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Structured steps in defining new role to support society for the Geological

Survey of Kenya (An implementation framework)

Chrispin Ochieng Lupe March 2002

Structured steps in defining new role to support society for the Geological Survey of Kenya

(An implementation framework)

By

Chrispin Ochieng Lupe Thesis submitted to the International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation in par-

tial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geoinformatics

Degree Assessment Board

Prof.Ir. R. Groot Chairman Prof.Ir. P. van der Molen External examiner Dr. M.M. Radwan First Supervisor Dr. T. Woldai Second supervisor

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION.

ENSCHEDE, THE NETHERLANDS

Disclaimer

This document describes work undertaken as part of a programme of study at the International In-stitute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation. All views and opinions expressed

therein remain the sole responsibility of the author, and do not necessarily represent those of the in-stitute.

DEDICATION

To a sure foundation for Kenya Geological Survey To a promising business success

To the geoscientific community in Kenya

And special thanks

“Unto Him who is able to do exceedingly, abundantly above what we can think or imagine according to his power that is at work within us” (Bible verse, Ephesians 3:20)

To my wife Jenipher and daughter Phoebe

STRUCTURED STEPS IN DEFINING NEW ROLE TO SUPPORT SOCIETY FOR THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF KENYA

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Abstract Geological Survey Organizations, faced with challenges and opportunities in their internal and exter-nal environments are changing and adapting to new roles in the service of the society. The new roles expressed in terms of new missions, visions, defining among others priority core programs and activi-ties, product and service delivery strategy, leadership role of the geoscientific community etc are meant to enhance their contribution in a dynamic local and international community. Improved prod-uct and service delivery, institutional development, provision of basic datasets and integrated science strategies are some of the present concern of the management in the process of change. This research provides a methodology to determine how the Mines and Geological Department of Kenya should respond in the context of Geospatial Data Infrastructure. Several steps are used to iden-tify performance problems, reasons for change and determine actions for change towards having a new role in the development of the country. It is found that Mines and Geological Department has an im-portant role of leadership in geoscientific community. This arises from its custodianship to national geoscientific knowledge. Its role is to facilitate and support mechanisms to promote responsible use of geoscientific information and data. In this respect an initiative towards development of a Geoscientific Information Infrastructure is the best solution. As part of the reengineering of the information system, a methodology towards products and services diversity is proposed to provide for a wide potential customer base. This requires integration of diverse data and information resources applying Information Technology and Databases. Information specifi-cations for digital products and services are outlined. Database specifications to enable this products and services and a model database for some of the themes identified is presented. Changes in the departrment should be conducted in line with the wider objective of Geospatial Data Infrastructure. With these findings, general guidelines for implementation are provided in the wider institutional context and departmental context. In conclusion, the department should constitute best practices in its management. There is need for new visions and goals to address the society issue. The price for this in terms of reorganization and financial commitment is expected to be big. A commitment and motivation of all employees is neces-sary for such a program to succeed.


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Acknowledgements Special thanks goes to my first supervisors Dr. Radwan and second supervisor Dr. Woldai for guiding me through the work with patience like that of a father to a child. I also would like to acknowledge the direct and in-direct contribution and help given to me by other ITC staff not directly involved with the final work. Prof.Ir.Dick Groot, Prof. Dr. Colin Reeves, Dr.Ing.Erik de Man, Chris Paresi, Drs. Ernst Schetselaar, Ir. Christiaan Lemmen who contribute in the conceptualisation of my research. Thank you very much. To all ITC staff involved with my learning and stay here, thank you very much for equipping me with knowledge in very many fields. To my program Director M.A. Allan Brown and Ir. Fred Paats thank you all for your assistance. To the Dutch and Kenyan governments’, I thank for meeting the cost involved with my studies through study fellowship and continued payment of my salary while undergoing studies. To my de-partment, which I love so much and would like to see changing to impact the society, I say thank you very much for allowing me to be away for this long time. To all GFM 2 classmates and GIM 2 cluster mates, Thank you all, I also learned so much from many of you. Thank you for your patience in assisting me in very many things. I wish you all the best in your career. To all, God the Father bless you all.


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Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................. iii Contents.................................................................................................................................................................v List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables....................................................................................................................................................... xi List of Tables....................................................................................................................................................... xi 1. Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................13

1.1. Background.........................................................................................................................................13 1.2. Research context and research problem..............................................................................................13 1.3. Research questions..............................................................................................................................14 1.4. Research objectives.............................................................................................................................15 1.5. Related Work ......................................................................................................................................15 1.6. Research methodology........................................................................................................................16 1.7. Thesis Structure ..................................................................................................................................16

2. Mines and Geological Department: Situation analysis...........................................................................19

2.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................................19 2.2. Mines and Geological Department of Kenya objective direction .......................................................19 2.3. Organization structure.........................................................................................................................20

2.3.1. Organizational structure .............................................................................................................20 2.4. Interaction with other departments and organizations ........................................................................21 2.5. Revenue and funding base ..................................................................................................................22 2.6. Core business process of the department ............................................................................................22 2.7. Geological resources management and utilization..............................................................................23 2.8. Information context.............................................................................................................................24 2.9. Global demands ..................................................................................................................................24 2.10. Implications for Mines and Geological Department of Kenya .......................................................25

3. New role for Mines and Geological Department of Kenya ....................................................................27

3.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................................27 3.2. Learning from others - example strategic planning in Geological Surveys ........................................27

3.2.1. Geological Division of USGS strategic planning.......................................................................27 3.2.2. British Geological Survey strategic planning.............................................................................28 3.2.3. Australian Geological Survey Organization strategic planning .................................................30 3.2.4. The role of geological information in National Geospatial Data Infrastructure (NGDI) ...........31

3.3. Core programs science model .............................................................................................................32 3.4. Methodology for defining new goals and actions ...............................................................................34 3.5. The corporate Strategic Management .................................................................................................35

3.5.1. Case study of Mines and Geological Department - actions from SWOT matrix .......................35 3.6. Scenario Synthesis ..............................................................................................................................39 3.7. Proposed core functional process model.............................................................................................41


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3.8. The Geospatial Data- and Geospatial Information Infractructure.......................................................42 3.9. Enabling technologies and supporting concepts for the proposed information system ......................43

3.9.1. Advances in remote sensing.......................................................................................................43 3.9.2. Digital field data collection ........................................................................................................43 3.9.3. Database Management Systems .................................................................................................43 3.9.4. Facilitating Sharing of data and information..............................................................................44 3.9.4.1. Clearinghouses and Geospatial Data Services Centres..........................................................44 3.9.4.2. Facilitating database interoperability .....................................................................................45 3.9.4.3. Computer Networking ...........................................................................................................46 3.9.5. Geographic Information Systems...............................................................................................46 3.9.6. Web programming to support end user ......................................................................................47

3.10. Synthesis.........................................................................................................................................47 3.11. Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................47

4. Reengineering the information system ....................................................................................................49

4.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................................49 4.2. Information product and services: Definition .....................................................................................49

4.2.1. Need for information product and service diversity...................................................................49 4.2.2. Methodology for product diversity and hierarchy......................................................................52

4.3. Identifying raw data ............................................................................................................................54 4.3.1. Digital data as Source data .........................................................................................................54 4.3.2. Standard and value added products............................................................................................55

4.4. Defining specifications .......................................................................................................................55 4.5. Database specifications .......................................................................................................................62

4.5.1. Database themes.........................................................................................................................62 4.5.2. Standards components................................................................................................................62 4.5.2.1. Metadata and metadata standards ..........................................................................................62 4.5.2.2. Data models and dictionaries .................................................................................................63

4.6. Data modeling.....................................................................................................................................64 4.6.1. Entity-relational data modeling ..................................................................................................65 4.6.2. Geological field data capture to the geological map ..................................................................65 4.6.2.1. Field mapping process ...........................................................................................................66 4.6.2.2. Geology and other domains ...................................................................................................67 4.6.3. Data model description...............................................................................................................67

4.7. Review of data models........................................................................................................................70 4.7.1. Geologic concept model.............................................................................................................70 4.7.2. Geological maps models ............................................................................................................71 4.7.3. Analysis of the data models for digital systems methodologies.................................................74

4.8. Synthesis .............................................................................................................................................75 4.9. Conclusions.........................................................................................................................................76

5. Implementation issues ...............................................................................................................................77

5.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................................77 5.2. Lessons from others ............................................................................................................................77 5.3. Structure of business plans..................................................................................................................78 5.4. General factors to consider in implementation ...................................................................................79

5.4.1. Institutional issues ......................................................................................................................79 5.4.1.1. Legal ......................................................................................................................................79 5.4.1.2. Political and economic issues ................................................................................................80


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5.4.1.3. Policies, regulations and guidelines .......................................................................................80 5.4.2. Technology issues ......................................................................................................................80 5.4.3. Internal and external social culture issues ..................................................................................81 5.4.4. Capacity building .......................................................................................................................81 5.4.5. Standards development ..............................................................................................................81 5.4.6. Operational/technical issues .......................................................................................................81 5.4.7. Users/Markets ............................................................................................................................82

5.5. Addressing the issues..........................................................................................................................82 5.6. Implementation for the Department ....................................................................................................84

5.6.1. Organizational changes ..............................................................................................................84 5.6.2. Hardware and software ..............................................................................................................84 5.6.3. Human resources ........................................................................................................................85 5.6.4. Data acquisition, conversion and storage ...................................................................................85 5.6.5. Culture of quality and accountability .........................................................................................85

5.7. Conclusions.........................................................................................................................................86 6. Conclusion and recommendations ...........................................................................................................87

6.1. Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................................87 6.2. Recommendations...............................................................................................................................88 6.3. Further work to be done......................................................................................................................88

References .......................................................................................................................................................... 89 Bibliography....................................................................................................................................................... 92 URL of websites visited ......................................................................................................................................93 Appendix A 1 Appendix B 14


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List of Figures Figure 1.1 Reform component in the environment of Geological Surveys (Veen, 1998). 15 Figure 1.2 Research methodology. 16 Figure 2.1 Organization structure showing divisions and geosciences programs. 20 Figure 2.2 Existing functional process model. 23 Figure 2.3 Information context around Mines and Geological department, Kenya. 24 Figure 3.1The Relationship between core and commissioned programs (Reedman et. al., assessed 30/10/2001). 32 Figure 3.2 Proposed core programs for Geological survey Organizations (Reedman et. al., assessed 30/10/2001) 33 Figure 3.3 Proposed methodology to arrive at improved Information systems. 35 Figure 3.4 Conceptual model architecture of an improved information system in institutional scenario for Mines and Geological Department of Kenya (modified after Radwan, 2001). 40 Figure 3.5 Proposed functional process model using databases technology to be applied for Mines and Geological Department of Kenya. 41 Figure 3.6 Possible routes through data verification and validation leading to data qualification (Lowe, 1995). 42 Figure 3.7 Role of Geospatial Data Service Centre in GDI (Groot and McLaughlin, 2000). 44 Figure 3.8 Geological Surveys serve an important role in the GDI. 45 Figure 3.9 Resolving heterogeneity in existing databases by federated database design (modified from Kainz, 2000). 45 Figure 3.10 Basic client/server architecture in thin client (modified after Kainz, 2000) 46 Figure 4.1 Geosciences information user groups, training and support 52 Figure 4.2 System structure for product diversity and hierarchy in context of a National Geosciences Information System. 53 Figure 4.3 Proposed generalized design of processes in the new system 53 Figure 4.4 Raw data to support the activities of the geology domain of Mines and Geological Department (modified form sources in sources in 54 Figure 4.5 Elements in the source geology digital data. 55 Figure 4.6 Proposed general classification of standard geology products. 55 Figure 4.7 Proposed nature of value added products. 55 Figure 4.8 Example of metadatabase content (Croswell, 2000). 63 Figure 4.9 Phases of database design. 65 Figure 4.10 Entity-relationship notation 65 Figure 4.11 Digital mapping process (modified after Brodaric, 2000). 65 Figure 4.12 Scales of description of geological objects. 67 Figure 4.13 Geosciences attributes in other domains are related to geological units. 67 Figure 4.14 Geology theme polygon feature. 67 Figure 4.15 Geology theme point feature. 68 Figure 4.16 Structural lines line theme for directly observed geological structures. 68 Figure 4.17 Rocks theme point feature. 68 Figure 4.18 Data model for GIS themes and database tables 69 Figure 4.19 General Litholgy role model diagram (Richard, 2001). 70 +Figure 4.20 Geological map as an intersection of objects (Johnson et. al., 1999). 71 Figure 4.21 Generalized entity model for USGS geological map data model (Johnson et. al., 1999). 71 Figure 4.22 Tables in the USGS geological map relational data model version 4.3 (Johnson et. al., 1999). 72 Figure 4.23 Simplified BGS geological map data model showing some of entity types and subtypes (Bain and Giles, 1997)73 Figure 4.24 Geology scheme of INGEOMINAS GIS data model (Murillo, 1995) 74 Figure 4.25 Illustration of database and map approaches to data modeling for geological map systems. 75 Figure 5.1 Proposed committee structure for initiating the GDI 83


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List of Tables Table 2.1 The duties and responsibilities defined in the present Scheme of Service for Geologists. 21 Table 3.1 Description of the programs proposed by Reedman et. al. (assessed 30/10/2001). 33 Table 3.2 SWOT matrix for Mines and Geology Department of Kenya. 36 Table 3.3 Possible actions to address SWOT strategies. 38 Table 4.1 Principal uses of geosciences data (Reedman et.al., BGS Technical report WC/96/20). 51 Table 4.2 Domain areas of geosciences (compiled from various literature). 54 Table 4.3 Elements of technical products specification (Dominquez, 1998). 56 Table 4.4 Elements of organizational specifications (Dominquez, 1998). 56 Table 4.5 Proposed themes to support geology and specifications for Geology and structural Geology (modified after AGSO Data structure and definitions for GIS Products, version 2001.08). 57 Table 4.6 Proposed themes to support standard surveys and specifications for field site, outcrop, rocks and structural measurements (modified after AGSO Data structure and definitions for GIS Products, version 2001.08). 58 Table 4.7 Proposed themes to support minerals and specifications Mineral deposits, localities and mines and quarries (modified after AGSO Data structure and definitions for GIS Products, version 2001.08). 59 Table 4.8 Proposed themes to geochemical analysis and its specifications (modified after AGSO Data structure and definitions for GIS Products, version 2001.08). 60 Table 4.9 Proposed themes to support geophysics and specifications for earthquakes, radiometric interpretation and remote sensing (modified after AGSO Data structure and definitions for GIS Products, version 2001.08). 61 Table 5.1 The main legal issues (Kabel, 2000) 79


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Abbreviations AGSO Australian Geological Survey Organisation. ANSI American National Standards Institute. ASDI Australian Spatial Data Infrastructure. ASP Active Server Pages. BGS British Geological Survey CD-ROM Compact Disk Read only Memory. DBMS Database Management Systems. ESRI Environmental Systems Research Institute. FGDC The Federal Geographic Data Committee GAO General Accounting Office of USGS. GD - USGS Geological Division of USGS GDI Geospatial Data Infrastructure. GI Geospatial Information. GII Geoinformation Infrastructure. GIS Geographic Information System. GSOs’ Geological Survey Organisation(s). HTML Hypertext Markup Language. ISO International Organization for standardization IT Information Technology. ITC International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation. LANs Local Area Networks. M&G Mines and Geological Department of Kenya. MANs Metropolitan Area Networks. MENR Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources of Kenya government. NERC Natural Environment Research Council of United Kingdom. NGDF National Geospatial Data Framework. NGDI National Geospatial Data Infrastructure NGOs' Non Governmental Organizations. PC Personal computer. SWOT Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and threats. URL Universal resource locator. USA United State of America. USGS United States Geological Survey. WANs Wide Area Networks XML Extensible Markup Language.


