

Research This report was developed from available literature, the views of industry representatives and the results of a survey of forty pasture seed producers across Australia. Costs of production were analysed by species, State and by production method (irrigation vs dryland).

Outcomes a) Profile: The annual value of production for temperate legume pasture seeds in 1999 was estimated to be $28 million. Production is highest in SA, then Victoria, NSW and WA. There are about 640 certified producers in these four States.

b) Annual costs of production: ranged from $386/ha (medics) to $661/ha (lucerne). Costs were lowest in WA. Key cost components were irrigation (where relevant), growing and harvesting costs.

c) Environmental Regulation: none specific to pasture seed producers. Priority environmental issues included: minimising soil damage from harvesting, developing integrated management models, minimising inputs of pesticides and improving water use efficiencies.

d) Priorities for future research: improving efficiency and effectiveness of chemicals, improving harvest technology, decreasing seed testing and certification costs, and researching new marketing opportunities for products.

Implications This project provides a basis for future R&D as well as providing data that

can be used by producers in benchmarking their costs of production.

Publications Hassall & Associates (1999) A study of the costs of production of lucerne, medic and clover seed in Australia, RIRDC Publication No R01/022.

34


Project Title Pasture establishment and management publication

RIRDC Project No:

KDI-7A

Researcher: Mark Casey Organisation: Kondinin Group Phone: (08) 9478 3343 Fax: (08) 9478 3353 Objectives

To survey farmers on their current pasture practises • To collate information on innovative methods of pasture

establishment, renovation and management • To publish a 300-400 page manual on the topic

Background Pastures are an integral part of Australian farming, and considerable research in directed at solving various pasture problems. New establishment and management strategies are being adopted by farmers, but much of the information resulting from pasture research does not effectively reach the farmer. Surveys have shown that younger farmers particularly, do not have the knowledge on pasture issues that their fathers had. This has lead to a general failure to maintain soil fertility levels under pastures, and to inadequate control of pests and diseases; a failure to replace pastures which have degenerated; and, a failure to adopt sustainable grazing practices. The publication resulting material (case studies on successful practices etc) was produced as a pasture manual.

Research Following surveys of farmer practices in relation to pasture establishment and management, topics were identified on which contributions could be made by pasture experts in the various fields being considered. The resulting material, (case studies on successful practices etc) was produced as a pasture manual.

Outcomes This project has resulted in a high quality book of some 435 pages, which has been well accepted by the farming community.

Implications This book provides, in easily accessible format, all the information which is needed for farmers to establish and maintain pastures in all the temperate regions of Australia. Its use should result in more profitable animal production, and the improvement of crop yields (particularly of grain crops). The information provided should allow the better establishment and management of a wide range of pasture types, and should arrest the decline in general knowledge of pastures which is currently so clearly lacking in younger farmers.

35


Project Title

Lucerne seed check: a management support system approach to improving lucerne seed profitability

RIRDC Project No:

DAN-75A

Researcher: R B Walker Organisation: NSW Agriculture Phone: 063 913 174 Fax: 063 913 605 Objectives

• To increase the rolling average of lucerne seed yield in the Lachlan

Valley.

Background A potential existed to expand existing markets for lucerne seed at a state, national and international level. By accelerating the adoption of seed production technology, growers would be able to increase seed yields through the efficient use of inputs, improving the long term prospects of the industry in the Lachlan Valley and making a valuable contribution to the New South Wales economy.

Research Through consultation with seed growers a management support system was developed encompassing current technology providing management targets to achieving maximum economic seed yields. A paddock recording diary of key checkpoints was also developed. During the term of the project growers were expected to utilise the accompanying resource information compiled as an aid in making their management decisions. They were also encouraged to monitor their crops regularly, recording details of field observations, inputs and outputs in the recording diary. At key checkpoints, growers were expected to participate in group field inspections and workshops. With the aid of visiting specialists and members of the team, growers were assisted in meeting crop management targets in line with the established checkpoint approach. Seed growers were also encouraged to have an input into the progress of the project. Participating growers were assembled at the end of each season to discuss the results and reasons for varying seed yield and crop profitability. Opinions would also be sought on the format of paddock recording diaries. When undertaking scheduled field observations seed growers were asked to record data and management strategies for analysis at the end of each year.

Implications The project has resulted in better insect management by growers. A change in the insecticides used and their pattern of use has led to savings to growers whilst reducing the impact on beneficial insects and pollinating honey bees. Tentative economic thresholds and a method of monitoring seed crops has been established. An outcome of the project is the acknowledgment by growers that plant densities of 15-20 plants per square metre is most desirable in the Lachlan Valley when establishing lucerne specifically for seed production. More than 60% of growers now undertake both winter and spring weed control programs and are able to correctly identify weeds. Seedgrowers now also have a better understanding of crop pollination and pollinating honey bees.

36

A “Water Watch” service has been established and is supported by a resource information booklet compiled by the team. The adoption of the use of the “Water Watch” service, improved irrigation management techniques and the fostering of a commercially available Neutron probe irrigation scheduling service has been an important outcome of the project. Growers understand that to harvest quality seed a lucerne seed crop needs to be free of weeds and sufficiently mature before commencing seed harvest. Failure to have a crop in the correct condition at harvest may lead to increased mechanical damage of seed which reflects on the quality of seed placed on the market. A major achievement of the project has been the acceptance by seedgrowers that most factors contributing to achieving high yields are controllable.

37


Project Title Development of rapid biochemical methods for the

identification of medic cultivars

RIRDC Project No:

DAV-57A

Researcher: Martin Mebalds & James Woodward Organisation: Institute of Horticultural Development Phone: (03) 210 9226 Fax: (03) 800 3521 Objectives

• To develop electrophoretic ‘finger-prints’ capable of differentiating

between ‘look-a-like’ cultivars of annual medics.

Background Some of the newer and superior cultivars of annual medics are morphologically indistinguishable from older, agronomically different cultivars. If the benefits conferred to pastoral industries through development of these elite cultivars are to be exploited and sustained, then methods need to be developed for distinguishing between these ‘look-a-likes’. The aim of this research has been to develop electrophoretic ‘finger-prints’ to distinguish between cultivars. The procedure should be rapid, inexpensive, and lend themselves to automation. The technology should benefit the producer, and ultimately, the pastoralist end user of the seed, by the ease and cost effectiveness with which the ‘finger-prints’ might be generated. The maxim caveat emptor will always be with us, but seed certification and the ability, when necessary, to quickly identify seed will afford considerable protection to the buyer.

Research Electrophoretic tests were developed for a range of cultivars of annual medics.

Outcomes Successful tests were developed for a distinguishing cultivars of annual medics in eight different mixtures, each containing two cultivars. An illustrated manual outlining the procedures for electrophoretic identification of these major cultivars has been produced.

Implications Those concerned with the need to identify morphologically indistinguishable cultivars of annual medics, now have a reliable, established technique for doing so biochemically. A manual describing the procedures is available for their use. Application of this technology in seed certification procedures will extend the useful number of years paddock may be used in the production of certified medic seed.

Publications Woodward, J. Electrophoresis Manual to assist in Annual Medic Mebalds, M.I (Medicago sp.) Seed Identification (1993) Department of Agriculture Victoria

38

Completed Projects (prior to 2005-2006) - Availability of Technical and Economic Information Project Title Developing an agronomic package to maximise profitability

of sub clover seed crops

RIRDC Project No:

DAN-76A

Researcher: Dr Jim Virgona Organisation: NSW Agriculture Phone: (02) 6938 1999 Fax: (02) 6923 0809 Objectives

To identify key agronomic and management factors limiting seed yield in subterranean (sub)clover seed crops; • To devise and implement a management package to assist growers in

maximising yield and profitability • To identify priorities of future R&D into sub clover seed production • To collate and summarise existing knowledge on sub clover seed

production as a basis for recommendations.

Background Sub clover is the predominant legume component of pastures in southern Australia. The production of quality seed is vital to its success as a component of pastures and to the introduction of new superior cultivars. Australia grows all its sub clover seed and even exports a small amount. However, the sub clover seed industry is relatively small and technological problems encountered by growers have rarely been addressed. Yields vary widely within the industry (in NSW from 200-1000 kg/ha) and the reasons for this are not clear. Moreover, yields are far below those in experimental plots which are harvested by hand rather than the commercial suction harvester. The problem then is one of highly variable yields which, in many cases, means only marginal returns. In addition it is thought that there is also potential for increasing yield amongst the better growers (ie there is a considerable gap between yields in experimental plots and those of the leading farmers).

Research The research strategy for this project has been to monitor crops newly sown in 1992. For each crop all relevant management data has been recorded. In addition, sampling sites have been established in each paddock and monitored for plant population, weed population, soil conditions (phosphorus, pH, Al and Mn) and yield components. The data was analysed to determine the management factors associated with more profitable yields and crop characteristics that are related to high crop yield.

Outcomes Soil phosphate was generally at levels known to be limiting for sub clover production. Herbicides were frequently used, but not necessarily achieving long term weed control. In the establishment year sowing rate and red legged earth mite control were the two most important factors explaining differences in potential yield between seed growers. In the two regenerating years, a suite of factors were implicated by aspects of weed control, current and historical, and cultivar were the common factors influencing yield in these years.

39

Implications The use of fertiliser should be increased to ensure crops are grown at optimal

levels of soil phosphate. This simple message needs to be addressed by both producers and their advisers. Likewise, in the year of establishment growers should use a sowing rate that will achieve at least 200 plant/m2 and carefully control red legged earth mite. Future research should concentrate on weed control. Two areas should be addressed: • effective use of herbicides, including examining the suitability of new

herbicides under commercial conditions and examining weed thresholds • cropping systems research - the use of break crops eg cereal/canola to

increase the weed control options after (for example) two years of seed production.

40


Project Title On farm evaluation of the adaptation, distribution and

potential value of lucerne in Western Australia

RIRDC Project No:

DAW-60A

Researcher: Roy Latta Organisation: Agriculture Western Australia Phone: (08) 9821 1755 Fax: (08) 9821 1127 Objectives

• To develop the lucerne seed industry by increasing area sown to

lucerne in Western Australia.

Background Lucerne has the potential to improve agricultural productivity and sustainability in Western Australia through filling the summer-autumn feed gap, improving the legume component of pastures, lowering water tables and controlling dryland salinity. The identification and release of the improved Rhizobia strain (WSM826) through RIRDC project DAW-36A will increase the area sown from 8000 ha’s (ABS, 1994) to at least 100,000 ha’s by 2000.

Research The study looked at lucerne persistence and production with alternative Rhizobia strains. It compared the plant density and biomass of 7 Rhizobia strains applied to several lucerne cultivars of different growth activity ratings. The experiment was established at Pingrup in 1994. The biomass production for 1996 and remaining plant density were measured. Experiments at Katanning and Jerramungup also compared lucerne cultivar persistence and production.

Outcomes Two years after the Pingrup experiment was established there was no difference in annual pasture production irrespective of Rhizobia strain applied or cultivar sown. The highly winter active cultivar Sceptre had a higher plant density than all other cultivars. At Katanning and Jerramungup the highly winter active cultivars Sceptre and Quadrella produced more biomass over the winter than the winter dormant cultivars, Cimmarron, Prime and P581 but persistence was similar across cultivars.

Implications The findings from the study provided information for current industry recommendations which include: • Sow highly winter active cultivars • Inoculate with commercial Rhizobia strain WSM 826

Extension Recommendations on cultivars and inoculation are made annually through The Western Australian Lucerne Growers newsletter, Agriculture WA Farmnotes, field days and the rural media. The estimated sowing of 20,000 ha’s of lucerne in 1997 is testimony to the success of this and collaborative projects.

41


Project Title

Survey to determine demand factors in pasture legume seed usage in Australia

RIRDC Project No:

UA-24A

Researcher: Dr P G Tow Organisation: Department of Agronomy and Farming Systems

University of Adelaide Phone: (08) 8303 7857 Fax: (08) 5824 8065 Objectives

To develop a survey that would assist in developing a marketing strategy to increase the use of pasture legume seeds. The main objectives were to determine: • major roles of permanent and ley pastures • farmer practices with respect to pasture species use, source of seed and

resowing of pastures • future intentions regarding the use of pastures on the farm and sources of

seed • farmer opinion on improvements thought desirable in the management of

their pastures needs for improvements in pasture legume cultivars sources of information used for decisions on pastures.

Background At the Seed Industry Research Workshop in October 1990 it was agreed that

the slow growth in sales of pasture legume seed in Australia was poorly understood. Furthermore, there is little feedback from seed users on the characteristics they require in pasture legume cultivars or the information they need to assist in pasture establishment and management. It was agreed that there is a need for the seeds industry to be more ‘market-led’ and less ‘producer-driven’.

Research A questionnaire was distributed in all areas where annual medics, subterranean clovers or lucerne are sown, in rotation with crops (ley pastures). Such areas, in total, correspond closely to the Australian cereal belt as far north as southern Queensland. Because some parts of farms may be permanently under pasture due to soil type or topography, questions on both permanent and ley pastures were included in the questionnaire.

Outcomes It was found that about 90% of respondents had more that 10 years experience in growing cereal grain; and that about 26% of respondents used private consultants to obtain further information about pastures. The overall impression was that pastures are an important part of most cereal grower's farm systems. The survey predicts that the great majority will continue to grow legume pastures to feed livestock and improve soil nitrogen.

42

Implications There are differences between states which should be taken into account when

planning future surveys and regional surveys may be necessary due to the low number of replies from each region. Information needed to develop a program for pasture improvement and a strategy for seed marketing includes: • the current state of pastures, and use and value of pasture species • most important roles of pasture on farms • future intentions on resowing of pastures • changes in pasture area and sources of seed • the need for improved management practices and cultivars • the major sources of information on pastures All these matters have been addressed by the survey. The generally high status of state departments of agriculture needs to be taken into account regarding information, as well as the tendency for farmers to use various other sources of information (eg. private consultants).

43

Completed projects (prior to 2005-2006) – Improved Production Efficiency

Project Title

Effective weed control for the Australian white clover seed industry

RIRDC Project No.:

DAV-196A

Researcher: Penny Riffkin and Michael Moerkerk DPI (Hamilton & Horsham) Organisation: Department of Primary Industries (Vic) Phone: (03) 55730900 or (03) 53622111 Fax: (03) 55711523 or (03) 53622187 Email: [email protected] au, [email protected] Objectives

• To develop effective weed control strategies for white clover seed

production in Australia. Identification of suitable herbicides, optimum rates and times of application for effective weed control is expected to increase seed yield by over 40% and reduce seed production costs (over $2 million per annum) and development of herbicide resistance.

Background Poor weed control in white clover seed crops was identified by growers

as a major threat to the White Clover Seed Industry. Although a number of herbicide effectiveness studies have been reported, generally herbicide impacts have only been assessed on white clover biomass or conducted overseas where results are not reliably transferable. This project examined the effectiveness of herbicides on weed species, the tolerance of white clover to different herbicides and the herbicide tolerance and yield potential of new white clover cultivars.

Research Fifteen herbicides were applied either alone or as a mix at different rates and timing to 11 white clover stands between 2001 and 2003. For herbicide efficacy experiments, chemicals were applied where there were high infestations of one of 4 problem weed species, Annual Ryegrass, Maltese Cockspur, Jersey Cudweed or Sowthistle. Herbicide tolerance experiments were conducted at weed free sites. The potential of 6 alternative cultivars to Haifa for seed production in the region (NuSiral, Mink, Jura, Barblanca, Demand and Huia) were also assessed.

Outcomes With a few exceptions (glufosinate), white clover seed yields were largely unaffected by the herbicides used in these experiments. On occasion white clover seed or biomass yields suffered minor reductions but results were inconsistent. Herbicides applied often had little or no significant effect on weeds compared to the unsprayed control. Some individual treatment provided varying levels of control but results were inconsistent across sites and years. There was some indication that propyzamide may offer some control but this chemical is not registered for use in white clover.

Implications Growers are spending 25% of variable costs on herbicides that are having little or no effect on weed control. Long-term use of chemicals under increasing weed burdens will threaten the sustainability of the industry through weed resistance and a lack of weed control options. Growers need to investigate and adopt alternative strategies to herbicide use for the control of weeds in white clover seed crops.

Publications Riffkin P, Moerkerk M, Kearney G, Jahufer Z and Argall R..Effective weed control for the Australian white clover seed industry. (2005, 64pgs). RIRDC Publication Number 05/089.

44


Project Title Development of an integrated control strategy for

"lucerne yellows" disease in lucerne

RIRDC Project No:

US-85A

Researcher: Dr. Geoff Gurr Organisation: The University of Sydney Phone: (02) 6360 5551 Fax: (02) 6360 5590 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• To identify the cause of the important disease 'lucerne yellows'; to

determine how it is spread; and to devise, test and extend a strategy for best practice disease management.

Background Lucerne yellows is one of several major lucerne diseases in NSW and has

a particularly severe impact on seed production, causing death of plants and reduced vigour in those that survive. The magnitude of this disease problem was assessed in an earlier RIRDC pilot project (US-75A Occurrence and severity of ‘lucerne yellows’ disease in lucerne seed crops) that estimated annual losses in NSW and SA to $7M pa.

Research The project has used electron microscopy, molecular biology and traditional plant pathology methods to investigate the cause of the disease. Field surveys explored spatial and temporal development of symptoms in newly sown lucerne and the relevance of non-crop vegetation. Several field experiments explored scope for symptom alleviation as well as disease management via control of vector insects. Transmission test have investigated vector species.

Outcomes Electron microscopy and molecular biology methods have identified a new species of phytoplasma (and no other pathogen) associated with diseased plants. Field surveys showed that newly sown crops develop symptoms within 32 weeks of sowing and that within-field distribution of symptomatic plants was highest in sections of the crop margin. No indications of seed borne transmission have been found. Leafhopper transmission is supported by results. Field distribution of leafhoppers was correlated with disease levels and they were found also on some field-side weed species. Experimental treatments of non-crop vegetation with herbicide or insecticide reduced catches of leafhoppers and reduced disease levels. A range of possible symptom alleviation treatments failed to reduce disease levels in a field experiment.