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1. Introduction

1.1. Background

Responding to challenges and opportunities in their environment, Geological Survey Organizations have had to adapt new roles to address the changing needs of the society. Priority is shifting from more detailed systematic geological mapping, inventory and identification of mineral resources to program promoting management of environment, natural resources and hazards requiring more complex diver-sifying roles (British Geological Survey Strategic Plan, 1999; Bohlen, R. S. et. al (accessed on 30/9/2001); Richards, 1993). The trend is towards integrated and prioritised geoscientific programs and business processes to address society problems. In Kenya, change is also necessary. Pressure and opportunities arise from embracing of Information- and Communication Technology geoinformation users demanding for digital data for use with Geographic Information Systems, digital mapping techniques, changing state roles calling for cost recovery in free market economy, calls for good governance and increased public participation in Government, customer satisfaction, fast busi-ness environment conscience of time, quality concerns, changing society roles in national and global issues etc. Far reaching changes in traditional structures, processes, resources, information systems, business processes and interactions with surrounding, that were rooted and aimed at the demands of the earlier times need to be re-examined so that necessary changes can be made. It is necessary for the Mines and Geological Department in Kenya to explore with a wider perspective how to strategically respond to challenges in its own environment. Failure to do this would worsen the situation that the department is in already. Best management practices refer to the processes, practices, and systems identified in public and private organizations that performed exceptionally well and are widely recognized as improving an organization’s performance and efficiency in specific areas. Suc-cessfully identifying and applying best practices can reduce business expenses and improve organiza-tional efficiency (United States General Accounting Office Website, accessed 30/10/2001). It is for this reason that this research seeks to explore best practices methodology with respect to defining new role for the department in provision of geoscientific information.

1.2. Research context and research problem

Flexible Enterprise Information Systems are integral to the success of an organization in this era of information age (British Geological Survey Strategic Plan, assessed 30/10/2001). Characterized by unstructured problems, this period require fast data to information conversion and delivery, to support decision making at many levels in the organization and society at large. Mines and Geological De-partment is characterized by traditionally functional driven, uni-disciplinary and analogue system hav-ing inherent problems and reduced performance. In this system, it is difficult to customize products and services to specific and diversified customer needs. This research is in two contexts:


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International Institute for Geoinformation Science and Earth Observation [ITC] has identified a research theme: Geoinformation Provision for Strengthening Civil Society: Public Informa-tion Infrastructure and Fundamental Data. Strengthening Civil Society refers to governments facilitating access to and responsible use of geoinformation at affordable cost. This require: o Definition of the content of fundamental datasets in context of Geospatial Data Infrastructure

[GDI]/Geoinformation Infrastructure [GII]. o Development of global, accessible and flexible database for Geospatial information storage

and retrieval. o Flexible systems motivate by desire to reuse activities, manage complexities of systems and

facilitate incorporation of Information Technology. There is presure in the internal and external environment of Mines and Geological Department

from structural adjustment program, technology drivers, and local and global demands. A cross section of clientele from public and private sector, individuals, companies, other government de-partments and research and educational concerns and interest groups need access to these informa-tion and data. An efficient and effective retrieval and dissemination of the available data and in-formation is required. In thinking of a way to respond to some of these challenges, the department has recently objectively proposed databases systems and institutional strengthening. A methodo-logical approach to the problem this has not been undertaken to define goals and actions to pursue in response to these.

To support this direction, this research is focused on a methodology for developing the actions and strategies towards meeting diverse customer requirements with right products and services. Applica-tion of information technology and embracing new concepts in data management and information sharing take the centre stage.

1.3. Research questions Meeting the objectives will be guided by the following broad research questions: What is the mandate of the department? What is its business? What is the objective direction of the

department? Is this proposal enough? What is lacking in this objective direction? Can it be im-proved? What are the contributing problems to geo-information provision and service to the cus-tomers and society? Are their any external pressures? What are the courses? What broad areas of improvement can be considered to help serve society better and improve performance?

How have others planned for changes and what was the result? What should be the new business areas of the department? How can the department determine what actions to take – methodology? From the actions, which new mission, vision, goal performance measures can can be set? What should be the long-term role of the department? What is the role/support of Information Technol-ogy and Databases in the new role and improved performance?

What is the Geospatial - Data and Information Infrastructure? What is the role of Mines and Geo-logical Department of Kenya in this Infrastructure? What is the stake of the government in the In-frastructure?

Given the new role, who are the potential customers of the department? What is the nature of re-quired products and services they desire? What methodology can be applied to realize these prod-ucts using databases? What are the global database specifications? How should the data model to avail these products look like? What is the overview of some data models in geology?


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How can the changes be implemented? What other factors should be considered? What recom-mendations can be made for implementation? What should Mines and Geological Department do?

What conclusions and recommendations can be drawn from the study?

1.4. Research objectives The specific objective of this research will be: To define structured steps for determining a new role for the Mines and Geological Department in response to changing environment and in the context of Geospatial Data Infrastructure. Within this objective, minor objectives will be met to: Analyze the existing situation of the Mines and Geological Department of Kenya, identify prob-

lems and suggest broad areas of change. Provide a simple methodology for defining a new role and determining actions to be taken by the

Mines and Geological Department. Provide a methodology for re-engineer the Information System by using Information Technology

and Databases to diversify and improve products and services delivery by integration of diverse data sets in a multidisciplinary science environment.

Define possible products and their users and a methodology for diversifying products and services, global database specifications and demonstrate a data model.

Identify required changes in the current functional mapping process at functional level to accom-modate the findings.

Recommend on how to implement the findings.

1.5. Related Work

Veen (1998) and Reedman (assessed on 30/10/2001) have looked into the subject of change driving factors and how the Geological Surveys in the third world could respond. Figure 1.1 shows some of the reform components and how they relate to one another.

Figure 1.1 Reform components in the environment of Geological Surveys (Veen, 1998).

The mandate of the surveys remains valid, but the more specific mandate and the business processes are evolving towards a multidisciplinary and demand driven approach (Veen, 1998).

IN F O R M A T IO N T E C H N O L O G YS C IE N T IF IC D E V E L O P M E N T

M A C R O -E C O N O M IC P O L IC YD E V E L O P M E N T P O L IC Y

G L O B A L IZ A T IO N R O L E O F S T A T E

M IS S IO N

W O R K P R O G R A M A N D P R O D U C T S

O R G A N IZ A T IO N A N D B U S IN E S S P R O C E S S E S C O N S T R A IN T SH u m a n re s o u rc e sF in a c ia l re s o u rc e sT e c h n o lo g ic a l c a p a c ity

S O C IE T Y N E E D SU S E R S N E E D SD E V E L O P M E N TP R IO R IT IE S


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1.6. Research methodology Investigate the present situation of the Mines and Geological Department at: Internal level in rela-

tion to organizational structures, Information Systems, Business process etc. and externally in rela-tion to products and services.

Apply best practices to of other Geological Survey Organizations in terms of roles, stakeholders’ and customers’ interactions, categorizing products and services and defining databases specifica-tion. Review data models for geology.

Re-engineer the geological survey Information system: Proposes a Business Process Reengineer-ing methodology, identify SWOT strategies and actions, global design new Information System.

Broadly outline key implementation issues and business plan to implement some of the changes. The research methodology is shown in the figure below.

Figure 1.2 Research methodology.

1.7. Thesis Structure

Chapter 1 Introduction This chapter gives the general overview of the thesis structure. It provides the background, research problem, research objective, related work and the thesis structure. Chapter 2 Mines and Geological Department: Situation analysis This chapter provides an in depth analysis of the Mines and Geological Department. The current ob-jective direction, internal and external environment factors of the organization is analyzed. The man-date, organizational structures, problems in the organization, resources management, performance to meeting current objective direction and business of the organization is presented. The chapter ends with identifying context level areas of change. Chapter 3 New roles for Mines and Geological Department of Kenya This chapter determines the new roles and actions for the Mines and Geological Department in the de-velopment of the country. To do this, a methodology is required and is provided for. A societal role goal is defined. Core program activities to serve the society are part of the new role. These serve the fundamental needs of the society, diverse user requirements and development priorities of the nation.

Support

Chapter 5

Planning forchange Conclusions

Data modelsreview

Chapter 6

Situationanalysis

Chapter 2

New role

Role andactions

ImprovementScenarios

Chapter 3

Products andservices strategy

Databasespecification

Chapter 4Reengineering

InfomationSystem

Methodology

Diversify(Methodology)

CurrentObjectiveDirection

Problems

Broad contextof change

(Opportunities)

Best practice PotentialCustomer

Implementationconsiderations

Introduction

ResearchProblem

Chapter 1


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Information Technology, Databases and concepts in Geospatial Data Infrastructure offering opportu-nity to improve the performance of the organization are discussed. Lessons are taken from other or-ganizations that are undergoing similar changes. Chapter 4 Reengineering the Information System A broad potential customer base with diverse needs is identified. Therefore in this chapter, a product and service oriented strategy within and in support of the new role is focused on. The main theme is digital systems with focus on databases, as support for product and services diversity. A methodology for product diversity and classification is provided. Products are classified into classes to fit the new roles defined in chapter 2. Global database specifications are provided. A simple relational data model is attempted to implement some of the findings. Finally it reviews examples of data models from geo-logical surveys. Chapter 5 Implementation issues This chapter looks at how to implement the findings of the research. Many other issues to be consid-ered in implementation are presented, such as institutional, technical, economic issues; capacity build-ing and operational issues are introduced. Suggestions on how to address these factors are given. Chapter 6 Conclusion and recommendations This chapter provides a brief summary of the thesis work and recommendations for further work.


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2. Mines and Geological Department: Situation analysis

2.1. Introduction Mines and Geological Department is Kenya’s the national geological mapping agency. In this it con-ducts regional geoscientific surveys’. Detailed geochemical and geophysical surveys are conducted in areas identified for possible mineralization. Under the first national mapping program, about 90% of the country has been mapped and published at scale 1:125 000. The department does not carry out mining operations, but acts as a regulator in the mining sector. Its emphasis in researches has been dis-covery of Kenya mineral wealth to promote investments in the mining sector by private companies. In the year 2000, minerals exports earned the country an equivalent of Kenya Shillings 3.8 billions (9th national development plan – tourism, trade and industry sector, mining sub-sector). Kenya’s Mines and Geological Department is custodian to Kenya’s geosciences heritage. It’s has a mandated given by the government of Kenya to conduct and make available regional geological sur-vey data to support the geoscientific community in Kenya. Main programs are in geological, geo-chemical and geophysical surveys. The department directly monitors and coordinates activities in the mining sector activities by administration of various laws and legislation. The department has seen its environment change in the past years beginning, among them the call by international donor funding agencies for civil service reform programmes to improve the effectiveness of government services. This information is important in sectoral planning to support the society. This information should be accessible to all who need it. Making geological information available and in a valuable manner to those who need it is a challenge to Geological Surveys (Veen, 1998). This chapter introduces some of the problems that can be identified in the department that warrant at-tention. It then proposes broad areas that could be changed to improve the performance of the organi-zation.

2.2. Mines and Geological Department of Kenya objective direction

The department is under the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources [MENR]. The govern-ment given mandate states that it should: Perform geological mapping and mineral exploration programs to help in sustainable management

of mineral resources, exploration and inventory of mineral resources. Promotion of regional and inter-regional co-operation in the management of mineral resources.

In this the existing strategic objectives developed by the department and outlined in the 9th National Development Plan state as follows: To identify areas of mineral potential through geological mapping and mineral exploration of tar-

geted areas within five years.


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To review existing legislation such as to encourage and promote private sector investment in min-ing industry.

Establish a national seismological network to detect potential geological hazards. Develop, strengthen and maintain reference database on mineral resources. Undertake geological mapping and mineral exploration in remaining unmapped areas of Kenya. To strengthen the institutional framework and service delivery for sustainable management of min-

erals. Theses are seen to be inadequate. The department should do more with its geological mapping pro-grams. Trying to justify its existence emphasizing mineral discovery has worked against it. Major mineral deposits have not been discovered in the country. In effect, economists and public see an ap-parent non-performance. The department should have innovative strategies within its mandate to take advantage of an era when the creation, application and dissemination of knowledge will drive the economy (British Geological Survey Strategic Plan, 1999).

2.3. Organization structure

2.3.1. Organizational structure

Organization structures are strategic decision to assign resources to units of individuals or groups of people. Roles, responsibilities and the authority structure are aimed at employing organizations poten-tial to address the competition. It identifies the functional areas of competency and indicating who is responsible for which functional areas and who reports to whom (authority structure).

Figure 2.1 Organization structure showing divisions and geosciences programs.

The department is composed of many geoscientific sections and distributed in provincial offices, see Figure 2.1. Database and remote sensing sections were proposed and introduced but little has been done so far. These sections need trained personnel and equipment. The scheme of service, Table 2.1,

MiningDetailed

investigationand Database

Geochemicalinvestigation

Senior SuperintendingGeologist

Geologist Geophysicalinvestigation

Senior Superintending

DatabasesSenior Superintending

Geologist

Industrial MineralsSenior Superintending

Geologist

Laboratories Support

VariousAdministration

Head of DepartmentCommissioner of Mines and Geology

Chief Geologist

Head of sectionChief Superintending

Geologist

Head ofsection

Chief Chemist

Head ofsectionMining

Engineer

Head ofsection

Personnelofficer

Regional Surveyand research

Geologist RemoteSensing and

PhotogrammetrySenior Superintending

Museum and LibrarySenior Superintending

Geologist

Geologist Geologicalmapping

Senior Superintending

Head of sectionChief Superintending

Geologist

Assay

Geochemistry

XRF

Lapidary

cartography

ProvincialOffices

SeniorSuperintending

Geologist

Superintending Geologists

Geologists

Assistant Geologists


21

does not explicitly cover professionals in these fields. As a result those trained in this disciplines are prone to leaving the department.

Duties and Responsibilities Commissioner Direction and management of all geological, services formulation or research and development programmes guidance and technical advice to the government Chief Superintending Geologist Project planning, implementation, liaising with other agencies, evaluation of section projects and programmes Senior Superintending Geologists Monitoring field programmes, enforcement of technical standards, budget controls, develop-ment plans and negotiation of funds, design project standards, specifications and contract documents Superintending. Geologists Long term geological planning, evaluation and preparation of field programs, control and supervi-sion of surveys, setting and design of standards to be followed by geologist, resources planning for programs Geologists Implementation of geological programmes, planning, design, evaluation and administration of field projects, supervision of assistant geologist Assistant Geologists On job training, carry out work in geology, geophysics or geochemistry

Table 2.1 The duties and responsibilities defined in the present Scheme of Service for Geologists.

These sections need to integrate data from one another in conducting businesses. Unfortunately under the current set-up, the data and information sharing mechanisms is not optimal. Each sections data and information is stored separately and is not linked up with one another. Apart from these, within the ministry, there is no similar sharing facility. It is necessary that sharing of data and information be-tween the various departments of the ministry. To encourage a multidisciplinary approach science and decision making, the data from the different sections need to integrated to so that they could be easily be analyzed together. The department also need a right mix of skills of managers, information technology specialists and multidisciplinary sci-ence team.

2.4. Interaction with other departments and organizations

The department’s work is a component of an integrated system of geoscientific information flow. It depends on and dependent upon by other organizations in solving society issues. Coordination be-tween this organizations and the department is crucial for sustained development of geological knowl-edge and integration of diverse data in decision-making. In this the department should take centre stage, as the custodian of base geoscientific data for the Nation to facilitate the development of geo-sciences in the country. These major relationships can be identified:


22

Other government departments and administration

o The department needs to strengthen its relation as a supplier of geoscientific information for the government departments and administration. The department should develop technical and scientific capability to analyze issues of public debate and provide relevant information for decision making at all levels of government.