Implications Results indicate that even newly-sown crops are at risk of infection of lucerne yellows – a disease caused by a novel phytoplasma and transmitted by leafhoppers. Disease management appears possible by reducing immigration of vectors from non-crop vegetation adjacent to the crop. Pesticide applications may accomplish this though scope exists to develop physical barriers as a low-input strategy.

http://www.rirdc.gov.au/99comp/ps1.htm#US-75A

http://www.rirdc.gov.au/99comp/ps1.htm#US-75A

45

Publications Pilkington L. J., et al. Detection and identification of a phytoplasma

associated with ‘Australian lucerne yellows’ disease. Plant Pathology (submitted)

Pilkington L. J., et al. (2001). First report of a phytoplasma associated with ‘Australian lucerne yellows’ disease. New Disease Reports, (unpaginated) <http://www.bspp.org.uk/ndr/index.htm>.

Pilkington, L. J., et al. (2003). Australian lucerne yellows: Spatial and temporal analysis of symptom severity and purported vector density. 8th International Congress of Plant Pathology, Christchurch, New Zealand.

Pilkington, L. J et al. (2003). Limiting immigration of suspected vectors of Australian lucerne yellows disease. 8th International Congress of Plant Pathology, Christchurch, New Zealand.

Pilkington, L. J et al. (2001) 'Lucerne yellows' disease - TEM and molecular studies. Conference Handbook, 13th Biennial Plant Pathology Conference, 24-27 September 2001, Cairns, Australia. p 276.

http://www.bspp.org.uk/ndr/index.htm

46


Project Title Improved pollination of seed lucerne with leafcutter bees

RIRDC Project No:

CSE-86A

Researcher: Dr. Denis Anderson Organisation: CSIRO Entomology Phone: (02) 6246 4148 Fax: (02) 6246 4000 Email: [email protected] Objectives

To improve the profitability of the lucerne seed industry by significantly increasing yields through improved pollination. The research will faciltiate the establishment of a leafcutter bee industry by:

• Improving current quarantine import protocols for leafcutter bees • Developing methods to improve the recovery of leafcutter bees

released on to lucerne crops • Identifying and characterizing pests and pathogens of imported

bees and their offspring • Production of a booklet outlining requirements for successfully

importing leafcutter bees and multiplying these in different Australian environments.

Background There is significant scope for improving profits from producing lucerne

seed in Australia. Annual production of lucerne seed is only about one-third of that achieved in the US and Canada and the difference is largely attributed to better pollination in the US and Canada from the use of leafcutter bees (Megachile rotundata). Early attempts to establish leafcutter bees in Australia were unsuccessful. In 1997 the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) commissioned a risk assessment on the bees and later that year approved a procedure for importing them from Canada. Two introductions followed: 300,000 cells containing prepupae from Canada in September1997; and 450,000 cells containing prepupae from Canada in December 1998.

Research Adult leafcutter bees were reared from these cells in CSIRO’s high security quarantine facility in Canberra and released on to lucerne crops in NSW. However, very few bees survived. Their failure to survive was attributed to the severe quarantine treatments they passed through prior to release. The current project was designed to build on the lessons learnt from the 1997-98 introductions. In the first year (1999), 110,00 leafcutter bee prepupae that had been carried-over in cold storage from December 1998 introduction were reared into adults in quarantine and released on to lucerne crops in NSW and the ACT. In May 2000 and May 2001 a further 700,000 and 1.2 million Canadian leafcutter bee prepupae were introduced and similarly processed. During each of these introductions attempts were made to (a) improve quarantine procedures, (b) improve the way bees were released to, and managed on, lucerne crops and, (c) identify new pests and parasites affecting the bees in the Australian environment.

47

Outcomes • An improved procedure for importing Canadian leafcutter bees.

• Identification of (a) high temperatures and (b) the production of second generation bees within the same season, as factors that will affect the future management of leafcutter bees in Australia.

• Identification of a parasitoid (Melittobia hawaiensis) a cuckoo bee (Coelioxys sp.) and several moth species, as pests that will affect the future management of leafcutter bees in Australia.

Implications • An improved procedure for importing Canadian leafcutter bees will

lead to the establishment of the bee in Australia. • Methods are needed for managing second generation and parasitoids

under Australian conditions.

48


Project Title Evaluation of lucerne varieties for seed yield and strategies

to enhance seed productivity

RIRDC Project No:

IPB-1A

Researcher: Dr Ross Downes Organisation: Innovative Plant Breeders Phone: 02 6255 1461 Fax: 02 6278 4676 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• To identify lucerne varieties with the greatest yield potential; to identify

genetic and environmental factors related to low seed production; and to advise breeders of attributes which positively affect yield potential.

Background Lucerne seed production makes an important contribution both to exports,

and for hay and pasture production. However there is variation among varieties in yield and reliability of seed production and seed growers have no way of determining which varieties are best, and how production can be made more reliable. There is also a discrepancy between average seed yields and superior production obtained by experienced growers.

Research In studies at Keith and Forbes, many varieties were evaluated. It was concluded that an ideal variety would be one which contains many plants which have flowers which ‘trip’ readily, and produce large numbers of pods quickly. Observation revealed that seed yield is limited by sub-optimal plant numbers, and modified by such management factors as irrigation timing and pest control. Seasonal conditions, particularly rain at flowering time, have major effects on pollination, fertilisation and seed production. Lucerne varieties are variable, containing many unproductive plants but there is ample variation in lucerne for the development of varieties capable of high seed yield.

Outcomes Evaluation of varieties for seed production in seed production districts would assist in identification of varieties with high yield potential. If fields contain adequate numbers of plants, seed yield potential is optimised. If crops are staggered so that risks imposed by rain at flowering time are minimised, losses will be reduced. There is cause to compare the potential of irrigated spring crops and traditional irrigated summer seed crops, particularly with respect to yield and water use efficiency. If breeders include seed yield among selection criteria, higher yielding varieties can be produced and profitability of seed production will be increased.

Implications Increased seed production can be expected and profitability can be increased by use of appropriate varieties. Yield can be increased by development of varieties that do not require pollinating insects for seed production. Irrigated and dry land spring crops offer prospects for substantial increases in area devoted to lucerne seed production.

Publications Downes, R. W. 2001. An evaluation of lucerne varieties and strategies to enhance seed yield. RIRDC Publication No R02/099.

49


Project Title: Development of new alternative legumes and appropriate

weed control technology

RIRDC Project No:

DAN-163A

Researcher: Mr. Graeme Sandral Organisation: NSW Department of Agriculture Phone: 02 6938 1850 Fax: 02 6938 1809 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• To develop weed control options for new alternative annual legume

species released from the National Alternative Annual Legume Improvement Program. Weed control options identified will ensure high seed crop yields and purity and assist with species adoption.

• To select legumes suitable for direct heading to reduce harvest costs and environmental damage caused by vacuum harvesting procedures. This will reduce seed costs and enhance species adoption.

• To significantly expand the range of annual legumes available for seed production by selecting new species and cultivars suitable for domestic and overseas markets and problem soils and climates in Australia.

Background The project tackled three problems associated with the annual legume

seed industry. The first two are closely related and focus on developing new annual legumes that can be direct headed using a header harvester and on the development of new cultivars to increase market diversification. The problem is that all sub clover and annual medics seed crops have to be vacuum harvested which causes considerable soil erosion and structural degradation. To avoid this and increase market diversification new products are required that can be header harvestable and become new choices for seed crop production. The third problem relates to weed control in commercial seed crops and pasture paddocks. To control invading weeds herbicides are often used however considerable herbicide damage can occur to the sown legume. To avoid this knowledge is needed on the phytotoxicity of a range of herbicides that are used on commercially sown annual legumes.

Research A series of experiments were established to identify header harvestable annual legumes. This research was completed in close association with the National Annual Pasture Legume Improvement Program (NAPLIP). In addition a large number of experiments were undertaken to identify the herbicide toxicity of various herbicide by cultivar combinations.

Outcomes Two cultivars have been developed and released from the efforts of this project and the NAPLIP. The two cultivars are Frontier balansa clover, and Prima gland clover. Both cultivars are header harvestable. Frontier was commercially available last year (2001) and Prima gland clover is commercially available this year (2002). A large database of information has also been generated on the phytotoxicity of annual legumes to a range of broadleaf herbicides. This information will be analysed during 2002 with the aim of releasing the information in the Weed Control in Lucerne and Pastures 2003 booklet.

Implications Information on herbicide phytotoxicity will ensure any unnecessary legume seed crop losses are avoided through better knowledge of likely non-target

50

plant damage with herbicide application. In addition herbicide use in pasture systems will be better target to ensure any unnecessary plant losses are avoided. The new cultivars Frontier and Prima are new legume seed crops that can be direct headed. They provide new seed crop options for seed growers and importantly do not require vacuum harvesting and hence environmental soil degradation is avoided.

Publications Sandral G. and Dear B. Weed control options in annual pasture legumes (2005, 25pgs) RIRDC Publication Number R05/102

51

Completed projects (prior to 2005-2006) – Improved Production Efficiency Project Title Improved seed production: “Towards 1.5 tonnes”

RIRDC Project No:

DAV-144A

Researcher: Angela Avery Organisation: Agriculture Victoria Rutherglen, RMB 1145 Chiltern Valley Road Phone: (02) 60 304 500 Fax: (02) 60 304 600 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• To increase production of quality subterranean clover seed by 50% in

northern Victoria and southern NSW. • To develop a grower network in the subterranean clover seed production

industry and to facilitate shared learning and communication.

Background Trifolium subterraneum (sub clover) is an important legume for farming systems in South Eastern Australia. The sub clover seed industry is small when compared to other agricultural industries but is of great importance to Australian agriculture as it supplies affordable, high quality legume seed to many grazing and cropping enterprises. Economic viability and long-term sustainability are major challenges for this industry with industry analysis revealing increased production costs, declining seed yield and a fall in the number of growers The principles behind sub clover seed production have changed little over the last sixty years. There has been a significant increase in mechanisation of the harvesting process as well as adoption of improved agronomic practices. Despite these advances little research or extension has been directly targeted towards the sub clover seed industry over the last four decades. It was from this basis that the project Improved sub clover seed production evolved.

Research The general aim of the experimental work was to explore management options needed to increase seed yield through enhanced herbage, nutrient and weed management. In Victoria, all research was conducted at an irrigation site at Katamatite. In NSW, research was conducted at two dryland locations at Mangoplah and Wagga. The sites were linked through common design and measurements and through shared extension activities. Experiments were clustered into three broad management areas, herbage, nutrient and weed management.

Outcomes/ Implications

From this study, it would appear that on irrigated sub clover seed crops cutting for silage is a good management practice as it offers a combination of seed yield and minimal residual herbage at harvest time. Herbicides such as Paraquat and Sprayseed in spring at or post 5% flowering should be avoided, timing should be between June and July. This is however likely to be dependent upon season and cultivar of sub clover. . Further work is required to better define the optimal window to use these chemical tools. Defoliation of sub clover seed crops, regardless of method, post about 30-50% flowering (October) has the potential to significantly reduce seed yield. Ideally, defoliation, as with herbicide application, should not occur after 2 weeks before the onset of flowering. This study concluded that 300 kg/ha of superphosphate is below maintenance levels for both dryland and irrigated sub clover seed production. Growers should also use gypsum to increase seed yield should cautiously, with application decisions being based upon on a combination of soil and seed analysis results. A key outcome of the project was the facilitation of networks between Victorian and NSW growers. This enabled them to address important issues, such as supply of basic seed, R&D levy collection and Plant Breeders Rights legislation.

Publications Clover Seed Summit Proceeding February 1997.

53

Completed projects (prior to 2005-2006) – Improved Production Efficiency Project Title Evaluating and managing lucerne seed wasp in lucerne seed

crops

RIRDC Project No:

DEB – 1A

Researcher: James De Barro Organisation: De Barro Agricultural Consulting Phone: (08) 8756 2777 Fax: (08) 8756 2776 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• To quantify the peak presence of lucerne seed wasp in lucerne seed crops

and its cost to lucerne seed producers and the industry; and determine the influence of sanitation and closing date of lucerne seed crops on wasp population development. A management plan for lucerne seed wasp will be produced for lucerne seed producers and industry related personnel.

Background The Australian lucerne seed industry is worth over A$100 million to the

Australian economy with over A$13 million in seed exports. The rapid increase in dryland lucerne seed production in Australia’s major production area, South Australia’s south east region, is increasing the area for the wasp to develop populations capable of infesting irrigated seed. The wasp is capable of overlapping generations and the use of insecticides as the sole means of control is not sustainable. There is a real threat to producer returns and international market share. The project represents cost effective research to increase understanding of the wasp’s impact on seed production and improve its management.

Research The research quantified the peak presence of lucerne seed wasp in lucerne seed crops and the cost to lucerne seed growers and the industry. The influence of sanitation and closing date of lucerne seed crops on wasp population development was determined. A management plan for lucerne seed wasp was produced for lucerne seed growers and industry related personnel.

Outcomes The wasp develops its population peak in response to quantity of available host at the susceptible stage rather than any environmental condition such as day length or temperature. Seed loss directly caused by the seed wasp was 67.39 kg/ha, which equates an estimated loss to producers in the vicinity of A$2.0 million per season. In 1999/00 a total of 4993 tonne of the lucerne seed at a value of A$3.63/kg was exported, equating to a value in excess of A$18.2 million. 34.0% relative seed yield losses were calculated as attributable to the wasp, which is equivalent to A$5.18 million of lost export potential. Sanitation and time of crop closing trials on properties with a history of significant seed wasp infestations have shown that whilst seed wasp presence has not been eradicated, timely sanitation practices such as mowing, grazing and spraying significantly reduced the wasp’s presence in the seed crops. Coupled with alterations in closing date of the seed crop further impacts on seed wasp presence were achieved. Two species of parasitic wasps were isolated from infected seed. Idiomacromerus perplexus and Pteromalus were collected from offal from across the district providing evidence that they are widespread but in low populations. They have also been detected in Forbes and Deniliquin in New South Wales.

54

Implications A key concept in the management of the lucerne seed wasp is to concede that

this pest cannot be eradicated due to the scale of lucerne production (seed and pasture crops) in Australia. Industry must learn to live with its presence and accept that a degree of damage is a normal aspect of lucerne seed production and that techniques such as sanitation and crop closure timing reduce the pest’s impact.

Publications De Barro, James (2001); Living with the enemy: managing lucerne seed wasp in lucerne seed crops, RIRDC publication No R01/136, Eight page pocket guide also available, RIRDC publication No R01/135

55


Project Title Management of phytophthora root rot in subterranean clover

for a viable pasture seeds industry

RIRDC Project No:

DAV-94A

Researcher: Dr Ramez Aldaoud, Wendy Guppy, Dr Sze Flett, Tony Cook Organisation: Department of Natural Resources and Environment -

Agriculture Victoria Institute of Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture

Phone: (03) 5833 5222 Fax: (03) 5833 5299 Objectives

• To define the most appropriate timing for cost effective fungicide application

for subclover root rot control in dryland pastures.

Background Subterranean clover (subclover) root rot is a serious disease problem caused by the fungus P. clandestina. There are currently two methods for root rot control: (1) the use of root rot resistant subclover varieties, and (2) the application of potassium phosphonate (Foli-r-Fos®). However, disease resistance is becoming threatened due to the development of new forms (races) of the fungus which are capable of breaking down resistance. In particular, race 1, which has been isolated in Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia, is highly infectious on Trikkala, Larisa and Karridale, cultivars previously known for their high root rot resistance. This shows an urgent need to: (1) understand the range of variation this fungus has, and (2) complement resistance with other methods for disease control.

Research A national survey, covering NSW, Vic, SA and WA was conducted during 1994 - 97 to determine the distribution of P. clandestina and its races. This fungus was found to infect 28 - 48 % of the subclover paddocks surveyed and appears to have many different races. Only four of these races are recognisable, and the majority (60 - 75 %) of them do not fit into the four known races. Distribution maps positioning where P. clandestina and its races were detected have been produced using the latest Global Positioning System (GPS) technology. The effect of the fungicide Foli-r-Fos® on subclover root rot in dryland pastures was also studied. Seedling counts and the first autumn break (rainfall is greater or equal to 25mm) were factors monitored to determine timing of fungicide applications. However, this study was not conclusive enough to define the most effective way of using this fungicide, an area that requires more research.

Outcomes A resistance screening protocol was developed, incorporating both previously known races and the new races of the fungus. It is proposed breeders and pathologists use this protocol to provide industry with subclover varieties which are resistant to a wide range of P. clandestina races. A large collection of P. clandestina was obtained during the national survey. This collection is a valuable resource for future research into this disease and its control.

56

Implications • The key for making resistance in commercial cultivars more reliable and

lasting for root rot control is that the resistance screening protocol is kept updated. This cannot be achieved without continuous monitoring of P. clandestina races and then incorporating the new races into the protocol. The large fungal collection ( 256 P. clandestina cultures) we have still requires grouping into races

• Developing and adopting other complementary approaches (eg. chemicals and cultural best practices) for root rot control would contribute to improving the effectiveness and durability of resistant varieties and the overall control of root rot. This area requires further exploration

• Maps showed random spreads of P. clandestina and its races, which is perhaps an indication of how subclover was initially introduced and distributed around Australia. Managing resistance by means of regulating the release and use of resistant cultivars can be important in reducing disease risks due to new races and may impact positively on the longevity of resistance.

57


Project Title

Occurrence and severity of ‘lucerne yellows’ disease in lucerne seed crops

RIRDC Project No:

US-75A

Researcher: Dr Geoff Gurr, Organisation: Orange Agricultural College

The University of Sydney, Phone: (02) 6360 5551 Fax: (02) 6360 5590 Objectives

• To determine, by means of survey work, the occurrence and severity of

‘lucerne yellows’ disease in lucerne seed crops in Australia • To ascertain the need for further research and development investment in

order to better understand the causes of this disease and to devise an appropriate control strategy.

Background Lucerne is one of the most valuable pasture legume seed crops in Australia.

Anecdotal evidence available prior to this project being undertaken suggested that lucerne yellows was an important disease of seed crops. However, such evidence related to isolated outbreaks and specific reporting incidents. No work had been undertaken to estimate the overall impact of the disease. Formal research was therefore required to determine its occurrence and severity before an appropriate response could be planned.

Research Two surveys were conducted to determine the impact of the disease on two important sectors of the seed industry. An interview-based survey captured detailed information from eight seed house offices regarding severity of the disease in their seed crops in recent years. A second, telephone and post-based survey captured equivalent data from 62 individual growers. Reliability of information was maximised by giving all interviewees an illustrated, colour guide to the identification of lucerne yellows. In addition to the explicit objective of the original study, data was captured from New South Wales (NSW) and from South Australia (SA) in a fashion which allowed comparisons between these two major lucerne seed-growing States to determine whether they suffered different levels of disease damage.