Private sector o In the private sector producers and consumer of geoinformation are found: Mining concerns,

engineering and construction companies etc. Collaboration with such organizations in build-ing the geosciences knowledge is beneficial to all.

Educational and research institutions o Mines and Geological department has a stakeholder in the universities, college, schools and

public education forums. It should participate in knowledge transfer to this institutes and the development of training programs in line with contemporary needs. This will ensure a steady supply of qualified graduates to fulfil its tasks.

Professional societies o Mines and Geological Department needs cooperation with professional societies like Geo-

logical society of Kenya, Geologists Registration Board and Geological society of Africa as members of a wider geoscientific community. Participation and collaboration in professional meetings, publications, reviews of research standards should be explored.

2.5. Revenue and funding base

The department has a poor revenue collection base. Limited products and service lack of research and innovation are contributors to this. Government funding for the traditional mapping activities of the department has greatly reduced in the past. As such the department is not been able to: Sufficiently update its maps or conduct new surveys using traditional methods. Publish its work for circulation.

The department must be innovative in demonstrating its importance in the countries development to attract funding from the government.

2.6. Core business process of the department

A business process is a set of related activities to achieve an explicit business goal. Business process model may show the relationships of these activities with resources in the process – people, material, information, and technology. A process model help to understand the business for improvement or innovation and as a basis for other models for example determining GIS and IS requirements, integra-tion of parts and impacts to workflow to be addressed through business process reengineering. A core processes is one having interactions with the external world or crucial to the delivery of goods and services. Non-core processes support the core processes (Eriksson and Penker, 2000). The depart-ment’s core process is geological mapping to develop the national geological information base. The process is modeled at the functional level shown in Figure 2.2. In this process, standard geological maps are produced as a final product. This is inadequate to serve an emerging GIS community internally and externally of the organization. Often it cannot be used di-rectly by customers. There is need for a product and service strategy in the organization that will en-able production of customised and intermediate products and services readily usable by the customers.


23

Figure 2.2 Existing functional process model.

2.7. Geological resources management and utilization

The wealth of department’s data and information resource is not readily available to the scientific community: Paper media of presentation restricts details and volume of data, which can be put on a map. Field photographs, rockslides, interpretation results, laboratory analysis, field notes, field data and

data collected from other parties are not readily accessible to the user community. Accountability and transparency is lacking on the part of employees. This makes employees view

the data they collect as personal property. As a consequence data and information is lost due to poor data management policies.

Security of the data holdings is inadequate. All resources are stored in central location such that recovery in case of calamity would be difficult. Original documents have been destroyed due to poor storage facilities.

Multiple use and reuse of field data is difficult as it is not readily available in suitable format. Each surveys data is treated separately while continuation of survey should facilitate densification of observation points or increase geological attribution. There waste of resources when surveyed lo-calities have to be revisited in a re-mapping program.

Unpublished reports and out of print maps and reports are not readily accessible to a wide user base.

There is no centralized system in which one can integrate information from the various sections. Standards are needed for mapping practices and for the private companies to submit their geologi-cal data for easy sharing. The library maintains a centralized analogue cataloguing system for geo-logical resources in the department that enabled one to organize and locate resources.

The Department also has a problem when it comes to what data or information is for public do-main.

All these factors lead to inefficient data and information resource utilization.

T o p o m a o s , e x i s t i n g r e p o r t s , i m a g e s ,a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s

G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e yO f f i c eS t u d y

F i e l dW o r k

s a m p l e s

N o t e b o o k sa n d f i e l d

m a pP e t r o l o g yS a m p l e

A n a l y s i s

A r e a s f o rd e t a i l e d s u r v e y

R e p o r tG e o l o g i c a lM a p

L a b o r a t o r y

s a m p l ep r e p a r a t i o n

a n d a n a l y s i s

A n a l y s i sr e s u l t s

D e t a i l e d I n v e s t i g a t i o n s

F i e l dW o r k

s a m p l e s

R e p o r t M a p

P u b l i s h i n g ( o u t s o u r c e d )c a r t o g r a p h y s e c t i o n

C a r t o g r a ph i c m a p P u l i c a t i o n

P u b l i s h e dr e p o r t a n d

m a p

L i b r a r y

A r c h i e v e

S a l eU S E R


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2.8. Information context Figure 2.3 below shows the current flow of information flow around the department.

Figure 2.3 Information context around Mines and Geological department, Kenya.

The context diagram shows how information flows around the department. Print geological maps and reports are obtained through the library. Users have to travel to the department’s offices to get help or report any matters they think are of interest to the geologists. There is no publicity mechanism to re-port what is available in the department or to conduct a customer’s survey to know their needs. These needs are changing wanting geological information to be represented in a way understood by each group and in different formats. The Mines and Geological Department is a centre for geosciences data and information. It should through coordinated research efforts spearhead the development of stan-dards for example lithostratigraphic legend and stratigraphic authority names.

2.9. Global demands There are calls for good governance, e-government and civil service reform programmes in the local and internal community that demands for rethinking on financial resources, introduction of technol-ogy, human resources management and services. E-Government refers to the use by government agencies of information technologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) that have the ability to transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government. These technologies can serve a variety of different ends: better delivery of government services to citizens, improved interactions with business and in-dustry, citizen empowerment through access to information, or more efficient government manage-ment. The resulting benefits can be less corruption, increased transparency, greater convenience, reve-nue growth, and/or cost reductions.

MINES AND GEOLOGICAL DEPT

GovernmentAdministrationCentral/Provincial/District/MunicipalMaps, advice onGeology relatedmatters

Others

Maps, advice onGeology relatedmatters

Private firms, miningcompanies, NGO's,interest groups,researchers

Public

Maps, advice onGeological matters

Other organisations/agencies/companiesTopography, aerialphotos, satellite imageprints, geoscienceinformation reports


25

Good governance refers to those aspects of a government that contribute to promoting public sector transparency, accountability, efficiency and fairness. The World bank recommend that much broader range of institutional reforms is needed if countries are to establish and maintain private sector confi-dence and thereby lay the basis for sustained growth. Macroeconomic policies, effectiveness of public resource management, economic and regulatory environment for private sector activity is needed. (Various sources from World Bank http://www1.worldbank.org, accessed 30/12/2001).

2.10. Implications for Mines and Geological Department of Kenya From the modest analysis above, it is clear that there is need for changes to improve the department. Broad context areas of change that can improve the performance of the organization are identified be-low. Role in society – the department should find ways of directly addressing society problems with its

science and programs’. The department needs a new vision for mission in the society. Trying to justify its importance in terms of mineral discovery, the department has failed to win the support of politicians and economists. New clichés must be found.

Information system – a flexible geoscientific information system for the acquisition, capturing, storage, visualization and dissemination of geoscientific information is required. This will involve introduction of new technology like databases and Internet facilities to enhance access to re-sources.

Customer focus – The department should work towards being customer focused. Meeting specific customer needs in terms of diverse products and service according to quality, quality control and timeliness is crucial for the success of the organization. Product innovation, marketing, accessibil-ity and advertisement are channels the department should seriously improve on.

Documentation – management policies and procedures are needed to address workflows and deci-sions at all levels in relation to data management. Standards and quality of work must be docu-mented, adhered to and made available for inspection by all to improve the value of geosciences data and information.

Changes in the organization structures - The department must take a firm direction to encourage retaining a right mix of skills in its establishment to fro a multidisciplinary approach to geoscience and innovative research and development in geoinformation management.

Anticipating cost recovery - In the privatisation and commercialization of government agencies currently taking place in Kenya, the department must determine the best way to react to these changes.

Co-operation with others - The department should encourage interrelations and collaboration with other organizations like universities through joint projects to address societies problems.

It is expected that implementing these changes will work together give the Mines and Geological De-partment a new lease of life. The next chapter methodologically identifies the new role in the society that will strategically improve performance problems of the organization. Other than address individ-ual problems, this strategy should handle the problems of the organization with a long-term focus.


26


27

3. New role for Mines and Geological Department of Kenya

3.1. Introduction Realizing the need for change in the Mines and Geological Department, this chapter methodologically determine what actions to take. Using a proposed structured methodology, actions for change by analyzing and taking into account factors in the environmental of the organization is determined. The methodology uses concepts applied in private sector for organizational performance improvement. Practical change implementations in geological surveys provide some lessons. State national surveys and mapping agencies have recently recognized the need to formulate strategies and procedures for standardizing the access to and application of geospatial data (Groot and McLaughlin, 2000). Geologi-cal surveys have not been spared. Geological survey organizations such as Geological Division of USGS, BGS, AGSO and Ministry of Mines and Minerals of India realizing this need have been and continue to work in finding solutions and how they should respond to their environment by defining new roles in society.

3.2. Learning from others - example strategic planning in Geological Surveys

Mnay geological surveys such as BGS (British Geological Survey Strategic Plan, 1999), GD-USGS (Bohlen et. al., accessed 30/9/2001) and AGSO (Richards, 1993) have realized the need for changeand are finding ways of responding.

3.2.1. Geological Division of USGS strategic planning

The Geological Divisions science strategy for the period 2000-2010, “Geology for a Changing World” is formulated within the strategic plan of USGS. It is a plan of activities arising out of antici-pated broad national and global scientific issues and needs. It identifies promising new research directions to address these needs and evaluating its implications to GD-USGS staff. The evaluation-involved review of: USGS strategic plan and other divisions’ plans. Draft 5 year plans of USGS program. External reviews of USGS. Recommendations of Science advisory committee. Other federal agencies, science agencies, national and international earth science organizations

strategies and science plans. Panel discussions with private individuals, scientists, managers, GD-USGS and USGS staff.

Its broad outcome were Society driven mission goals focusing on underlying relationship between human and natural envi-

ronment in the areas of geological hazard and natural resources.


28

Increased partnership interactions at all levels of the organization through cooperation and col-laboration in areas of interest.

These organizations include: Other USGS divisions to address most pressing societal problems. Other departmental agencies in meeting there scientific needs in geology. Other federal agencies in multidisciplinary approaches to science and problem solving. State geological surveys to direct regional and national scale studies and information priorities in

state and local land use policy with the GD-USGS role remaining geological mapping and other investigations on regional and national scale.

Academia to avoid duplication of and maximum utility of research facilities and labs by graduate studies funding and postdoctoral hiring, sabbatical appointments.

Private sector acquire through dialog and address end user needs for mutual benefit and cooperate with database companies in facilitating access to GD-USGS data and products.

Professional societies participate in professional meetings etc. International agencies and institutions in global economy, global problem solving and global

monitoring. To meet the goals GD-USGS underscores the importance of commitment to technological innovation and broadening of expertise through interagency collaboration, training, visiting scientists and post-doctoral programs. As a consequence it defined goals and operational objectives. The goals are defined as: Conduct geologic hazard assessments for mitigation planning Provide short-term prediction of geologic disasters and rapidly characterize their effects Advance the understanding of the Nation's energy and mineral resources in a global Anticipate the environmental impacts of climate variability Establish the geologic framework for ecosystem structure and function Interpret the links between human health and geologic processes Determine the geologic controls on ground-water resources and hazardous waste isolation

Six operational objectives to achieve the goals are: Greatly enhance the public's ability to locate, access, and use Geologic Division maps and data. Maintain a first-rate earth-system science library. Effectively transfer the knowledge acquired through Geologic Division science activities. Promote vitality and flexibility of the scientific staff. Promote interdisciplinary research. Institute internal and external review.

Each set of goals has a set of strategic actions and products to aid planning and requiring new meth-ods, technologies and skills development.

3.2.2. British Geological Survey strategic planning

The BGS strategic plan, “Foundations for a sustainable future” seeks first to advance the mission of National Environmental Research Council (NERC) in an era where economy is driven by creation, application and dissemination of knowledge. Change trigger events were:


29

Anticipating fundamental changes in its operational environment Rapid changes in needs of user community.

It therefore involved its staff to assess how it should respond. BGS strategically decided to employ to its advantage its strengths in: The high value attached to its geological mapping program. Broad Clients base afforded by strategic commissions, partnership and contracts with industry

and government and organizations nationally and internationally. As a consequence of accommodating the changes, revolutionalize the organization structure; changed approach to geoscience data and relationship to the client and user was needed. Two new visions were therefore formulated for the organization to reflect it’s new objectives:

“To put BGS Sciences at the center of decision-making process in management of nations resources, problem of waste disposal and pollution, reducing the risks of natural hazards” “To increase the understanding of the earth and science of environmental change.” Its customers were identified to include government, industry and community to be served through programs providing professional knowledge based services and objectives, impartial advice to help in making safe, sustainable, and efficient decisions in managing the environment, use of resources and mitigating natural hazards. The strategic objectives arrived at from the assessment. Focus data and expertise equally on the needs of individual clients and for the public good Run an integrated national strategic geoscience program in which underpinning scientific research

is enhanced by strategic commissions, partnerships and contracts aligned with the our mission. Define programs through an ongoing dialogue with all clients and users. Deliver program using multidisciplinary teams and professional project management, developing

staff to their full potential. Provide Geoscience knowledge and solutions, which help government, industry and individuals to

make the right decisions concerning the environment Develop the maximum synergy between its data and expertise through the creation of a 3D digital

geoscientific spatial model for the UK’s national territory. Raise public awareness of the impact of Geoscience on sustainable development decisions by

communicating achievements to all stakeholders. It outlined the changes in the areas of: Marketing - focus all development of programs and implementations in the future to address the

needs customers government, government agencies, industry, community, clients by promoting the publish good strategic geosciences.

The acquisition of new geoscience information through user focused strategic surveying and moni-toring and closer relationship between BGS and its stakeholders.

A National Geoscience knowledge database – common standards in integration and management of geoscience data and information, employ full knowledge of ICT to optimize the accessibility of data and information by bringing all information in the UK Digital Geoscientific Spatial Data Model.

Enhance the skill base towards knowledge applications based on Digital Geoscientific Spatial Data model necessitated by shift in strategy.


30

Innovative new services - closer working relations to guide the development of innovative prod-ucts and services.

Communicate success-using Internet to improve communication and create public awareness to relevance of Geoscience information in decision-making and public policy formulation as a means of effective governance and citizen participation through information provision.

Benefits of the strategy for BGS stakeholders New mechanisms for engaging clients and users in a dialogue regarding program direction Single points of contact for clients. Involvement of clients in all parts of the BGS programs. Prioritisation of the BGS program on the basis of changing national requirements and specific cli-

ent need. The UK’s first Digital Geoscientific Spatial Model. Knowledge-based products and services delivered via the Internet.

3.2.3. Australian Geological Survey Organization strategic planning

The mission of AGSO is “Building the geoscientific knowledge of Australia to underpin responsi-ble resource and land use management and effective minerals and petroleum exploration”. Its outlined objectives are: Develop a publicly available, comprehensive and integrated geoscientific knowledge base for the

Australia through provision of appropriate maps and databases. Provide independent and timely scientific and technical advices and information to governments

and industry and public to support the effective management of the land and its petroleum, mineral and ground water resources

Provide special nation geoscientific capabilities such as geophysical observatory functions, seis-mic monitoring for earthquake risk and nuclear explosion

Participate in appropriate international geoscientific programs to contribute to Australia’s interna-tional policy objectives and promote the use of Australian geoscientific services overseas.

The board will in 1, 3 and 10 year periods submit corporate strategy plan- setting policies to be pur-sued to achieve objectives and identify performance indicators and targets as appropriate in addition to annual report to an advisory committee constituted to address on programs. The organization has gone through a series of reviews beginning 1978. In that year it was decided it should have a capacity to undertake strategic missions-oriented geoscientific research and a career structure change to reflect the new role. In 1988 redefined its core business of survey work and map-ping to produce as main product geoscientific maps and datasets. A second-generation geological maps using new airborne datasets, digitized databases and state of art processing technologies to cover to a wide range of user was targeted. In effect of these, a staff redundancy program aimed at providing AGSO with future opportunities to recruit staff with skills better matching new programs and a merit advancement and scheme based on professional (scientists) grade introduced. A cost recovery as oppo-site to public good program increased it revenue but was met by complaints of high costs and propriety attitude to the data hindering access.


31

The latest review was on composition, structure and administration arrangements (Richards et. al., 1993). Consultations were done with a cross section of organization, individual and groups having interest in its activities. Broad scientific program were required to benefit the traditional clients- mineral and petroleum sector but also agriculture, water resources and forestry and wider range of environmental issues. Among identified essential programs recommended are a National Geoscientific Information System and a National Geoscience Mapping. It recommended promotion of AGSO work as a public good and programs be led by scientist/manager working in accountability to stakeholders, client and collaborates. AGSO in September 2001 undertook initiatives to stimulate the development of a viable private sector spatial information industry in Australia. These initiatives are to help position the industry to capture a greater share of a large and rapidly growing global market. The initiatives included formation of a sin-gle organization to represent business interests in the Spatial Information Industry and Spatial Data Access and Pricing to continuing development and implementation of online services and product dis-tribution. This latter initiative is to facilitate maximization of the benefits of spatial information by enabling easy, effective, efficient equitable access to government spatial data where technology re-quirements, data formats, institutional arrangements and contractual conditions do not inhibit its use. One of the key aspects concerns fundamental spatial data which will be provided free of charge through the Internet, and at no more the marginal cost of transfer for packaged products and full cost of transfer for customized services.

3.2.4. The role of geological information in National Geospatial Data Infrastructure (NGDI)

The Australian Spatial Data Infrastructure (ASDI) defines two types of datasets: Fundamental datasets are the datasets for which several government agencies and/or industry

groups require a consistent national coverage in order to achieve their corporate objectives and re-sponsibilities.

Framework datasets as those primary fundamental datasets that provide essential base information for multiple national requirements. They are the priority subset of fundamental datasets and pro-vide the foundation on which organizations can create other datasets by overlaying their own the-matic detail.

Geology (boundaries and classification of terrestrial and marine geological units) and Mineral Re-sources (boundaries and classification of terrestrial and marine mineral occurrence) are classified as fundamental datasets in the natural environment theme fundamental data. http://www.auslig.gov.au/asdi/ (assessed 12/12/2001) The Natural Environment Research Council of The United Kingdom has several objectives. Among them is to promote and support high quality basic, strategic and applied research and survey. It desig-nates the BGS as the National Geoscience Data Centre for geological data such as digital databases and maps, paper archives and materials collections, and library collections and archives. The BGS is also a member of the National Geospatial Data Framework (NGDF), the UK Geospatial Data Infra-structure that aims is to facilitate the unlocking of geospatial information (GI) through enabling better awareness of data availability, improving access to the data and integrating data by encouraging the use of standards. The use of the framework is to help to facilitate value-added services by enabling the combination of data from multiple sources.


32

In USA, the USGS node has recently been added to the USGS Geospatial Data Clearinghouse compo-nent National Spatial Data Infrastructure. One of the themes of the node is the geology node providing a geoscience data catalogue. (http://geo-nsdi.er.usgs.gov/, assessed 15/1/2001). From these orgnizations we learn that Strategic Management is needed to developing plans even in government organisations. New business programs have an institutional outlook, customer focus, improved public and government access to geoscientific information, essential programs strategy and a multidisciplinary approach to science. Partnerships, collaboration and technology are essentials to success for programs of geological surveys organizations. Geological Survey Organisations have a major leadership role in the geoscientific community.

3.3. Core programs science model The conclusions of chapter one expressed broadly the areas that require change in the department. Thinking of minerals only was found to be inadequate. As a solution to this problem, a core program and activity should be adopted. The chosen programs and activities as a matter of importance address the immediate needs of the society. This will make sure that available merger resources are put in areas of maximum returns. A model provided by Reedman et. al. (assessed 30/10/2001) is proposed for adoption. This model is presented in Figure 3.1 and consists of a set Core programs and Commissioned programs. The core program enables fulfilling the requirements of a National Geoscience Information System of provid-ing fundamental data of public interest and is funded by the public. These programs are shown in Fig-ure 3.2.

Figure 3.1The Relationship between core and commissioned programs (Reedman et. al., assessed 30/10/2001).

C O R E P R O G R A M A C T I V I T I E S

C O M M I S S I O N E D P R O G R A M

P u b l i c F u n d s

B a s i c k n o w l e d g eR e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t

F i n a n c e s a n d d a t a


33

Figure 3.2 Proposed core programs for Geological survey Organizations (Reedman et. al., assessed 30/10/2001)

Geological mapping Observation and recording of data concerning geological feature, classification and projection to depth to deduce deeper structures

Geochemical survey Collection and analysis of geological materials at predefined distribution at regional scale.

Geophysical survey Instrumental measurement of geophysical parameters from aircrafts, vehicles or hand held instruments. Monitor-ing involve continuous instrumental monitoring of seismic activity through strategically located network of instru-ments.

Ground water The monitoring of groundwater resources to ensure a continuity of supply through sensible abstraction policies, the provision of information on the surface and sub-surface distribution and hydraulic properties of aquifers and the monitoring of water quality.

Minerals Assessment of regional mineral resources potential, monitoring of proven resources, maintaining statistics on pro-duction and advice on regulations and legislature with regard to exploration, minerals planning and environmental impact of mining. May include technical advice to small-scale miners. Possibly more detailed, localize mineral resources evaluations and exploration programs.

Energy Exploration and assessment of energy resources and maintenance of information from these activities done by the survey or private firms.

Geohazards Identification, continuous monitoring and prediction of geohazards – (geological, geotechnical and geochemical), to provide information and advice to the public and concerned groups on remedial action and/or appropriate protec-tion and mitigation.

Development of survey techniques Research and Development to take advantage of electronic media, Information Technology, digital cartography and Geographic Information System for integration of datasets to produce customized, thematic maps and models and dissemination.

National geosciences data Centre Preservation and making available data acquired and collected by the surveys as a national asset. Indexing and safe storage of diverse information resources including rocks, samples, specimens, records, analytical data, field note books and maps, reports and publications and systems for locating and retrieving data in appropriate ways.

Table 3.1 Description of the programs proposed by Reedman et. al. (assessed 30/10/2001).

Remote-sensing applications is an important contribution in the development of survey techniques. In the case of Kenya the bulk of water and energy data is maintained separate departments. It is usually

Core Program

Systematic Mapping Resource inventory Geo-hazards Geosciences DataCenter

Gechemical surveys

Geological mapping

Energy resources

Minerals

Ground water

Development of surveytechniques

Geophysical survey and lmonitoring


34

the case that in a field survey, the geologist has to collect and interpret basic data in other disciplines like environment, water and energy. This often find its way in the final reports. He defines these programs as shown in the table below Geological, geophysical and geochemical surveys have been the main areas of activities for the de-partment. It is expected that in the future through the development of techniques for survey and na-tional geoscience data centre, a digital database repository of geoscientific knowledge will come into existence. Through these developments, the resources in the department will be easily accessible in customized manner. The departments will be linked using modern technology and users will be able to access at any time the information they need in a form they can easily use. The Internet will be a major form of dissemination of geoscientific information for decision makers, allowing printing and downloading maps and data when needed. By applying advances in remote sensing, it will be possible to create updated maps in a timely manner.

3.4. Methodology for defining new goals and actions

A structured methodology is needed to understand the context of change, analyze the problems in the current environment and formulate actions to be taken. A series of steps and activities are proposed to methodologically derive goals and actions, Figure 3.4. The description is in Appendix A. The methodology follows analytical frameworks commonly applied in strategic planning and Information System Design. In the methodology decisions for business process reengineering or business process improvement must be taken. Business process reengineering philosophy of change is based on the increased vision of shared infor-mation as a cooperate asset contained in a cooperate database in supporting the mission of the organi-zation. Data capture and maintenance processes must support mission of the organization and non-value adding activities are eliminated and resources directed to high return activities. Incorporating the Just-In-Time philosophy, it also seeks to provide for information to be delivered electronically to the work site at the precise time it is needed and one system interface for accessing information resources (The Electronic College of Process Innovation) (http://www.c3i.osd.mil/bpr/bprcd/ assessed 12/12/2001). The steps are applied in a case study of the Mines and Geological Department. In the context of strate-gic planning, identification of change trigger events is undertaken. In this an acknowledgement of change, underlying motive and context is understood. This was achieved in Chapter 2. Environmental scanning and subsequently a business vision are carried out in Section 3.5. Globally areas for proc-esses reengineering are shown in Figure 3.4 and Figure 3.5. Analysis of key customers and stake-holders is an exercise that in ideal situation required fieldwork. In chapter 4, the process adapted is identification from literature of potential customers and needs in terms of products and services speci-fications. The chapter further determines the Database specifications as part of the overall process of information system analysis and design. This takes into consideration the products and services re-quirements. Implementation is considered in Chapter 5.


35

Figure 3.3 Proposed methodology to arrive at improved Information systems.

3.5. The corporate Strategic Management The corporate strategy plan should be prepared by senior executives to define the purpose and objec-tives of their organization (Reeve and Petch, 1999). The exercise of strategic planning is not a one mans exercise. It should be carried with the involvement of employees of the organization. The pur-pose here is to show how the technique can be applied to find plans of actions and define new goals

3.5.1. Case study of Mines and Geological Department - actions from SWOT matrix

In chapter 2, some internal and external factors necessitating that change be done were examined. In environmental scanning and a SWOT analysis, many factors arise. Only major factors are take priority in the matrix analysis. A SWOT matrix conducted for the Mines and Geological Department is shown in Table 3.2.

IMPLEMENTATIONImplementation plans (organizational and cultural changemanagement), Issues: Institutional, Technical, Financial,

Capacity building, Pricing policy

IdentifyBest practices

Strategies and procedureshandling, verifying, validating, loading and

managing

Corporate Strategic Management

IDENTIFY CHANGE TRIGGEREVENTS

Identify Processes for re-engineering

Model Target Process(s)

Analyze key customer/stakeholderIdentify needs in Productsand services improvement

Environmental Scan

Internal factors External factors

Swot matrix

BusinessVision

Information System analysis& Design


36

Strengths (S) Existing resources in data Laboratory equipments Mandate as custodian/ regu-

lator of earth sciences of Kenya Young staff ready to learn Laws and regulations provide

some monopoly – mining act, geologist registration act

Weaknesses (W) Financial constraint for research and

development e.g. for updates, applied sci-ence Hard/software and institutional capac-

ity for ICT and multidisciplinary science Analogue production line with stan-

dard product outputs at the end of the line Strategic Management: Policies, stan-

dards, quality, goals and strategies Poor scheme of service to attract IT

specialist Scheme of service narrowed to geolo-

gists Weak monopoly No knowledge of user requirements

Opportunities (O) Calls for restructuring by aid

agencies and Government strengthen economy, financial bases, promote good governance, charging fees, com-mercialization Increased user base from multid-

isciplinary problem solving incorporat-ing geosciences information and user needs Increased customer base driven by technology requiring diverse products, services and access e.g. CD-ROM

Strateg ies Maximize on existing re-

sources to address user needs Enter in the commercial mar-

ket Capacity building

Strategies Lobby for restructuring to introduce IT Develop diverse products and services

by redesign/ Reengineer processes using IT Strategically plan programs/ activities

to address pressing needs Improve employee terms of service Develop marketing strategy to identify

user requirements

Threats (T) Reduced funding from govern-

ment Competition from alternative data

sources e.g. from private sector map-ping Dissatisfaction politicians,

economist and public

Strateg ies Control on the industry to

have update information Improve access to resources

Reuse existing resources

Strategies Public good science Focus on issues addressing society

problems Partnership and collaboration

Table 3.2 SWOT matrix for Mines and Geology Department of Kenya.

An inspection of the SWOT matrix strategies enables formulation of a new vision for the organization. In the context of Business Process Reengineering, a revolutionary approach to the mission is adapted. The vision should be: Customer driven. Within the existing mandate.

Mandate The organization has a government given mandate. Changing this may prove to be difficult and it re-mains the same. “Perform geological mapping and mineral exploration programs to help in sustainable management of mineral resources, exploration and inventory of mineral resources.” “Promotion of regional and inter-regional co-operation in the management of mineral resources.” While the mandate remains the same, its broadness is taken to advantage to define more specific mis-sions and visions without violating it.

Internal Factors

External Factors


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Mission statement “Support society with updated geo-scientific information by developing appropriate databases to sup-port digital information systems and product diversification to meet customer needs” Vision statement "To place geosciences in the decision support processes in sectoral planning for the benefit of society” Goal “Improve access to resources by diversity of products and services through research and in-novative thinking” A performance measure can be attached to this goal. This can be stated in terms of: Actual number products and services, for specific target groups such as to serve their needs.

Measuring this goal require customer survey returns to evaluate the effectiveness of the product in the target group.

Actual number of satekeholders meetings. Actaul number of infromation systems produced.

Possible plans of actions for each strategy was also formulated. These are presented in Table 3.3. Stra-tegic planning also involves corporate level policies and statements. These are strategies to increase and maximize the value of geoscientific data resources (digital data, non-digital data and materials) by management of collection, interpretations and exploitation (Strategies and systems for maximising geoscience data value, assessed 12/12/2001) http://www.bgs.ac.uk/dfid-kar-geoscience/r7199/home.html The data policy should include a set of fundamental principles: Data are a valuable resource in their own right; All data collected by staff are owned corporately [unless ownership is defined otherwise by ex-

plicit contractual agreement]; The Data Policy will be reviewed and, if necessary, revised periodically; The Data Policy will be monitored and take account of any new corporate "position statements"

which may affect it; Corporate Data Policy will take precedence over any more local (Group or Project) data policies; Data are a corporate asset, and will be released or disseminated to external bodies or individuals

only with corporate approval. The data management policy includes data use and access and charging for data.


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Plans of Action The following actions can be formulated for the SWOT strategies: Strategy: Maximize on existing resources to address user needs Action: Using existing resources and possibilities of IT, convert from analogue to digital

source data through digitising Strategy: Enter the commercial market Action: Using existing laboratory capabilities and restructuring, commercialising services

focusing on customer need and lay down policies for private sector participation Strategy: Lobby for restructuring and introducing ICT (financial/ political/ laws) Action: Seek IT introduction by forming an action group to lobby for political, financial and

legislative support. Strategy: Capacity building Action: Using young staff to strengthen human resource in IT by strategic training pro-

grams in IT Strategy: Develop diverse products and services by redesign/ Reengineer processes using IT Action: Encourage innovative IT in digital data management systems Strategy: Strategically plan programs/ activities Action: Periodically update strategic plan for the organization to identify and reflect on pri-

ority programs Strategy: Improve employee terms of service Action: Widen scheme of service to attract a mix of professionals including IT specialists

Strategy: Marketing strategy Action: Perform periodic stakeholder analysis to understand their requirements in design an

appropriate information system cater for this Strategy: More control the industry to have update information Action: Strengthen the institutional framework to more control on industry to collect all

current information and use update resources holdings Strategy: Improve access to resources Action: Use database to reengineer the Information System

Strategy: Reuse existing resources Action: Employ IT and reengineer the Information system

Strategy: Public good science Action: Develop and maintain basic datasets in public good science paid for by the public

Strategy: Focus on issues addressing society problems Action: Employ IT find innovative ways to make geology resources available to non-geology

domain users. Strategy: Partnership and collaboration Action: Encourage partnership and sharing of resources

Table 3.3 Possible actions to address SWOT strategies.