Outcomes The chief findings are that just 2 of the 36 growers surveyed in NSW and 4 of the 26 growers from SA had not observed the disease in their crops. The most common response to a question seeking information about how frequently symptoms had been observed was ‘every year’ in both States. In NSW the majority of growers reported the disease in all or most of their lucerne stands, whilst in SA occurrence in few or very few stands was reported as frequently. Incidence within crops was reported to be as high as 50-75 percent of plants but the majority of interviewees estimated incidence of affected plants to be lower. The vast majority of growers in both States took no action against the disease; an understandable response since neither the identity of the pathogen nor its vector(s) are known so formal control recommendations have not been available. Overall the majority of growers surveyed in both States viewed the disease as an actual or potential problem. Disease severity estimates were obtained for a total of 31 cultivars. Individual growers indicated that marked differences were evident in susceptibility of cultivars but responses were not always consistent; some growers reporting a given cultivar badly affected whilst others reporting it to be unaffected. Results were obtained from two NSW-based seed houses, two SA-based seed houses, and one with interests in both States. Eight interviews were held with different representatives of seed houses in order to capture detailed

58

information specific to defined districts. Of the eight interviewees, all reported lucerne yellows within their crops. Indications of losses resulting from lucerne yellows included estimates of: 25 % yield loss, 50% yield loss (worth $0.5M) in 1997, losses of 10-60%, and losses of up to 90% in ‘bad’ years. Generally the frequency and severity of the disease was higher in NSW than in SA. Information on varietal susceptibility suggested that marked differences were evident though no formal screening was reported.

Implications This project has delivered an understanding of the impact of lucerne yellows. Overall, results from seed houses support those from individual growers in showing that lucerne yellows disease occurs frequently in both NSW and SA and that its severity is such that significant economic losses are resulting. The annual loss is estimated to be $7M. It is therefore considered appropriate that further research investment be made to determine the causes of the disease and develop a cost effective and environmentally sustainable control strategy for this important seeds industry. Results are being disseminated by industry-orientated (as well as technical) publications and the Internet.

59


Project Title

Strategies to successfully establish and manage a productive dryland lucerne stand

RIRDC Project No:

CMS-1A

Researcher: Mark Stanley Raymond Christinat Organisation: Crop Monitoring Services DPI Phone: (08) 8755 1295 (08) 8688 3402 Fax: (08) 8755 1713 (08) 8688 3407 Objectives

• To improve the success rate of dryland lucerne establishment by

demonstrating in large scale plots sound and proven technology for lucerne seedling survival

• To examine alternative technology aimed at further improving the success rate of dryland lucerne establishment

• To disseminate known technology for dryland lucerne establishment and management through the production of a high quality publication, field days and the use of media.

Background Dryland lucerne stands throughout Australia suffered severely from the

pasture aphid invasion in the late 1970s. In southern Australia, almost 2 million hectares of non-productive lucerne country have the potential to be resown to lucerne. Surveys conducted as early as 1970 have illustrated the difficulty of re-establishing aphid resistant lucernes on the sands of the upper south-east of South Australia. The success rate by farmers attempting to re-establish dryland lucerne stands was only 50%. The survey also revealed that the percentage of the technology presently developed and not being used (or poorly implemented) is as much as 42%.

Research Large scale field demonstration sites were established successfully on non-wetting sand each year since 1991. Alternative technology tested to further improve the success rate of dryland lucerne establishment showed no statistical differences.

Outcomes By applying the seven steps listed below, it was demonstrated that the first attempt at establishment will be a success. • Weed control in the year(s) prior to establishment. • Soil pH checked and lime used if below 6.5. • Inoculate seed with lucerne inoculants. • Shallow sowing of seed into a damp compact seedbed. • Monitor pests regularly and control if necessary. • If a cover crop has been sown remove it in early spring. • No grazing of seedling lucerne in its first summer. A loose leaf manual was produced in May 1994. It covers all aspects of establishing and managing a lucerne stand, with more than 80 pages of information and full colour illustrations.

Implications Benefits are expected to flow through to the grazing industry and the small seed industry, with a positive impact on the environment, in southern Australia.

Publications Stanley, Mark, ‘Success with Dryland Lucerne’.

60


Project Title Herbicide failure and the need for integrated weed

management in legume pasture seed crops

RIRDC Project No:

UA-27A

Researcher: Stephen Powles Organisation: The University of Adelaide Phone: (08) 8303 7237 Fax: (08) 8379 4095 Objectives

• To establish the extent and degree of herbicide resistance in major

weeds of legume pasture seed crops • To establish the extent of enhanced biodegradation of carbetamide • To identify alternative herbicides where enhanced degradation of

carbetamide occurs.

Background The requirement for largely weed-free pasture seed crops means that seed growers are long-term users of herbicides. Frequently, the same area of land is in production for many years and the same, or similar, herbicides are used year after year. This practice invariably leads to the development of herbicide resistance in the weeds concerned. Herbicide resistance in grasses has become widespread in Australia over the last decade, particularly in seed producing regions such as the south east of South Australia. The herbicide carbetamide, although relatively expensive, has been widely used by pasture legume seed growers in the Naracoorte-Bordertown region to control ryegrass and silver grass known to be resistant to other herbicides. In recent years, however, growers have reported that carbetamide’s performance against these two grasses has been inconsistent. This study was undertaken to determine why carbetamide has not provided the level of grass control that growers have come to expect.

Research Field and laboratory tests were undertaken to determine whether the lack of effectiveness of carbetamide against ryegrass and silver grass was due to herbicide resistance, or to other factors such as enhanced biodegradation of the herbicide. The efficacy of carbetamide against a range of other weeds was also examined. On sites which had received repeated treatment with carbetamide, enhanced biodegradation was shown to occur. Other potential herbicides for use in this situation were also evaluated.

Outcomes The inconsistent performance of carbetamide against grass weeds in pasture legume seed crops was shown not to be due to the development of herbicide resistance, but to enhanced biodegradation of carbetamide in the soil after application. Several alternative herbicides including propyzamide, diuron, isoproturon and simazine were shown to be effective against grass weeds and can be used instead of carbetamide.

61

Implications As carbetamide resistance does not yet occur in annual ryegrass and

silver grass, it may continue to be used in rotation with other herbicides but its application will need to be considerably less frequent than is the current situation if enhanced biodegradation is to be avoided. In the interests of slowing the development of herbicide resistance in annual ryegrass particularly, there should be an alternation of herbicide groupings in an integrated weed management system. This research provides valuable advice to underpin the ongoing successful production of pasture legume seed crops which are threatened by grass weeds such as annual ryegrass and silver grass.

62


Project Title Developing effective rhizobial inoculants for lucerne in

WA

RIRDC Project No:

DAW-36A

Researcher: Pedro Evans Organisation: Department of Agriculture Phone: (09) 8821 3343 Fax: (09) 8821 1028 Objectives

• To increase the area sown to lucerne by effective nodulation with

strains of Rhizobium meliloti to give more persistent, dense and productive stands

• To increase animal, and subsequent crop production and increase grower confidence in the crop.

Background Results are showing that lucerne can grow in areas receiving only

350 mm of annual rainfall, provided certain soil and management conditions are met. Thus the soil pH should be above 4.7, there should be no waterlogging and only intermittent grazing allowed. Growing lucerne would give a more even feed distribution pattern than annual pastures, and therefore improve wool quality. Out of season rainfall can be exploited to provide quality forage when annual pastures deteriorate because of false breaks, complementing the broadly used pasture species. Other benefits are easy weed control and good nitrogen fixation before crop phases.

Research Trials were established at Esperance, Katanning, Jerramungup and Broomehill, Western Australia. A range of lucerne varieties and inoculum strains were used and parameters measured included dry matter production, persistence and nodule numbers and weights in relation to individual plant weight.

Outcomes In a typical experiment (at Esperance) lucerne plants inoculated with an efficient rhizobial strain produced and persisted four times better than uninoculated controls, and twice as much as those plants inoculated with what was then the commercially available strain. Efficient rhizobial strains identified were U45, WSM826 and WSM922. Of these, the strain WSM826 was recommended and adopted by the industry and is now available commercially in Australia. Across all experimental sites, the smallest improvement in production, over one year, of WSM826 over the previously available commercial strain was 30%. Near Katanning, the increase in production with the new strain was 78%. The development of the new strain, together with a lucerne variety evaluation program at several sites, has increased interest in lucerne as a forage plant to such an extent that brokers report an increase in seed sales of 500% in the last year.

63

Implications The use of the new strains will be worth $0.5 million annually in out of

season forage for every 10,000 ha sown to lucerne, over and above that produced with the old strain. If 60,000 ha are sown to lucerne in the near future, this will be worth $20 million per annum to the industry from reduced hand feeding of sheep.

Publications • Evans, P M and Howieson, J G, 1992, Proc. of the 6th Agron. Conf., Armidale, p552.

• Evans, P M and Howieson, J G, 1993, ‘Australian Grain’, April/May, 3, No. 2, p12.