These actions show that issues to do with information provision, technology application, customer ori-entation and institutional matters need to be addressed. A computer based information system ap-proach to improvement is proposed. In an information system supporting technology, people, organi-zations, processes and policies facilitate effective and efficient data and information collection, acqui-sition, storage, processing, interpretation, analysis and presentation (Reeve and Petch, 1999; Paresi, 2000). In addition the department should play a leading role in the geoscientific community: undertake


39

an initiative towards being a centre and leader in geosciences in the country. This are in line with the lessons gained seen in Section 3.2.

3.6. Scenario Synthesis It is possible to outline some scenarios that could solve some of the problems outlined earlier. A sim-ple scenario would be to digitize map sheets into and use a Geographic Information system and com-mercially available Database Management System Software like Microsoft Access. This would be a simple and cheap practical solution. However a problem arises when the volume of data increases. In small area project-based information systems, for example a map sheet or a geological reign, such a system can be employed. Access to the databases is limited to one person at a time. CD-ROM can achieve an improved distribution of project applications. Individual sheet maps can be digitized and attribute without bothering about edge matching, hence digital maps retain their identity original char-acteristics. A second scenario a central enterprise database holding domain database linked to one another. Shar-ing of information is improved, as all employees are able to access required information for their work at any time. Information sharing and integration within the organization is improved. In case of devel-oping seamless databases, an added cost in solving inconsistencies in original maps arises. A central database can be linked to the Internet to provide electronic access. Internet GIS applications can be used to access and present GIS results. The problem of data sharing would not be solved. Stakeholder needs and other internal and external institutional aspects would not be taken into account. In effect the Mines and Geological Department would still be in isolation delivery what it thinks is important to its stakeholders. The danger is falling into the same trap of not being abreast with the market needs. For the purpose of realizing the proposed new role of the Mines and Geological Department, a third scenario is proposed in Figure 3.4. In this architecture, a sustainable solution is sought. Institutional issues - Social, cultural, financial and legal frameworks are taken into account in the development of national geosciences information system for common good. It encourages collaboration and sharing of data between interest groups. Redundancies in data collection and maintenance and barriers to data sharing are tackled among organizations. The benefits for the organization are expected to arise form: Improved customer satisfaction - improved customer service by serving diverse needs with the

same information resource and ability to meet and maintain set standards. Reduced capital investment associated with collection of new data on part of the organization and

for external users. Flexibility to accommodate new customers or service new functions. A stable institutional framework for data sharing.

This institutional approach is in the context of the Geoscientific - Data and Information Infrastructure as part of larger National Gespatial Infrastructures. Parts of this last scenario will continue to be devel-oped further in chapter 4. The focus there will be database considerations and methodology for diver-sifying products and services.


40

Conversion Interface(Data development)

Information and customer service interface andprocesses

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Figure 3.4 Conceptual model architecture of an improved information system in institutional scenario for Mines and Geological Department of Kenya (modified after Radwan, 2001).


41

The system consists of data acquisition and development component with associated data entry work processes, digital data storage facilities, services and product providing work process and products and services.

3.7. Proposed core functional process model The scenario in Figure 3.5 shows a proposed core functional process model of how the Mines and Geological Department should operate on implementing this proposal. It shows how the existing re-sources and those from new surveys are entered into the database and how user will now have en-hanced access to products and services.

Figure 3.5 Proposed functional process model using databases technology to be applied for Mines and Geological Department of Kenya.

Conversion procedures for handling, verifying, validating, loading and managing data need to be de-veloped. New work flows and processes for data production and services delivery are needed. These have to be designed and require further research and development. Geological dictionaries will have to be development, databases designed and GIS applications developed. Products will have to be de-signed. For new data collection, two scenarios for standardization are possible, the “bottom up” or “top down” approach (Broome et. al., 1993). In top down approach, a common conceptual framework defining the range of geological concepts for filled work must be fulfilled. This however restricts the creativity in field operations. The bottom up approach imposes no restrictions but requires that the geologist submit data compliant with set format and content for the database population. The top down approach will be

Programs

Geoinformatics section

Remote sensing Topograhicexatraction

Paper mapsandproducts

Digital Mapproduction

System GISApplications

GDI on linedata access

for basic dataMetadata

USER

Field survey

Cartography

Otherdomains

Traditionalpaper mapsproduction

Metadatabase

Basic GeologyDatabase Other databases

magneticGravity

GeophysicalGeochemicalGeohazardsEconomicMinerals

Samples records

ConversionControl by procedures

methodologies and dictionaries

Library and sales

Ready to sell Analogueand

digital products

Value addedproducts database


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useful in constrained and rapid programs requiring a specific set of data attributes to be collected. This is a continuous process at each stage the improvement philosophy has to be decided. What this means is that the strategic planning process has to be frequent. Possible routes for data verification and validation are shown in Figure 3.6. Data verification is relat-ing to the process that establishes the basic truth of the data. Responsibility of verification lies first with data collectors and secondly with users. In data validation, items of information are checked against original verified data.

Figure 3.6 Possible routes through data verification and validation leading to data qualification (Lowe, 1995).

3.8. The Geospatial Data- and Geospatial Information Infractructure

Geospatial Data Infrastructures (local, regional or national level) encompasses the networked geospa-tial databases and data handling facilities, institutional, organizational, technological, human and eco-nomic resources which interact with one another and underpins the design, implementation and main-tenance mechanisms that facilitate the standardization, sharing, access to and responsible use off geo-spatial data at affordable costs for a specific application domain or enterprise. Such an application do-main has a common semantics in the definition of geospatial entities which facilities optimal sharing of data (Groot and McLaughlin, 2000). The related GII concept is taken to mean a utility for cost ef-fective provision of existing information resources at suitable scales, resolution and abstraction tai-lored to known application community and purpose. It’s to support decision-making at different levels. GDI implementation requires the definition of basic datasets from which users can add value. Core data is that which strategic in nature. It is often produced, maintained, published, distributed and safe-guarded by National Survey Agencies (Groot, 1998; Groot and McLaughlin, 2000). Its specification is best done in consultation with the user community. Specifically for core data, it has to do with deter-mining the content and density of attribute values for a suitable and affordable dataset (Groot, 1998). Its characteristic may also include being thematic level and poly-thematic, of national context and obtained directly from survey data or indirectly inferred by interpretation, integration or analysis.

DATACOLLECTION

DATA TO NEWFORMAT

DATAUSED

NEWDATA

DATAUSED

NEWDATA

DATA AM ENDED

DATA AM ENDED

VERIFIEDDATA

DATAQUALIFICATION

QUALITYLABELED

DATAVALIDATED


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3.9. Enabling technologies and supporting concepts for the proposed information system

The design of the information system above depends on technology to make it operational. This sec-tion identifies some of the technologies and concepts to enable it to function.

3.9.1. Advances in remote sensing

Advances remote sensing data acquisition having enhanced spatial and spectral resolution, image processing software and interpretation techniques employing GIS analysis is providing new opportuni-ties for geological mapping, cost effective update and value addition to geological information. Geo-logical maps can be integrated with remotely sensed information like land cover themes and ortho-photo to increase value of geological products. Remote sensing is proving value in mapping megascopic structures of folds, faults, intrusions, volcanic flows and lithology enabling to collect geo-logical data in inaccessible areas. Prospects are high with advances and increased number of sensors to choose from. With research in the fielded of image processing and interpretations, freely available re-mote sensing data could be used for the benefit of geology.

3.9.2. Digital field data collection

Modern technologies are now enabling geologists to create, visualize, and analyze maps in digital for-mat from the field and port directly into published formats or to the Internet (Kramer, 2000). Field computers and palm-based pen-computers can be linked to digital versions of existing archives for real time and remote updating. Portable laser ranging and Geographic Positioning Systems provide oppor-tunity for accurate feature positioning in the field. Availability of mobile analytical instruments pro-vides opportunity for immediate feedback for refining field observations. Laser binoculars fitted with internal digital compass, inclinometer, laser range finder and data download capability provide rapid mapping of distant objects. Software solutions for digital field geological mapping are being developed. FieldLog (Brodaric, 1997) is software based on a relational data geological database for collecting field data. GeoMapper software supports creating geological maps in the field and supports general geology, geomorphology, petrology, structural geology, mining geology, exploration, pedology and environmental geology. It includes a computerized mapping legend for creating maps directly hence useful in quick making of maps. A digital base map on the screen is used for positioning.

3.9.3. Database Management Systems

Database Management Systems is advancing to offer new opportunities in which organizations store and query data. Advantages in better security for data and recovery in case of failure, correctness of data, different user views, and unstructured access to data, high performance in data retrieval, concur-rent access and relationships between the data is provided by databases systems. Stand-alone PC based DBMS like Access coupled with GIS can offer simple PC solutions to digital systems. The oracle server database offers client server database computing functionality and is appropriate remote data and services access. Oracle database is Database servers Cooperate The problem of such a system is extra work maintaining integrity between the GIS and database, which may require some program-ming. Object-Relational databases provide a better solution in the integration of spatial and non-spatial data component into one database, which takes care of the integrity of the database.


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3.9.4. Facilitating Sharing of data and information

3.9.4.1. Clearinghouses and Geospatial Data Services Centres

The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) defines the clearinghouse as decentralized system of servers located on the Internet, which contain field-level descriptions of available digital spatial data. This descriptive information, known as metadata, is collected in a standard format to facilitate query and consistent presentation across multiple participating sites. (http://www.fgdc.gov/clearinghouse/background.html. assessed 30/12/2001) A fundamental goal of Clearinghouse is to facilitate access to digital spatial data through metadata. The Clearinghouse functions as a detailed catalogue service with support for links to spatial data and browse graphics. Clearinghouse allows individual agencies, consortia, or geographically defined communities to band together and promote their available digital spatial data. The Geospatial Data Service Centre (GDSC) is a facility or organization which is intermediary between the data users and suppliers for the applications in the enterprise of domain to facilitate the integrity of access to the re-quired data by ensuring system technical services, administrative, data security and financial services necessary to broker between data suppliers and users within the information policies governing the GDI (Groot and McLaughlin, 2000). Figure 3.7.shows a model of the role of the GDSC.

Figure 3.7 Role of Geospatial Data Service Centre in GDI (Groot and McLaughlin, 2000).

Geological Survey Organizations role in the Geospatial Data Infrastructure is to play the leading role Guarantee geoscientific fundamental data completeness, consistency and accuracy Collaborate in partnerships Integrate data from other participants.

Figure 3.8 below shows how geological survey organizations can play the role of responsibility for geosciences data within the GDI


45

Figure 3.8 Geological Surveys serve an important role in the GDI.

3.9.4.2. Facilitating database interoperability

Related to Geospatial Data Infrastructure is integration of distributed databases in terms of physical networking, system services and application software. In the GDI, many databases will be distributed over many organizations and agencies. Federation of databases is proposed for solving data sharing problems in the GDI. In federation of database, participating database make and contribute a part of its database to be shared through a federated global schema. Figure 4.5 below show the architecture in formulating in a federated database.

Figure 3.9 Resolving heterogeneity in existing databases by federated database design (modified from Kainz, 2000).

Figure 3.9 shows how a sharable part from each database resolved for heterogeneity and put into the federated schema for different application users. From this federated schema integrated views to sup-port applications requiring data from different sources are formed.

F e d e r a t e dS c h e m a

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water, social data etc

GDSCResponsible organization

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Continuing work by the Open GIS Consortium to develop software technologies and specifications to enable geodata sharing and geoprocessing interoperability is expected to improve the way and vol-ume of data user are able to put to use in distributed and heterogeneous database systems. Client server computing supports the GDI by distributing software functionality between clients and server tasks. Client components make requests to servers, which respond to these requests with ser-vices. Services can include data provision, analytical functions or map retrieval that is supplied to the client. Figure 3.10 show a common client server architecture used for databases and applications in GIS environment. The advantage of client server computer is in ability the system application per-formance over the network by hosting heavy applications and data in remote powerful server systems and only allowing the client side handle less work.

Figure 3.10 Basic client/server architecture in thin client (modified after Kainz, 2000)

3.9.4.3. Computer Networking

Computer networks - Internet, Intranet or Extranet allow interconnection of computers facilitating data sharing, resources sharing, backup and access to remoter information. Networks are interconnected network of autonomous computers linked by hardware and supported by software. Through networks organizations, departments of an organization or field-based officers become a virtual organization. Computer networks can be classified according to length. Local Area Networks (LANs) are up to 1KM, Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) may span a city and Wide Area Networks (WANs) span countries or continents. Internetworks are global links of WANs and LANs of which the Internet is an example (Kainz, 2000) The Internet is at an advance stage of development. The challenge is for the Mines and Geological De-partment to harness its benefits in reaching out the society and its users internally and externally. Communication of information by Intranet services and connecting the various provincial offices can enhance supply of spatial data and information need for decision from one office to another.

3.9.5. Geographic Information Systems

Encouraging advances have been made in Internet GIS enabling delivery of GIS applications over the web. Internet GIS is a special tool that uses the Internet as a means to collect, structure, edit, access and transmit remote data, conduct analysis and present GIS spatial analysis results. An example is Ar-cIMS by ESRI Software Company. Internet GIS accords advantages in letting people outside the or-ganization to view promotional maps and using web browser already familiar to users and obtainable free of charge. It also offers opportunity for the user creating and printing customized maps hence will

DATABASEMANAGEMEND

SYSTEM

APPLICATIONPROCESSINGAPPLICATION

PROCESSING

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P res en ta t i onTask

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help in saving printing costs for the organization. Based on the client-server architecture, the server side provides data storage, and analysis of spatial and attribute data. On the client side presentation of the results is done. Internet map servers are useful in implementing functionalities to display maps ac-cording scale, legend, map extend etc. by manipulating the view using GIS tools.

3.9.6. Web programming to support end user

Extending and enhancing Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), using new programming languages and helper application, is increasing the Internet possibility. Extensible Markup Language (XML), Active Server Pages (ASP), Java applets, Java servlets and scripting languages enable programming of the web to perform various tasks within a web browser. XML is a universal format for structuring data, documents and information on the web. It can be used at metadata levels to transfer information between systems hence representing a kind of open Internet standardization for transferring data in its original format readable by humans and computers. Java applets are small applications downloaded when needed from a web server and run inside a browser on the client side. Programming Java applets enable creation of graphic user interfaces with buttons for manipulating maps. ASP enables communi-cation with and querying of databases in remote sites.

3.10. Synthesis

A strategic role goal and an improvement information system have been determined in line with the objective of the thesis. Advances in technologies and concepts are in support of these improvements scenario. Assuming that the developments heterogeneous GI datasets is still at an early stage, the GDI is favourable in eliminating future problems that would arise in uncoordinated data development. This will benefit the department as the curator of geoscientific data. It will reduce duplication, facilitate lo-cating of data, assess suitability of use and improved access methods, provide for integration and shar-ing of data in multidisciplinary environment, reduce cost of data collection, institute standards, infor-mation policies and legislation. This is expected to contribute to the sustainable development of the country by informed decision-making in for example Infrastructure development and environmentally friendly natural resource exploitation. The improved information system in particular will help reduce cost of publications, improve products and services, add value, provide quick updates and improve the revenue base of the organization and ease pressure on government funds. Through web services, public administration is brought closer to the people and participation of society in government is facilitated.

3.11. Concluding remarks

These general statements form the presentation above can be noted: Strategic Management is useful in developing plans for action in an integrated problem environ-

ment. New business programs for GSOs’ underscore customer focus, public access to geoscientific in-

formation, essential programs strategy and a multidisciplinary approach to science. Partnerships, collaboration and technology are essentials to success for programs of geological

surveys organizations. Improved information system supported by databases is promising in improving service delivery. Geological Survey Organisations have a major leadership role in the geoscientific community. An institutional approach to change is desired for furthering the development and stability of the

Geosciences Data and Information Infrastructure.


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Working of GDI requires the definition of strategic datasets. Government need access geoinformation to make right informed decisions. A mix of skills is needed within the geological surveys to support contemporary programs and

operations. There are implications to organisational structures in the change process.

The department is expected to play a leading role in the development of a Data and Information Infra-structure at the same time being the centre of geoscience information. This is supposed to be a long-term strategic objective. Together with this is a product and service delivery such as to have a geo-sciences make a positive impact in the society. Architecture of the system was developed composed of many parts that need to be developed. The next chapter develops in direction of the database and its support for diverse products and services by integrating diverse domain data and information to be customer focused.


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4. Reengineering the information system

4.1. Introduction The definition of users and their requirements follows a literature search. In this potential customers and specifications for digital products are identified. This consequently is translated into information system requirements that will be used to define databases specifications, in line with system develop-ment. In line with the objectives outlined in chapter 1, a general methodology to be applied in implementa-tion of improved product and service provision for the Mines and Geological department is presented. Suggestions to classification and specifications of products are provided. The system is expected to use digital source material for processing of products. The system is expected to capture primary field data such as to support non-traditional ways in which geological data is used and reduce the limita-tions presented by paper maps. In this respect, the geological mapping process will be briefly ex-plained.

4.2. Information product and services: Definition

An Information Product is defined as “the compilation of scientific communication or knowledge such as facts, data, or opinions in any medium (e.g., print, digital) or form, including textual, numeri-cal, graphical, cartographic, or audiovisual, to be disseminated to a defined audience or customer, ei-ther scientific or non-scientific, internal or external.” (USGS survey manual, assessed on 15/12/2001) http://www.usgs.gov/usgs-manual). A service is a system or and arrangement that meet public needs (Hornby, 1995). Services are consid-ered as the goods of functions that the system facilitates. Product diversity is defined as having different products arising from different user or user group re-quirements and product hierarchy as an inheritance of product characteristics when a product is de-rived from another product by further processing and/or addition of other information (Dominquez, 1998).

4.2.1. Need for information product and service diversity

It is anticipated that geoscientific information will be at the centre of informed decision making at many levels of society Figure 4.1. A wide base of potential customers and end users - By potential customers, we mean those cus-

tomers who the Mines and Geological Department could supply, but are not able to supply now. The Department must focus to bring these customers into its fold. Reedman et. al., (assessed 30/10/2001) provides a structured list classifying users into principal areas of activities, geo-


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sciences data domain and applications utilized, (see Table 4.1). The benefits to society are given in terms of health, finance, environment and security. From inspecting the table, the applications and interpretations of remote sensing and IT/GIS is common in deriving information products useful in the various activity sectors. The need for integration and multidisciplinary approach is very high if the requirements are to be realized. The integrate data from different domains can be achieved through digital approaches like the one going to be suggested in this thesis.

Planning levels - geoinformation is essential for strategic, local and site-specific planning. The requirement is an increasing investigation detail and presentation from more general summary re-ports and maps to site-specific applications applying more technical reports (Ellison and Smith, 1998).

Government and non-government organizations need geoinformation. - The government has a special interest in the geoscience information. Any future development is dependant upon this in-formation.

Varied training background - geoinformation users have very varied training (Horton and Cleaves, 1997).

For these reasons, geoscientific bodies will have to provide customized products and services handle as much of these differences as possible. These will require much flexibility in translation of the geo-logical information to suite each targeted group. Examples of services being offered by geological surveys are

GIS analysis and algorithms Remote sensing Data models Data analysis Standardization of mapping practices Standardization of nomenclature Certification Educational/Tutorial/Tourist information Solutions and training Data access c, supply and documentation On line map delivery Software solutions Laboratory services Program (ongoing, completed and proposed) Catalogues and searches (products and ser-

vices) 3D and 4D visualisation of data

Specialized information and advice (geohar-zards, IT, environmental etc)


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UNIVERSAL

BENEFITS DATA DERIVED THROUGH THE APPLICATION AND INTEPRETATION OF THE INDICATED GEO-SCIENCE DOMAIN

PRINCIPAL ACTIVITY SECTORS REQUIRING GEOLOGICAL STUDIES (WHICH SUPPORT THE FOLLOWING)

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IS/IT

Minerals Aggregates Extraction o o x x x x x x x xMinerals Industrial extraction o o o o x x x x x x x x xWaste Management o o x x x x x x x xEnvironmental Assessment o x x x x x x x x x xPlanning (Old Workings, Caverns, Landslips) o x x x x x x x xCoastal Management (Erosion, Sedimentation) o o x x x x x x x x xWater Management Resources (Groundwater) o o x x x x x x x x xWater Management Protection o o x x x x x xConstruction Industry (building Foundation etc.) o x x x xRoad, Rail, Canal, Airport, Dock, (transport) Construction o x x x x xInsurance Industry (Subsidence, Earthquake etc.) o x x x xEducation Requirements o x x x x x x x x x x x x x x xAcademic Research areas o x x x x x x x x x x x x x xHydrocarbons Offshore Industry o x x x x x x x xHydrocarbons Onshore Industry x x x x x x x xCoal Mining x x x x x xHealth o o x x x x x x xConservation o o x x x x x x xTourism & recreation & Adornment o x x x x x xAgriculture o x x x xForestry o o x x x xMilitary (Onshore) x x x x x x x x x xMilitary (Offshore) x x x x x x x x xCommunications (e.g. seafloor Cables, Power Lines, Tunnels) o x x x x x xGeothermal Power o o x x x x x x x x xNuclear Minerals Industry & Radioactivity Considerations o o o x x x x x x x x xMetallic Minerals Industry o o x x x x x x x x x x x xGemstones o x x x x x x x xEquipment Manufacture, Survey & Mining o x x x x x x x xOffshore Equipment o x x x x xGlobal environment, Relative S/L Change o o x x x x x x x x xMinerals & petroleum Law Administration o o x x x x x x x x x

Table 4.1 Principal uses of geosciences data (Reedman et.al., BGS Technical report WC/96/20).


52

Figure 4.1 Geosciences information user groups, training and support

4.2.2. Methodology for product diversity and hierarchy

Figure 4.2 shows a basic proposed structure for diversification of products and services through appli-cation and integration of data of geosciences domains. It is expected to facilitate to provision informa-tion products to support the activities in Table 3.2. Raw data for each domain is digitally stored in archives and databases. Raw data can be a measured value or a derived attribute of a particular feature (Ross, 1998). Databases abstractions, processing and integration with other data provides for core products, value added products and commissioned prod-ucts. In the new programs model adapted from Reedman, core programs are run at public expense, in effect making a public good. As a public good that it is information collected at a scale valuable for a variety of regional planning decisions and is valuable for a long period of time (Bernknopf, 1993). Two classes of core products from the core programs are defined, basic and specific: Basic products are framework in nature, meaning providing essential base information upon

which other organizations can create datasets by overlaying with other data. Specific products are those that several government agencies and /or industry groups require a

consistent national coverage in order to achieve their corporate objectives and responsibilities. Both products retain a characteristic of being standard in production. With respect to processing level, specific products may require a higher level of analysis of the basic data or special presentation. For each domain a set of basic and specific products may be defined. Value added is non-standard custom-ized product targeting a specific user group. Commissioned products are the property of the commis-sioning customer with user-defined specifications under special funded programs. The process to generate these products has to be developed. This research does not go into the details of this, but suggest further research in this area.

GovernmentNon

Government

StrategicLocalSite

specific

National

Regional

Local

Consulting

Industries

Educational

Others

Research

ActivitiesUSER SUPPORT

Society benefitsSustainable development

Participation in GovernmentE-government

Good governance

Geosciences data,information and knowledge

INFORMATION SYSTEMS

TRAININGGeology, Soil scienc, Environmental,

Ecology, Hydrology, ResourceManagement, Engineering, Geographic

Information System, Archaeology,Planning, Biology, Public works

NGOs'CorperateIndependent

MiningManufacturing Schools

UniversityPublic

General public,Community groups

Consulting Industries OthersEducational andresearch


53

According to Bernknopf et. al. (1993), geology domain is of fundamental nature in the earth science support a high number of activities. It forms an essential program of the geological survey and must be developed to some acceptable level determined by the needs of the country and society at large.

Figure 4.2 System structure for product diversity and hierarchy in context of a National Geosciences Information System.

It is assumed here that an integrate geoscientific database system with access to the various required information resources is operational. Integrating the data involve enterprise data models able to meet the specific information requirements. Figure 4.3 shows the generalized representation workflow in the system.

Figure 4.3 Proposed generalized design of processes in the new system

Earlier the processes were assumed to be available. Figure 4.3 above show some of the processes that have to be modeled. Specifications for digitising each type of data source and digital data acquisition need to be developed. GIS application programmes and interfaces between the various parts of the sys-tem will have to be designed. These are all areas that require much work and warrant other researches.

ANALOGUESOURCE

Remote sensingField surveys

dataTopographic

Existing reports/maps

INPUT

DigitizingScanning

DIGITALDATA

MetadataStandards

PROCESSING

GIS processingMap overlays

Spatial statisticsSpatial analysis

Database queriesCartographicvisualization

3D/4D modeling(defined on theme

feature )

OUTPUTBasic

products

PROCESSING

GIS processingMap overlays

Spatial statisticsSpatial analysis

Database queriesCartographicvisuslization

3D/4D modeling(defined on theme

feature )

OUTPUTSpecificproducts

OUTPUT

Valueproducts

Digital sources

Other domaindata

Raw data

CORE

COMMERCIALMARKET

SPECIFICCUSTOMERS

CommissionedData

Outsidesources

Commissionedproducts

Information Services

AbstractionsAnalysis

ProcessingPresentationIntegration

GEOLOGYDatabases

OTHERDOMAINSDatabases

CommissionedData

Other sourcese.g.. topography

Basicproducts

Specificproducts

Value addedproducts


54

4.3. Identifying raw data A domain is, a discipline centred perception of the world or a scientists mental map of real world conditions (Gärtner et. al., 2001). Many domains are applicable in the geosciences. In this section, only the geology domain is examined. Geological mapping Marine geology Nuclear energy Geochemical Survey Geo-technical Hydrology Geophysical Survey Remote sensing GIS/IT Bathymetry Mining industry regulation Well data Ore mineral deposits Samples management Petroleum Industrial mineral deposits Nuclear energy Geothermal Gemstones and precious metals Geo-environment Structural geology Lithostratigraphy Metadata/Bibliography

Table 4.2 Domain areas of geosciences (compiled from various literature).

It is possible to identify possible sources of raw data for the Mines and Geological Department to sup-port the geology domain activities as shown in Figure 4.4. This data is transformed into digital source material to support the services of the Department.

Figure 4.4 Raw data to support the activities of the geology domain of Mines and Geological Depart-ment (modified form sources in sources in

http://www.bgs.ac.uk/dfid-kar-geoscience/r7199/home.html)

4.3.1. Digital data as Source data

The raw data, see Figure 4.4, is converted into digital source and from the latter digital source products and services will be derived through abstraction, processing and plotting and visualisation. As a result the department will be able to continue supplying products in analogue and digital form. The processes of entering raw data into source data include digitising, scanning, processing and digital field data cap-ture. The populated digital source includes raster images, vector data, databases and text files of the raw data as shown in Figure 4.5.

Raw Data

Remote sensing Topographic OthersField surveysdata

GeologicalSamples

AdministrationDrainageRoads

Digital sources

Interpretations

Sections

Field notebooks

Field maps

ContoursDigital data

Existingreports/mapsCollections

PhotographsSocial data

Laboratory

Thin sections

Atomicabsorption

Assay

Water chemistry


55

Figure 4.5 Elements in the source geology digital data.

4.3.2. Standard and value added products

Digital processes and integration derive standard geology products. Value added products involve spe-cial analysis and integration of data. Site-specific maps with a higher degree of attribution derive value added products.

Figure 4.6 Proposed general classification of standard geology products.

Figure 4.7 Proposed nature of value added products.

4.4. Defining specifications

Specifications have to do with describing what is required while standards define specified level of quality (Hornby, 1995). Mapping organizations specification are concerned with resolution and accu-racy (Dominquez, 1998). Data capture, conversion, transfer, access, storage, formats, standards, tech-nical specifications and presentation contribute to the final product specification in the digital envi-ronment. Dominquez (1998) group specifications requirement for a mapping organization into technical and organizational as given in Tables 4.3 and 4.4.

Digital

Raster im ages

photo-geological m aps

scans

DigitizedFeature datasets

Vector

Field note books

Field m aps

Sections

Photographs

StandardsDatabases

Databases

Digital reports

Index searches

Text files

M ap them es

Final reports

Publishedpapers

Field reports

Standard Geologyproducts

Sampledescriptions

Remote Sensingthemes

Geologicalthemes

Geological Maps

Mineraloccurrence

Standardsnames,

stratigraphy

Samplesanalysis

Integratedthemes

Geochronolgy

Petrology

Value added

Detailed sitegeologicalmapping

Geophysicalmaps

Geochemicalmaps


56

Technical Specifications

Structures of entities and attributes Semantic content Degree of semantic detail Map projection Coordinate system and grid

Geometric data

Position and orientation of geometric entities Scales Image resolution

Degree of detail

Geometric resolution Graphic, pictorial, digital, text Vector, raster Full, compressed

Presentation (and design)

Formats, codes, labels, symbols, layout Quality of aerial photographs and satellite images Geometric accuracy

Quality criteria

Semantic correctness and completeness

Table 4.3 Elements of technical products specification (Dominquez, 1998).

Organizational specifications Classification of new product (e.g. generalizations) Technical support and quality Procedures for operations Economic structure and communications Copyright

Table 4.4 Elements of organizational specifications (Dominquez, 1998).

It is impossible to develop and document all the elements of specifications here. These elements will come into place as the information system evolves. Since the objective of this research is reengineer-ing the information system with database, the general themes expected in implementing Geoscientific Information Systems is provided. Specifications of for example paper maps will have to be different from these. A few themes have been chosen and a description of the nature of information they can provide is given in Tables 4.5, 4.6, 4.8 and 4.9.


57

STANDARD GEOLOGY THEMES

THEMES Geology Geology structural lines (Structural lines for geology)Geology cross-section (derived) Geology cross-section structural lines (derived) Generalized geology (derived) Solid geology Generalized solid geology (derived) Solid geology structural lines Basement geology Lithology Tectonic provinces Geological regions Sedimentary basins Regional metamorphism Contact metamorphism (Contact grade metamorphism) Alteration zones Geomorphology

Information specification GEOLOGY Polygon An area where the rock unit is defined

Feature type (Rock unit) Lithology description, stratigraphy description, lithostar-tigraphic name, geological age, geochronological age, dominant lithology or groups of lithology, metadata for finding detailed descriptions

Line The boundary line of a lithological unit, where

not defined by a fault, dyke, vein or marker bed A fracture or a zone of fractures along which

there has been displacement of the sides relative to one another parallel to the fracture

A tabular igneous intrusion that cuts across the bedding or foliation of the country rock

Sheet intrusion A geological unit serving as a marker - an easily

recognized stratigraphic feature with distinctive characteristics traceable over long distances

The edge of the tile or study area

Feature type (Rock unit boundary, Fault, Dyke, Vein, Marker bed,) Accuracy of feature – accurate, approximate or hidden, descriptions, special characteristics – mineralization, intrusions, boundary, special names, geological age, geochronological age, history, orientation

Information specification STRUCTURAL LINES Line Structural lines for geology features

Feature type (Fold axis, Joint pattern, Lineament, Trend) Accuracy of feature – accurate, approximate or hidden, descriptions, given name, measurements of orientation, geological age, history

Table 4.5 Proposed themes to support geology and specifications for Geology and structural Geology (modified after AGSO Data structure and definitions for GIS Products, version 2001.08).