64


Project Title Control of rhizoctonia burr rot of subterranean clover

RIRDC Project No:

DAS-33A

Researcher: Mr A J Dube Organisation: South Australian Research & Development Institute Phone: (08) 8226 1877 Fax: (08) 8226 1888 Objectives

• To determine the distribution and economic significance of burr rot • To develop methods for controlling Rhizoctonia burr rot in subterranean

clover seed crops.

Background Production of seed of subterranean clover (predominantly under irrigation), has become a significant industry in south eastern SA. In 1990–91 nearly half Australia’s production of subterranean clover seed came from this region. Yields, however, are variable, and frequently poor, particularly in cultivar (cv) Clare (>70% of the national production of seed of this cultivar comes from this area). Investigation of crops of cv Clare revealed rotted burrs which produced few or shrivelled seed, and Rhizoctonia was implicated as the causal organism. Yield losses are estimated by growers to be 375–500 kg/ha, representing 75% of potential yield in some crops. Total losses in cv Clare are estimated to be worth $250,000.

Research Various aspects of the ecology and distribution of Rhizoctonia burr rot were studied, including: • the identification of symptoms in diseased plants • estimations of yield loss in a range of cultivars • characterisation of the strains of the fungus associated with diseased

plants • the geographical distribution and epidemiology of diseased crops • the host range of the strains of the fungus involved • an examination of the resistance status of a range of cultivars • an evaluation of possible chemical control options

65

Outcomes Rhizoctonia burr rot is caused by several strains of R. solani, none of which is

specific to subterranean clover. The disease occurs in dryland crops but is most active under irrigation. Seed infection is low and unlikely to be a major source of inoculum for uninfected crops. The disease occurs in all major subterranean clover-producing areas of south-eastern Australia, but is most common in the south-east of SA and in western Victoria. Yield losses of 50% for cv Clare, and 40% for cv Karridale have been confirmed in the field. Equivalent losses in other cultivars have been recorded in pot trials. The diversity of the pathogen and its wide host range make control by crop rotation extremely difficult, but cereal break crops before subterranean clover should reduce the risk of burr rot. Susceptible hosts will increase the risk of burr rot in subsequent clover crops and, conversely, could be affected by disease after a subterranean clover crop. All cultivars of subterranean clover examined so far, are susceptible to the isolates of the fungus virulent on cv Clare, and there are no obvious opportunities to control the disease using resistance. Economic control of the disease can be achieved with routine applications of the fungicide tebuconazole (Tradename Folicur). This fungicide is not currently registered for use on subterranean clover, but is expected to be commercially available soon.

Implications This research has shown that, despite the serious losses caused by the disease, a better understanding of the pathogen and its host range, can be used to develop control strategies and reduce losses. The economic benefit to growers will be substantial, once appropriate fungicide treatments have been registered.

66


Project Title

Review of weed control in lucerne, medic and sub-clover seed crops

RIRDC Project No:

ARM-1A

Researcher: Mr Charles Kidd Organisation: Australian Rural Management Services Pty Ltd Phone: (08) 8842 3591 Fax: (08) 8842 3066 Objectives

• To define the major weed problems encountered by seed growers of

lucerne, medic and sub-clover crops in all states • To compile a comprehensive list of research conducted in Australia on

pasture legumes over the past 5-8 years that have dealt with the various weed problems in the above seed crops

• To select the most appropriate methods of managing the most urgent weed problems and documenting these.

• To compile a database of all recent research work conducted in Australia and overseas and process it into a format which is then accessible by rapid selection to researchers, advisers or farmers.

Background Much of the information on weed control in pasture legume seed crops

(lucerne, medics and sub-clover) is published in reports with only a limited distribution. Most seed growers do not see these reports, or papers in scientific journals and have tended to miss out on valuable opportunities to improve production and/or reduce costs. Researchers have also not always been aware of all reports and have missed opportunities to conduct research, or collaborate with other researchers. There was a need to bring the information together compare results for consistency of effects present the information to seed growers, and keep the review up to date.

Research The major weed problems encountered in seed crops of lucerne, medics, and sub-clover was determined by surveying all registered seed growers of these crops in the southern region of Australia. Growers were asked to nominate the major weeds in order of priority, and to suggest why these weeds were considered to be a problem in their crops (ie. were they unable to be effectively controlled; were they too costly to control; or, were the control methods used causing too much damage to their crops). Research reports and results of experiments on weed control were sought from Australian researchers. This generated considerable data from unpublished research, which was processed into a standard format, and entered onto a database. The database was added to, and upgraded during the life of the project. Australian and overseas results were acquired from computer literature searches of a wide range of journals.

67

Outcomes The most significant weed problems encountered by growers were addressed

in an extensive manual which covered the results of the survey, together with solutions and appropriate management options supported by information obtained from research reports. After the production of this manual, a database was assembled of all relevant experiments dealing with weed control in lucerne, medics and sub-clover seed crops that had been conducted in Australia and overseas in recent years. Specific software for the purposed of adding to the database, as well as taking extracts, was written and commissioned. Some of the information generated, has been incorporated into the Kondinin publication on Pasture Management (project KDI-7A), together with advice on how to access the database.

Implications A computerised database has been compiled, which contains considerable information on the major weeds of pasture legume seed crops, and on their control in Australia. The database will be of value to a range of groups with interests in pasture seed production, but will probably have greatest utility with researchers.

68


Project Title Alfalfa Mosaic Virus (AMV) survey in lucerne and medic

seed and development of rapid tests

RIRDC Project No:

DAS-32A

Researcher: Ms. Evita Alberts Organisation: Plant Industries & Natural Resources

Department of Primary Industries and Resources (SA) Phone: (08) 8372 2349 Fax: (08) 8379 0871 Objectives

• To improve pasture production and seed quality by identifying the

significant seed-borne viral pathogens of Australian pasture seed and where warranted, developing effective disease testing procedures.

Background Medic and lucerne pastures are important in Australian farming systems

for grazing and for hay and seed production for both the domestic and export markets. Severe production losses due to seed-borne virus infection of pasture seed have been recorded worldwide, but little Australian data was available.

Research A national survey of commonly grown medic and lucerne cultivars established that seed-borne viral pathogens were important. Sensitive, efficient and cost effective seed testing procedures were developed and optimised for the detection of virus infection in pasture seed and plants.

Outcomes This research suggests a high level of seed-borne virus infection in Australian pasture seed, one which would result in production losses similar to those recorded in other parts of the world. A procedure for testing pasture seed and plants is now available and provides a basis from which a seed testing capability for industry can be developed. These procedures have already been adopted by the medic and lucerne breeding programs to ensure that the true assessment of non-infected material can be made and that no infected cultivars are released.

Implications The provision of commercial seed and pasture testing based on the methodologies developed in this project will provide industry with a strategy for the control of seed-borne pathogens. Control of seed-borne viral pathogens in pasture seed will contribute to industry achieving its goal “…to become a specialist producer of high quality seed for the domestic and export markets…”. Control of seed-borne viral pathogens in pasture seed will improve overall production of Australian pastures.

69

Completed Projects (prior to 2005-2006) - Environmental Issues for Industry

Project Title A water balance study for lucerne seed production

resourced by an underground aquifier

RIRDC Project No:

DEB-3A

Researcher: Mr. James De Barro Organisation: De Barro Agricultural Consulting Phone: (08) 8756 2777 Fax: (08) 8756 2778 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• Account for and quantify the water used in flood irrigated lucerne seed

production on the four typical irrigated soil types in the Upper South East of South Australia. This water audit will be performed by measuring water pumped from the aquifer, lucerne seed crop water use, evaporative losses from the irrigation channel and flood bay and the percentage of water return back to the aquifer beyond the lucerne root zone. The recorded data will be used to review the accuracy of the crop area ratio system used for water allocations in the Tatiara Prescribed Area which is based only on estimates of crop water requirements. The data will also provide a quantified understanding of the fate of water pumped from the aquifer to flood irrigate lucerne seed crops and allow for an equitable use of any metered volumetric allocation system that may be instituted in future. The research will create a benchmark set of data for use in further research aimed at improving the efficiency of irrigation systems using the underground water resource.

Background The Australian lucerne seed industry is worth over A$100 million to the

Australian economy with 85% of Australia’s total lucerne seed production occurring in the Tatiara and Coonalpyn Downs region of South Australia, an amount equivalent to the seed exported each year worth over A$13 million. The majority of production in the Tatiara and Coonalpyn Downs area is from irrigated crops sourcing water from underground aquifers. The administration of the Water Resources Act 1997 involves the review of allocation of water in the five Prescribed Wells Areas in the South East and annual levies to be paid on the allocations in the form of dollars/megalitre of licence. Research aimed at determining the fate of water pumped from the aquifer to irrigate lucerne seed crops is required to re-assess the accuracy of the current area based water allocation system used in the Tatiara proclaimed region and provide a water audit to permit fair use in any enforced metered volumetric allocation system. The project represents cost-effective research to understand the destination of pumped water and provide quantified knowledge on which to conduct further research to improve irrigation efficiency.

Research The research quantified the volume pumped per hectare of lucerne seed produced, the channel losses (drainage and evaporation), volume delivered per hectare, evaporative losses, crop water use and drainage back to the unconfined aquifer from where water was pumped from.

Outcomes The methodology and the equipment used were proven effective for the research. Derived lucerne water use factors were accurate for use in determination of the estimated crop water use calculations and compared well to raw water use data. Lucerne water use was consistent from season to season and the research provided an excellent relative guide to what happens to the water pumped for seed production.