58

STANDARD SURVEYS AND FIELD OBSERVATION

THEMES Field sites Regolith-landform site descriptions Outcrops Rocks Structural measurements Drill holes and measured sections Petrographic descriptions Fossils Field photographs

Information specification FIELD SITES Point Surface location for field data collections

(geological, geochemical, drill hole and geo-physical) observations

Feature type (Site) Collector of data –person or organization, geological region, information related to the site –outcrop description, rock description, chemical analysis, section description, structure description, petrography, chemical analysis, age determina-tion, mineral occurrence, sample type, geo-technical proper-ties etc

Information specification OUTCROPS Point

Outcrop description as a whole and relationship between lithologies and structures in the outcrop

Feature type (Outcrops) Outcrop description of rock relations, photos and sketches

Information specification ROCKS Point A rock examined at the site or sampled for

geochemical, geochronological, or petro-graphic analysis

General lithology name (broad classifications), lithology type (plus qualifier), description of lithology, other informa-tion related – structures, petrography, chemical analysis, geological age, occurrence mode or origin, other relevant information

Information specification STRUCTURAL MEASUREMENTS (MESOSCOPIC)

Point Structural measurement

Feature type (Structure – bedding, fault, flow direction, fold, foliation, lineation, shear etc) Associated measurements and attributes to feature including azimuth, dip, tectonic history or event, way up, direction of movement, scale of observation, additional information

Information specification PETROGRAPHIC DESCRIPTIONS

Point Petrographic description

Rock examined, thin section attributes – minerals, textures, alterations, clasts, Petrological name, description of thin section, additional information

Table 4.6 Proposed themes to support standard surveys and specifications for field site, outcrop, rocks and structural measurements (modified after AGSO Data structure and definitions for GIS Products, version 2001.08).


59

STANDARD MINERALS DEPOSIT THEMES

THEMES Mineral deposits Mineral deposits including historical data Mineral localities Mineral exploration and mining titles Petroleum exploration and development titles Petroleum wells Mines and quarries Mineral deposit tracts Mineral potential (combined) Weighted mineral potential (combined) Mineral potential Certainty of the mineral potential assessment Certainty (combined) of the mineral potential assessment

Information specification MINERAL DEPOSITS

Feature type (Mineral deposit) Name of deposit, general description of deposit, age of min-eralization, additional information

Point Description of mineral deposits

Links Commodity information e.g. annual production Descriptive mineral attributes e.g. Epithermal Primary and alteration mineralogy of mineral deposit host rock

Information specifications MINERAL LOCALITIES

Point Description of locations of the mineral oc-

currences and deposits

Feature type (Mineral localities) Name of mineral locality, names of commodities at locali-ties, Type (mine, occurrence, anomaly, prospect, quarry) method of ore recovery, operational status (abandoned, care and maintenance, operating, shutdown)

Information specifications MINES AND QUARIES

Polygon Open cut mine, quarry or other surface ex-

pression related to extraction of mineral re-sources

Feature type (Mine area) Name and commodities associated with the mine or quarry

Line The boundary of the open cut mine or quarry

Feature type (Mine boundary)

Table 4.7 Proposed themes to support minerals and specifications Mineral deposits, localities and mines and quarries (modified after AGSO Data structure and definitions for GIS Products, version 2001.08).


60

GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS Feature type (Rock) Rock analysis results Whole rock assay Silica expressed as oxide (wt %) Titanium expressed as oxide (wt %) Aluminium expressed as oxide (wt %) Total iron converted to trivalent ion and expressed as oxide (wt %) Iron 3+ expressed as oxide (wt %) Iron 2+ expressed as oxide (wt %) Manganese expressed as oxide (wt %) Magnesium expressed as oxide (wt %) Calcium expressed as oxide (wt %) Sodium expressed as oxide (wt %) Potassium expressed as oxide (wt %) Phosphorus expressed as oxide (wt %) Water plus (wt %) Water minus (wt %) Carbon dioxide (wt %) Loss on ignition - total volatiles in the rock (wt %) Total value of all trace elements converted to oxides (wt %)

Point Whole rock geochemistry Geochemistry results

Elemental assay in parts per million Arsenic, Gold, Boron, Barium, Beryllium, Chlorine, Cobalt, Chromium, Caesium, Copper, Fluorine, Mercury, Lithium, Molybdenum, Nickel, Phosphorus, Lead, Sulphur, Anti-mony, Tin, Uranium, Vanadium, Zinc, Zirconium

Table 4.8 Proposed themes to geochemical analysis and its specifications (modified after AGSO Data structure and definitions for GIS Products, version 2001.08).


61

STANDARD GEOPHYSICS THEMES

THEMES Earthquake hazard Magnetic interpretation Radiometric interpretation Gravity interpretation Remote sensing interpretation Combined geophysical interpretation Magnetic interpretation lines Gravity interpretation lines Remote sensing interpretation lines Combined geophysical interpretation lines Magnetic cross-section Gravity cross-section Combined geophysical cross-section Depth to basement Seismic survey lines Seismic velocities

Information specification EARTH QUAKE HAZARDS

Polygon Assessment of the earthquake hazard based

on geology

Feature (Lithologic unit) Dominant lithology description, assessment of earth-quake hazard, description of hazard

Line Assessment of the earthquake hazard based

on geology

Feature (fault zone, intrusions) Assessment of earthquake hazard, description of haz-ard

Information specification RADIOMETRIC INTERPRETATION

Polygon or arc An area of land with uniform radiometric

characteristics, boundary line of a radiomet-ric unit or a linear geological feature appar-ent from the radiometric survey

Feature (radiometric unit) Description of the unifying characteristic of the ra-diometric unit accuracy, description of the feature

Information specification REMOTE SENSING INTERPRETATION

Polygon or line An area of land with uniform remote sensing

characteristics Linear geological feature apparent from the

remote sensing survey

Feature type Description of the unifying characteristic of the in-terpreted unit, description of the feature

Table 4.9 Proposed themes to support geophysics and specifications for earthquakes, radiometric in-terpretation and remote sensing (modified after AGSO Data structure and definitions for GIS Products, version 2001.08).


62

The information specifications presented here apply to digital products. This also defines the informa-tion system requirements. For some of the themes, standard look-up tables are used. It can be seen that a lot has to be done in the respect of product specifications in relation to what con-tributes to product specifications as described in Section 4.4. This definition requires discussion be-tween the users, specialities concerned and the department. The finding is that it is possible to classify products into themes belonging to each domain that hold specific kinds of data and information. Crea-tivity and technology can be used to combine these in ways to create new products. Dump screen of services enabled by use of similar themes databases, GIS and Internet by the Australian Geological Survey Organisation and the British Geological Survey is presented in the Appendix B.

4.5. Database specifications

4.5.1. Database themes

Themes in the domain form a specification for the database. These themes can be implemented in GIS as point, line or polygons to enable spatial analysis and linked to database repository of extra data. The information obtained from the database will depend on the database model implemented. In addition other themes are necessary as backdrop for the geology themes (Wahl et. al., 2000). These are various non-geosciences databases comprising topography, water, culture, Vegetation, habitats are needed to infer connection between geology and ecological problems, land use problems, water quality, water and land pollution analysis.

4.5.2. Standards components

Data standards are documented technical specifications or other precise criteria that are used consis-tently as rules, guidelines, or definitions of characteristics, to ensure that datasets and products are fit for their purpose. Standards help eliminate technical and scientific barriers to the efficient exchange and use of information within an agency, between the producer and user, and also nationally and glob-ally (http://www.agso.gov.au/general/technotes/20011112_52.jsp, assessed 12/12/2001). Development of standards can be a lengthy process that involves stakeholders who will share data among themselves. The USA standard activities is coordinated by Federal Geographic Data Transfer committee in consultation and cooperation with state, local, and tribal governments, the private sector, academic community and to the extent feasible the international community. It is of interest to users and producers of digital spatial data because of the potential for increased ac-cess to and sharing of spatial data, the reduction of information loss in data exchange, the elimination of the duplication in data acquisition, and the increase in the quality and integrity of spatial data. Geo-spatial data standards are necessary for implementing the databases.

4.5.2.1. Metadata and metadata standards

Metadata are descriptions of dataset. A dataset is a convenient grouping of data, or individual observa-tions, so that the summary of the information will be meaningful to prospective users (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/dfid-kar-geoscience/r7199/management/data_res.htm assessed 12/12/2001). Figure 4.8 shows a summary of the metadatabase content.


63

Figure 4.8 Example of metadatabase content (Croswell, 2000).

An international initiative to develop metadata standards for is International Organization for Stan-dardization (ISO) (see URL http://www.iso.org/iso/en/ISOOnline.frontpage for Nome page). It pro-vides a schema for describing digital geographic datasets using a comprehensive set of mandatory and conditional metadata elements. These elements support four major uses: Discovery of data - Metadata elements selected to enable users to locate geospatial data and allow

producers to advertise the availability of their data. Determining data fitness for use – Selected metadata elements help users determine if a dataset

meets their needs by understanding the quality, accuracy, spatial and temporal extents, and the spa-tial reference system used.

Data access - Metadata elements that describe how to access a desired dataset and transfer it to own site. Elements selected to provide the location of a dataset (e.g. through a URL) in addition to its size, format, price and restrictions on use.

Use of data - Metadata elements selected to show users know how to process, apply, merge and overlay a particular dataset with others, as well as understanding the properties and limitations of the data.

For harmonizing metadata standards, a minimum mandatory set of metadata items is recommended by ISO. These are: Metadata Language Code. Metadata Characterset [default = "ISO 10646-2"]. Hierarchy Level Scope [default = "Dataset"]. Dataset Language Code, Dataset Characterset [default = "ISO 10646-2"]. Abstract, Category, Dataset Citation (Title & Date). Dataset Contact (Responsible Party Name/Organization & Responsibility Type).

(http://www.bgs.ac.uk/dfid-kar-geoscience/r7199/management/dis_meta.htm assessed 14/1/2002)

4.5.2.2. Data models and dictionaries

The design components of a database are standard component. Data sharing is easier when systems are based on the same data model. This requires that all implementations of databases follow the same conceptual model of the world phenomena. Many geological surveys have developed conceptual and logical data models for the organization, storage and use of geological map data on a computer. John-

DataQualityAccuracy

Source/lineage Completeness

LogicalConsistency

Geospatial dataOrganization andspatial Reference

Co-ordinateSystem Map projection Datum

IdentificationInfromationCustodian

Keywords

Status

SoftwareEnvironment

Geographiccoverage Description

Name

Entity/AttributeInformation

Measuremantunits

Domains

Type

Description

Formats DistributionInformantion

Format

Distributer Accesprocedures


64

son et. al. (1999) is a well-documented data model for geological map data freely available for the geosciences community developed as a standard to encourage sharing of geological map data. AGSO has also developed many data models and data definitions, which are being adopted as standards by the private sector and state governments. As for modelling real world entities for databases, a well-documented effort is in Richard (1999). Directly modelling world entities is advantageous over the map information model. It captures observed geological attributes at the local most factual and least interpreted form as done by a geologist in the field. Geological dictionaries – Geological dictionaries and lookup tables are critical elements for geologi-cal databases in maintaining the integrity of the database. Lookup tables, also known as controlled vocabulary or authority lists are used to classify and validate entries in the main database tables. Lookup tables perform several very important functions in a database, such as standardizing the terms used, reducing errors, and preventing many ways of saying the same thing. They also provide a stan-dard language to facilitate transformation. Important authority list that need to be developed for the database is the geological names. It comprises a national authority on all published geological names including stratigraphic units and province names. Feature and attribute dictionary is a specification for the capture of geoscientific GIS data. It forms a foundation for the production of GIS data by specifying rules regarding the structure of such data. The dictionary covers such matters as allowable coverage names and abbreviations, feature types, and at-tribute values. Data symbology standards for map symbols, colors and patterns to provide appearance for digital geo-logical products. The Digital Cartographic Standard for Geologic Map Symbolization being developed by FGDC aims at providing producers and users of geologic-map information a single, modern stan-dard for the digital cartographic representation of geologic features (http://ncgmp.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/, assessed 14/1/2002). The standard is freely available for download. Data transfer standards FGDC defines the purpose of the data transfer standards as to promote and facilitate the transfer of digital spatial data between dissimilar computer systems, while preserving information meaning and minimizing the need for information external to the transfer. (http://mcmcweb.er.usgs.gov/sdts/whatsdts.html assessed 14/1/2002). ANSI format has been used for the transfer standard. It embraces the philosophy of self-contained transfers for spatial data, attribute, georeferencing, data quality report, data dictionary, and other supporting metadata all included in the transfer. Extensible markup language (XML) is an emerging opportunity for data transfer over the Internet. In the use for geosciences, it provides opportunity for metadata descriptions of data character-istics. It is expected to promote interoperability of GIS datasets (Houlding, 2001).

4.6. Data modeling Following an analysis of the requirements of the information system, an exercise of data modeling should be undertaken. Data models provide a structure for the organization, storage and use of data in an information system. For each of the domains described above, a data model may be necessary to describe the objects of interest. This section however will only take a closer look at the geology do-main and to see how it can be modeled in a computer. The process of data modeling is usually represented in four different levels (see Figure 4.9). These are transformations that facilitate representation of real world phenomena in a computer environment by capturing objects of interests and their characteristics.


65

Figure 4.9 Phases of database design.

4.6.1. Entity-relational data modeling

The entity relationship modelling technique very commonly used in Relational Database Management Systems. In the Entity-relationship modeling technique basic components are called entities. Entities have special characteristic attributes and associated with or participate in relationships with others, hence the name entity-relationship. The notation for relationship is shown in the Figure 4.10. Rules apply to the modeling technique.

Figure 4.10 Entity-relationship notation

An entity plays a role in a relationship. Cardinality constraint states the minimum and maximum times an entity plays the role in a relationship. It is expressed as two integer values as in the Figure 4.10 above. 1..1, it indicates that entity A play the role at minimum once and at maximum once. Conceptual model is the abstraction and representation of entities important to the application, their properties, attributes and relationships. Logical model is the step towards particular database systems in our case a relational database system. In this step entities and relationships are converted into tables that can be implemented in a computer database. Computer model is the actual implementation of logical model or storage of the data in computer, handling for example computer organizes the data e.g. file structure. Therefore in representing objects of geological mapping, we need to know our objects so we can model them for storage in computer. For this reason, the mapping process is described below.

4.6.2. Geological field data capture to the geological map

Figure 4.11 show the general phases of geological mapping process and a digital mapping processes linked to it.

Figure 4.11 Digital mapping process (modified after Brodaric, 2000).

Traditionally in an analogue system, field data is collected, interpreted and classified before carto-graphic tools are applied and the map printed. The map production involves a step of transforming a

Real world Conceptual data model

Logical data model

Computer data model

Entity A Relationship Entity B1..1 1..N

F I E L D W O R K C A R T O G R A P H YO F F I C E M A P

D a t a c o l l e c t i o n a n di n t e r p r e t a t i o n

F u r t h e ri n t e r p r e t a t i o n /

c l a r i f i c a t i o n

S y m b o l i z a t i o n P r i n t /p u b l i s h

GIS GISGISDBMS DBM SDIGITAL /

ANALOGUE


66

conceptual 4D model of the geology into a 2D plane geological map. Depending on the purpose of the project, resultant map(s) contain only a subset of recorded geological attributes. Usually field mapping is performed at a higher resolution than the final map representation. Other interpretations are possible from the same dataset. In the fieldwork stage, not all attributes are recorded or slightly geographically spaced multiple observations are usually assigned a single location. The geological map can be defined as 2D graphical information display using a color, lines, and sym-bols depicting for a point in time and space the representative composition and structures of observed or inferred geological materials across and beneath the earth. This depiction is usually for some spe-cific purpose e.g. conveying ideas and interpretations of mapmaker or storage of information (Bernknopf et. al., 1993; Brodaric, 2000; Johnson, 1999; Bain and Giles, 1997; Richard, 2001). Given the limitation of the geological map in volume of data and information it can hold compared to what is usually collected and being subjective in that it is one possible use of field data. Good data models for digital system to enhance availability of attributes collected from the fieldwork are desir-able (Schetselaar, 2000). It is seen from Figure 4.11 that it is necessary to structure the data at each stage of the mapping process for digital storage.