70

Channel leakage varied from site to site and ranged from 3.5 – 13.5% of water pumped. Evaporative losses off channel and soil surface were negligible. Increasing the volume pumped decreased the water use efficiency, although reduced the irrigation time per hectare irrigated. This occurred due to the soil only being able to hold a fixed volume of water over which water freely moves through the profile back into the unconfined aquifer. The reduction in irrigation time was not sufficient to more efficiently deliver the increased volume pumped and hence reduce the amount applied per hectare of seed produced. Between 35% and 59% of water pumped was used by the lucerne seed crop. Evaporative losses ranged from 0.0% to 5.3% and between 0.0% and 7.8% of pumped water remained in the soil profile after harvest of the seed crop. The balance of pumped water that returned to the aquifer varied between 40% and 74.5%.

Implications The water balance for irrigated lucerne seed production using the underground aquifer system in the South East of South Australia was determined. The research determined the current water volumes required to be pumped to maintain current irrigation practices for lucerne seed production in the zone of the research.

Publications De Barro, James (2003); Dividing the droplet: A water balance study for lucerne seed production resourced by an underground aquifer. Final Report to pending publication,

71


Project Title The development of a more effective harvesting method for

Shaw Creeping Vigna (Vigna parkeri)

RIRDC Project No:

HS-1A

Researcher: Mr Bob Campbell Organisation: Heritage Seeds Pty Ltd Phone: (07) 3216 6411 Fax: (07) 3216 6421 Email: [email protected] Internet: www.heritageseeds.com.au Objectives

• To increase the seed availability of Shaw Creeping Vigna through the

development of a suitable harvester and harvesting techniques resulting in increased returns to cattle producers in the wetter sub-tropics.

Background The project started of very well with good data collected after the initial

harvest from a hard, dry, compacted soil surface. The idea of growing Shaw Creeping Vigna over weed matting to allow total recovery of seed from matting surface indicating maximum yield potential was unsuccessful as the Vigna would not root down through the mat. Machinery modifications where required as the harvesting procedure was not ideal. To successfully complete the project and make sound conclusions about the effectiveness of the harvesting techniques under test the project required that we repeat the results. This would also further the modifications to the harvester. However, that first harvest was to be the best growing season experienced during the project.

Research Due to the continual poor climatic conditions over the period of the project data has been very limited. The use of suction harvesting was investigated in the early stages of the project and data indicated it as the non-preferred method. A brush pick up system was developed to pick up the seed off bare soil surface. With dry production conditions experienced for the remainder of the project data was minimal.

Outcomes With the poor climatic conditions contributing to limited availability of data, outcomes for the project where restricted. Whilst an extension to the project was requested and granted without additional funding in 1998, it still was plagued by poor weather conditions and lack of rainfall at critical harvesting and production stages. The worst problem being continual showers at harvest resulting in soil surface crumbling and the mature falling seed disappearing into the soil surface. The harvesting process is limited to wet autumn for good seed set and a distinctly dry harvesting period on a hard setting soil surface. This occurred only in the first year.

Implications Unfortunately, the project has been plagued by very poor weather conditions over the past three seasons, which has prevented the collection of data from the second and third harvest. The relocation of the crop site to a better-drained area was also undertaken to overcome water logging problems in 1996 but was not utilized to its fullest because of poor climatic conditions after that time. Extensions to the project where applied for until 1999. The trial area was also modified to make it less susceptible to weather problems.

72


Project Title Improved handling of chaffy grass seeds

RIRDC Project No:

DAQ-148A

Researcher: Dr Donald S. Loch Organisation: Queensland Department of Primary Industries Phone: (07) 3286 1488 Fax: (07) 3286 3094 Email [email protected] Objectives

• To identify, develop and validate commercially the best available technology

for removing chaffy appendages from seeds of important Australian native and exotic grasses

• To study the establishment characteristics of treated and untreated seeds; • To investigate possible enhancement of establishment using new polymer

seed coatings applied to seeds after treatment to remove chaffy appendages; and; and

• To encourage rapid commercial adoption of appropriate seed treatment and coating technology proven through research on the previous objectives.

Background A number of useful pasture and amenity grasses seeds (both native and exotic)

have ‘chaffy’ seeds, referring to the fluffy appearance due to various appendages (awns, sterile spikelets, surface hairs and bristles). En masse, chaffy seeds are light and bulky, and do not flow freely because the appendages on individual seed units readily become entangled. This adds to costs of seed harvesting, cleaning, testing, storage and transport; and the individual seeds cannot be sown uniformly through conventional seeders.

Research A functional classification (based on the complexity of dispersal units and the chaffy appendages present) was developed, and the roles of the different appendages were investigated to ensure that their removal did not detrimentally affect establishment. Initial trials with the US-designed Woodward Chaffy Seed Conditioning System (based on aerodynamic principles) highlighted its limited capacity. The effects of available and experimental seed coating formulations, with or without various additives, were investigated in four field experiments in two regions with strong contrasts in both climatic and soil conditions.

Outcomes Trimming of the normal chaffy seed units is generally preferable to the complete removal of caryopses, especially where these are tightly held within the surrounding floral husk. Naked caryopses germinate more rapidly and more completely at lower moisture levels than with the husk intact, and the different species varied in their response to soil moisture. Processing of Themeda triandra seed was directed at removing long straws, leaving the awns and chaff largely intact partly to enhance establishment (via the awns and a greater amount of organic material to maintain better moisture around the seed) and partly for marketing purposes. A continuous feed system and a higher capacity pre-cleaner were designed and constructed to increase processing capacity of the Woodward System. Heavy seed coating treatments delayed germination and were detrimental to field establishment. A nutrient-coating treatment was also highly damaging to the seed.

73

Implications Leaving protective husks around the caryopses reduces the risk of physical

damage during processing and improves the reliability of field establishment under marginal moisture conditions where naked caryopses germinate more readily. Some species (eg. Themeda triandra) require very moist conditions before germination can take place, while others (eg. Bothriochloa bladhii cv. Swann) are able to germinate in much drier soil. A performance evaluation of the modified aerodynamic chaffy seed conditioner measured its throughput capacity at 97 kg/hr (more than three times the original capacity). The best seed coating treatment (incorporating a new systemic insecticide) consistently increased numbers of established plant numbers – more than double plant populations recorded from the control and the 13 other coating treatments.

Publications Bedane, G.M. (1998) Processing of chaffy grass seeds using an aerodynamic seed conditioner. M. Appl. Sc. Thesis, University of Queensland. Bedane, G.M., Gupta, M.L. and Loch, D.S. (1996) Processing of chaffy grass seeds. Agricultural Engineering Australia, 25(3), 93. Bedane, G., Gupta, M.L. and Loch, D.S. (1998) Processing of chaffy grass seeds using an aerodynamic seed conditioner. Australian Agricultural Engineering Conference (Abstract). Jensen, T.A., McGahan, E.J. and Loch, D.S. (1996) Development of a hand-held grass seed harvester. In: Bellairs, S.M. and Osborne, J.M. (eds.) Proceedings of the Second Australian Workshop on Native Seed Biology for Revegetation, Newcastle, NSW (11-12 October 1996). Australian Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation, Kenmore, Australia, pp. 213-216. Loch, D.S. (1993) Improved handling of chaffy grass seeds: options, opportunities and value. Tropical Grasslands 27, 314-326. Loch, D.S. (1996) Limitations on production of high quality native grass seed. In: Bellairs, S.M. and Marris, J.M. (eds.) Proceedings of Workshop on Native Species Establishment on Mined Lands in Queensland (8-10 November 1995). Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia, pp. 40-50. Loch, D.S. (1996) Harvesting, processing and marketing of native grass seeds - developing a new Australian industry? The Growing Idea (Autumn 1996), p. 7. Loch, D.S. and Clark, M. (1996) Production, harvesting and processing of native grass and herbaceous legume sees: the reality and the challenge. In: Waters, C.M. and Noad, W. (eds.) Proceedings of the Native Grass and Legume Seed Industry Workshop, Roma, Queensland, Australia (26-27 March 1996), pp. 29-50. Loch, D.S. and Harvey, G.L. (1995) Processing chaffy grass seeds for improved handling. Proceedings of the 3rd International Herbage Seed Conference, Halle, Germany, pp. 408-412. Loch, D.S. and Harvey, G.L. (1995) Processing chaffy grass seeds for improved handling. Journal of Applied Seed Production 13, 74. (Abstract - Third International Herbage Seed Conference). Loch, D.S., Harvey, G.L. and Cole, J.P. (1994) Seed production of kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) - preliminary studies. In: Bellairs, S.M. and Bell, L.C. (eds.) Proceedings of National Workshop on Native Seed Biology for Revegetation (24-26 August 1994). Australian Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation & WA Chamber of Mines and Energy, Perth, Australia, pp. 118-122. Loch, D.S., Johnston, P.W., Jensen, T.A. and Harvey, G.L. (1994) Harvesting, processing and marketing of native grass seeds - developing a new Australian industry? In: Bellairs, S.M. and Bell, L.C. (eds.) Proceedings of National Workshop on Native Seed Biology for Revegetation (24-26 August 1994). Australian Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation & WA Chamber of Mines and Energy, Perth, Australia, pp. 87-91.

74

Loch, D.S., Johnston, P.W., Jensen, T.A. and Harvey, G.L. (1995) Harvesting and processing seeds of Australian native grasses. Proceedings of the Second Australasian Perennial Grass Workshop, Launceston, Tasmania (17-19 October 1995). pp. 240-251. Loch, D.S., Johnston, P.W., Jensen, T.A. and Harvey, G.L. (1996) Harvesting, processing and marketing Australian native grass seeds. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 39, 591-599. Loch, D.S. and Whalley, R.D.B. (1997) Native grassland rehabilitation: the place of provenance seed. In: Proceedings of the First Workshop of the Australian Native Grass and Legume Seed Association, Brisbane, Queensland (22 September 1997), pp. 59-69. Paterson, M. (1996) Germination characteristics of grass species for site rehabilitation. Postgraduate B.Sc. (Hons.) Thesis, Department of Botany, University of Queensland. Truong, P., Patterson, M., Loch, D. and Borschmann, G. (1997) The use of surface mulch in the establishment of kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra). In: Proceedings of the First Workshop of the Australian Native Grass and Legume Seed Association, Brisbane, Queensland (22 September 1997), pp. 77-91. Waters, C.M. Loch, D.S. and Johnston, P.W. (1997) Role of native grasses and legumes for land revegetation in central and eastern Australia with particular reference to low rainfall areas. Tropical Grasslands 31, 304-310.

75

Completed Projects (prior to 2005-2006) - Support Industry Quality Assurance and Self Regulation

Project Title

Confirmation of pest free area status from bacterial wilt of lucerne in export seed production areas

RIRDC Project No.:

SAR-48A

Researcher: Dr Kathy Ophel Keller Organisation: South Australian Research and Development Institute Phone: (08) 8303 9368 Fax: (08) 8303 9375 Email: [email protected] Objectives

• Confirm Pest Free Area status from bacterial wilt of lucerne in

export seed production areas of Australia to facilitate export seed trade.

Background The Australian export trade in lucerne seed is worth $12.7 million pa

nationally in 2001-02 with 90% of certified lucerne seed exported from SA (5000 tonnes pa). The major export markets for lucerne are Argentina, Saudi Arabia, North Africa and Europe. Overseas markets requiring phytosanitary declarations for bacterial wilt in lucerne are the European Union, Tunisia, Chile, Argentina and Uruguay. Argentina and Chile will accept a phytosanitary declaration based on a seed pathology test while the European Union, Tunisia and Uruguay will only accept phytosanitary declarations based on field inspections. In addition Western Australia has a legislative requirement for freedom from bacterial wilt of lucerne seed. In 2002 a field disease survey of lucerne stands initiated a survey of lucerne to establish area freedom from bacterial wilt of lucerne in seed production areas. At the same time, international acceptance of a seed test developed in a previous RIRDC project (SAR 15-A) is being pursued via the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) process. Efforts to find naturally infected seed have not been successful, even when infected lucerne plants were grown in the glasshouse

Research In October-December 2002, a survey was undertaken by SARDI Field Crops Pathology Unit to update the area freedom status of lucerne seed producing areas in SA. The survey was based primarily on testing of seed lots (120) as well as a limited number of paddock inspections (25). In 2002, bacterial wilt was detected by field inspection in one seed crop paddock in the SA SouthEast.

An industry workshop agreed that provision of area freedom phytosanitary declarations for bacterial wilt of lucerne would need to be replaced by declarations that establish Pest Free Place of Production status based on the disease status of individual paddocks. These requirements meet International Plant Protection Convention and AQIS requirements.

A field inspection and sample testing protocol was developed, which has been adopted in SA and Victoria. This was done for the first time in spring 2003 and the phytosanitary service incorporated inspection and testing for bacterial wilt, stem nematode, Orobanche spp. (branched broomrape) and Cirsium arvense (perennial thistle)

Ultimately, an internationally accepted seed test will provide lucerne

76

seed growers with less restricted export options now bacterial wilt is known to be present in the area. One of the aims of this research was to harvest seed from infected paddocks to use in an international ring test to standardise a seed test for bacterial wilt of lucerne. This would complete the test standardisation process started in RIRDC project SAR-25-A.

Outcomes An industry-government-AQIS meeting adopted the recommendation that export declarations now be based on a spring phytosanitary inspection to issue ‘place of production’ freedom from bacterial wilt. Standardised protocols have been developed for field inspection, sampling and laboratory detection of bacterial wilt. Phytosanitary inspections will be voluntary but they will be essential for those intending to export seed to Europe and Tunisia and Uruguay. At the same time, international acceptance of a seed test developed in a previous RIRDC project (SAR 15-A) is being pursued via the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) process. Ideally, seed test standardisation should be based on inter-laboratory comparisons on naturally infected seed. Efforts to find naturally infected seed have not been successful, even when infected lucerne plants were grown in the glasshouse. Infected plants from paddocks where bacterial wilt was detected produce infected tillers but have not produced infected seed, indicating that transmission to seed is extremely low. This may be influenced by environmental conditions. As a result, international seed test standardisation is proceeding with artificially infected seed. Phytosanitary inspections for bacterial wilt occurred in spring 2003 in lucerne seed production areas in SA and western Victoria. Plant samples were provided by accredited inspectors as part of the phytosanitary paddock inspection in October/November. A further 9 infected paddocks and 15 unconfirmed infected paddocks were found in SA. The infected paddocks were growing the lucerne cultivars Hunter River, Hunterfield and Sirosal. Stand life of infected paddocks was greater than 4 years old with the majority being greater than 15 years old.

Implications The Lucerne seed industry recognised the need for phytosanitary inspections to maintain market access via area freedom on a place of production basis. The methodology for field inspection and sample collection has been developed, agreed by industry and was implemented in spring 2003. The methodology and costing will be reviewed annually with industry. An internationally accepted seed test is still a desirable aim but work is progressing slowly. As well as technical difficulties, the test must be accepted by EU authorities. The measures to maintain export market access have been communicated directly to lucerne seed exporters with SIAA taking a lead role. The approach being taken satisfies International Plant Protection Convention and AQIS requirements.

Publications Fact sheet. Bacterial Wilt of Lucerne: Information for seed growers. Kathy Ophel Keller, SARDI, 2003. Distributed to all lucerne seed growers in SA and Victoria via seed inspection services. Kathy Ophel Keller, Bacterial wilt of lucerne: a market access issue for lucerne seed growers (2005, 16pgs) RIRDC Publication Number R05/101.

77

Completed Projects (prior to 2005-2006) - Support Industry Quality Assurance and Self Regulation

Project Title Alternative seed certification schemes in Europe and USA

for adoption in Australia

RIRDC Project No:

SED-6A

Researcher: Mr Max C. Jongebloed Organisation: SEEDCO Phone: (0)8 8231 6675 Fax: (08) 8231 1354 Objectives

• To examine first hand how seed certification schemes implemented in

USA and Europe differ from existing schemes in Australia; • To determine how procedures and methods implemented overseas

have contributed to these low or lower cost schemes; • To identify which procedures can be implemented in Australia to make

our schemes more cost efficient and effective whilst maintaining eligibility and status with the OECD certification scheme.

Background Seed certification costs contribute significantly to the cost of certified seed.

For example, in South Australia, certification costs are on average estimated to be greater than $65.00 per metric tonne for pasture seeds and $53.00 per metric tonne for field-crop seeds. High certification costs are also becoming a barrier to securing valuable overseas multiplication contracts of field-crop varieties since these costs can be greater then 15% of production costs. Because these costs are encouraging farmers to produce uncertified seeds, more seed must be absorbed by the local market and this depresses values. Furthermore, any increase in seed without a base standard of quality will depress farm production.

Research The project required the appointment of consultants with wide experience in the seed industry to visit seed certification authorities, seed companies, seed producers and seed trade organisations in the USA, Canada and Europe. The consultants investigated: procedures used in overseas schemes; the extent, use and training of outside contracted personnel by certification authorities; the degree of self-assessment encouraged or permitted by the authorities; funding arrangements of certification services; and auditing and regulatory procedures that have been implemented to ensure compliance with OECD certification rules.

Outcomes The Australian seed industry and certification schemes were found to differ significantly from ones observed overseas in the following ways: • industry in Australia is relatively small and serviced by individual

certification authorities; • most certification authorities are unable to maximise efficiency by

dealing with a relatively small number of companies that contract with large numbers of growers

• there is a relatively high proportion of public varieties • certification authorities are responsible for maintaining public varieties

and producing and allocating early generation seed of public varieties • there is a heavy reliance on full-time government employees in most

States for all certification procedures Australia has a relatively low level of delegation of responsibility for certification procedures to growers, cleaners and seed companies.

78

Implications Recommendations to overcome the deficiencies noted included:

establishing a single industry-based association to progressively assume responsibility for all certification services; certification authorities develop training and audit procedures to facilitate use of cleaning plant personnel to submit seed samples and part-time non-government inspectors to inspect and monitor seed cleaning plants; that the post-control testing program for temperate species be at one site.

Publications RIRDC, 1994. Cost Alternative Seed Certification Schemes. Canberra.

Sub-Program 2.6 PASTURE SEEDS · Please contact us for the latest publications catalogue or view it...

Documents

Transcript of Sub-Program 2.6 PASTURE SEEDS · Please contact us for the latest publications catalogue or view it...