4.6.2.1. Field mapping process

In a field mapping exercise, description of the materials and structures of the earth by human observa-tions and measurements by instruments is conducted. These are associated with a measured point geo-graphic location. These are recorded in notebooks, plotted on field maps or overlays of images also serving as a storage medium. Digital technology is offering opportunity to store field data in electronic form. Some human interpretation in this stage is necessary involving identification of geological ob-jects according to basic, commonly agreed and known geological knowledge. The description of geological objects is hierarchical occurring at different scale at a point locality as shown in Figure 4.12. Which object and attributes is of interest to the geologist may vary according to the purpose of the mapping. Two observation scales are commonly used in the fieldwork, hand speci-men and outcrop description. A hand specimen is part of an outcrop and an outcrop may contain more than one type of hand specimen types. For the hand specimen and outcrop attribute and descriptions made. Samples are collected and labelled for further analysis. Sketches of geological objects are made in the notebook. Rock hand samples are made up of constituents that are characterized by size, composition (mineral and rock types) and shape. The lithology is the description of constituent parts based on genesis, size, shape or composition, the fraction of each type in the whole and typical relationships between grains based on texture and fabric of each type. The composition of constituent parts can be single mineral or another lithologic entity (Richard, 2001). This description can be applied to the outcrop scale in which the rock types make the constituents. In addition classification rocks and age relationships are deter-mined. Samples are collected and labelled for further study of geochemical, geophysical, thin section etc. Associated with the lithology are structures of such as geological boundaries, folds, faults, linea-tion, foliations, layering and their attributes measurements (azimuths, plunges).


67

Figure 4.12 Scales of description of geological objects.

4.6.2.2. Geology and other domains

Geological data and geological map forms the fundamental dataset for the geosciences (Wahl et. al., 2000: Bernknopf, 1993). Attributes and interpretations (see Figure 4.13), in other domains are often related geological entities and interpretations. Depending on the purpose of the information system, these relationships need to be modeled according to relevant rules. These relationships can be imple-mented in Database Management System Software.

Figure 4.13 Geosciences attributes in other domains are related to geological units.

4.6.3. Data model description

A few themes were chosen to illustrate how a data model would look like, see Figure 4.19. The themes of geology, structural lines and rocks are selected out of the many possible themes identified. Figures 4.14, 4.15, 4.16 and 4.17 show the relationships that exist in the model. The meanings of the themes have been described in the tables shown in Section 4.4.

Figure 4.14 Geology theme polygon feature.

M a p S ca le

H a n d S p e c im e n

T h in se c tio n

O th e rs

O u tc ro p

1 0 0 m -1 0 0 K m d im e n s io n s , c la ss ifica tio n fo r m a p p re se n ta tio n

1 0 cm -1 0 0 m d im e n s io n s , a ve ra g e s ize o f e xp o se d ro ck th a t ca n b ee xa m in e d a n d d e sc rib e d a t a tim e , a g g re g a te d u n its , u su a lly p o in ta ttrib u te d ,

A p ie ce o f ro ck h e ld in h a n d a n d e xa m in e d w ith a m a g n ify in g g la ss ,P a rtic le s < 0 .1 m m re p re se n te d b y a ve ra g e p ro p e rtie sP a rtic le s > 1 0 cm re p re se n te d a s e n titie s

M ics ro sco p icc sca le d im e n s io n s , in d iv id u a l m in e ra l ch a ra c te ris tic

U su a lly s p e c ia lise d a n a lys is , e le m e n ta l (ro ck ch e m is try ), a to m ic X -(ra yd iffra c tio n ), a ssa y a n a lys is e tc .

R e g io n a l, p ro v in ce ,c o n tin e n ta l

1 0 0 m -1 0 0 K m , g e n e ra lisa tio n o f p ro p e rtie s , re m o te se n s in g

O B J E C T S A TM i c r s c o p i c s c a l e

H a n d s a m p l e s c a l eM a p s s c a l e

G e o p h y s i c s( P h y s i c a l

p r o p e r t i e s )

G e o - h a z a r d s( a s s o c i a t e d )

N o nG e o s c i e n c e( D i s e a s e s ,p o l l u t i o n )

P e t r o l o g y( m i c r o s c o p i c )W a t e r

M i n e r a l s( o c c u r e n c e ,a s s o c i a t e d )

G e o c h e m i s t r y( C h e m i c a l

p r o p e r t i e s )

E n e r g y( G e o t h e r m a l )

Geology Polygon is Geology Map Unit

1..11..1


68

A Geology polygon is an area where the rock unit is defined. A geology line is a boundary line of a lithological unit, where not defined by a fault, dyke, vein or marker bed. Otherwise it is fault, tabular igneous intrusion, or a marker bed.

Figure 4.15 Geology theme point feature.

Structural lines for the geology theme is a linear feature observed in the field.

Figure 4.16 Structural lines line theme for directly observed geological structures.

A rock examined at the site or sampled has one or more description types.

Figure 4.17 Rocks theme point feature.

Geology Line is

Map unit boundary

Dyke

Vein

Fault

Marker bed

1..N 1..1Map Linear Feature

Structural lines is

Fold

Lineation

Observedboundary

Joint

1..1 1..1

Fault trace

Layering/Foliation/ Banding

Field linear object

Rock has Description type

Geological age

Chemical analysis

Petrography

Structures

Lithology

Lithology type

General lithologyname

Origin

Occurrence mode

1..1 1..1


69

Figure 4.18 Data model for GIS themes and database tables

Polygon GIS Layers Line GIS Layers Point GIS Layers

GEOLOGY*Polygon ID:Unit ID:Unit Name:

GEOLOGY LINE*Line ID:LineType ID: Line LUTLine Name:

STRUCTURAL LINE*Stru Line ID:Stru Type ID: StrLUTName:Desc:

ROCK*Field Site ID:

Chemical AnalysisField Site ID:Analysis No:Elements, oxites andother analytes

Examples of Look up tables (LUT)

LineLUT

ID Type1 Boundary2 Fault3 Vein4 Dyke5 marker Bed

RockDescLUT

ID Type1 General Lithology2 Lithology Type3 Lithology4 Geological Age5 Chemical Analysis6 Structures7 Mode8 Petrography9 Origin

StruLUT

ID Type1 Fold2 Joint3 Lineation4 Obser. Boundary5 Fault Trace6 Layering/Banding

Geological age LUTID Type1 Quaternary2 Tertiary3 Cretaceous4 Jurassic4 Jurassic6 Triassic7 Permian7 Carboniferous8 Devonian9 Silurian10 Ordovician11 Cambrian12 Precambrian

ClastLUT

ID Type1 Carbonate clasts2 Chert clasts3 Carbonate matrix4 Clay matrix5 Microfossils5 Igneous fragments7 Metamorphicfragments8 Sedimentary fragments9 Glass shards10 Volcanic clasts11 Phenocryst12 Pumice fragments

Attributes LUT

1 Alteration2 Carbonate Texture3 Grain Size4 Igneous Texture5 MetamorphicGrade6 Sorting7 SedimentaryTexture9 Weathering

General rock LUT

1 Alkaline igneous2 Chemical sediment3 Clastic sediment4 Extrusive5 Intrisive6 Gneiss7 Metamorphic9 Metasediment9 Metasomatite10 Mineralisation11 Organic12 Tectonite13 Vein14 Volcaniclastic

Rock Description

Field site IDSample IDStratigraphy LUTLithostratigraphy LUTGeochronological ageGenaral rock LUTQualifierLithology nameDescription: textExtra InfoGeological age LUPMap SymbolOccurence mode LUT

PetrographyField Site ID:Analysis No:Petrograhic namerocknameObserved desc.CommentClasts LUTAttributes LUT

Field Lithology DescField Site ID:Analysis No:

Observed boundary

Stru Line ID:Line Type ID: StrLUT

Fault traceStru Line ID:Location IDAzimuthInclinationHistorySlipScale

Planner structureStru Line ID:

Fold

Stru Line ID:

JointStru Line ID:

LineationStru Line ID:

Vein DescriptionStru Line ID:Text DescGiven nameAzimuthGeological age (LUT)Width

Map unit boundaryDesc.Line ID:AccuracyText DescAzimuthGeological age (LUT)

Faults DescriptionsLine ID:Accuracy:Asso. intrusion:Text Desc:Given name:Azimuth:Geological age (LUT):Width:

Dykes DescriptionLine ID:AccuracyAsso. intrusionText DescGiven nameAzimuthGeological age (LUT)Width

Marker Bed Desc.Line ID:Text DescGiven nameAzimuthGeological age (LUT)Width,

Map Unit Description

Polygon ID:Full Name:Lithology nameLithology desc.Stratigraphy:Lithostartigraphic:Given Name:Geological age:Geochronological age:Dominant lithology:Metadata:


70

The modeling exercise was discovered to be a major task. This attempt is only a drop in the ocean. The exercise does show the desirability of separating interpretations from primary data in separate rela-tional tables and GIS layers.

4.7. Review of data models Digital systems for geological map data and information are currently being exploited by Geological Surveys. Efforts in relational data modeling to serve varied purpose from field data collection, digital geological data storage integrated with GIS for single map sheets and seamless national repositories of geological data and information are efforts being pursued. A current concern is emerging towards digi-tally capturing field observations so that it can have better returns by being readily available for use in non-traditional ways (Richard, 2001; Johnson et. al., 1999; Brodaric, 2000; Bain and Giles, 1997; Murillo, 1995).

4.7.1. Geologic concept model

As per the requirements of database development, a conceptual model data model of the real world is required. Richard (2001) formalizes conceptual models of geology domains by abstraction of world entities. Using Object role modeling technique, six earth science domain models are presented. These models are for description of Scalar quantity (specifying numerical values), Fractional analysis (proportions in an entity), General Lithology (the structure or physical properties of a lithology type definition), Particular Lithology (description of a particular rock hand sample), Constituent Geome-try (describing individual constituents geometry) and Geological Surface (describing attributes of geological surfaces). As an example, Figure 4.19 shows the general lithology model and how it cap-tures the rules of the science at a very fundamental level, more like how a geologist defines a lithologic classification for example sandstone or mudstone.

Figure 4.19 General Litholgy role model diagram (Richard, 2001).

The readings of the model show how the rules of the science are captured. The example is for General Lithology. A General Lithology must have consolidate state value of consolidated or unconsolidated and General Lithology must have at least a value for aggregate fabric, mineralogy, grain size, grain sorting or grain shape, occurring only once for each a value.

GeneralLithology

has

defineshas

has

defineshas

defineshas

defineshas

defineshas

has

consolidated state

grain discernibility

origin rock type

aggregate fabric (ID)

mineralogy(Fractional Analysis ID)

grain size(Fractional Analysis ID)

grain sorting(Desc ID)

grain shape(Desc ID)

Every General Lithology haveone and only one value foreach of these attributes. A rockmust have a consolidate stateof "consolidate" or"unconsolidated" state

Every General Lithology musthave a value for at least one ofthese attributes and can haveat most one value for any oneof these

consolidate, unconsolidated

aphanitic, phaneritic


71

For each constituent in the aggregate, a constituent geometry is described. Constituent geometry can be used to describe grain geometry and lithologic geometry. The model offers the opportunity to model and capture data used to describe geology in the field.

4.7.2. Geological maps models

An approach that is commonly employed to make geological information systems uses geological map data model. Map models initially aim at capturing and make accessible the contents of prepared geo-logical maps in digital formats. Johnson et. al. (1999) is an initiative by the USGS to standardized digital geological map data. The logical model for a relational database is presented for storage of geological objects that are representations of real world geology as geometric shapes. This can be volume, surface, area, line, line segment or point. It classifies the objects as Singular or compound geological. Singular geological objects are observed at single locations, or are single map entities like polygons or line segments, and can play a part in compound objects. Compound geological objects area typically interpretations, grouping or classification e.g. map units, faults traces, rock faults, stratigrahic units. Figure 4.20 show the concept definition of the digital geological maps as an intersection of spatial objects, legends and descriptive data. Figure 4.21 is a generalized entity relationship model of the USGS digital geological map data model. Figure 4.22 is a summary of relation structure proposed in the model.

+Figure 4.20 Geological map as an intersection of objects (Johnson et. al., 1999).

Figure 4.21 Generalized entity model for USGS geological map data model (Johnson et. al., 1999).

Spatial objects are digital representation of real world features in polygons, lines and points. Descriptive data is an archive of characteristics or attributes of spatial objects and Legends are used to extract appropriate spatial objects from the archives, symbolize and describe for a particular map.

M e t a d a t aR D B M S

S in g u la r G e o lo g ic a lO b je c t A r c h iv e

C o m p o u n d G e o lo g ic a lO b je c t A r c h iv e

R D B M S

S a p t ia l O b je c t A r c h iv eG IS

L e g e n dR D B M S

M a p


72

Figure 4.22 Tables in the USGS geological map relational data model version 4.3 (Johnson et. al., 1999).

Extensions are provided for attribution, dictionaries and storage of metadata for each object. A GIS is used to store the spatial portions components of objects. Attributes are stored in the singular and com-pound object archive relational tables. Those of singular objects are directly linked to the GIS. The SOA (Singular Object Archive) associates a specific spatial feature (from the GIS) to the description specific to its occurrence. Spatial Object name contains one or more names associated with an individual occurrence (e.g. a polygon feature or point feature) on a map. Structural measurement describes a structural measurement by indicating the trend and plunge for linear data and the strike/dip direction and dip for planar data. Compound objects are linked to the descriptive data linked through the legend. Classification Object table define classes of objects that are to appear on a map and map legend. This table also defines the labelling that is used for individual objects, classes of singular objects having common symboliza-tion, and compound objects. All objects on a map are classified and assigned symbology. Classification Scheme is a correlation table between the classification object table (legend) and meta-data. It contains information on how records in the source table are represented in different legends and provide flexibility in sequencing map legend according to user needs. Cartographic objects define the symbology (cartographic symbol and color descriptions) for Classifi-cation Objects (legend items) for a map. Each Classification object in the legend may be associated with one or more Cartographic object symbol descriptions. These tables use the implementation GIS symbols and color tables. The Symbol table is a collection of area, line and point symbol definitions that are grouped into various libraries within the table. The color table is a collection of color defini-tions, which are grouped into various libraries within the table.

L E G E N D T A B L E S

C O M P O U N D O B J E C T T A B L E S

C o m p o u n dO b j e c t

A r c h i v e( C O A )

S p a t i a lC l a s s i f i c a t i o n

M E T A D A T A T A B L E S

S o u r c e

S P A T I A L O B J E C T A R C H I V ES I N G U L A R O B J E C T A R C H I V E ( S O A )

S i n g u l a rO b j e c t s

S p a t i a l o b j e c t sG I S D a t a s e t s

R e l a t e d S o u r c e

P r o j e c t i o n

O r g a n i s a t i o n

C l a s s i f i c a t i o nS c h e m e

C l a s s i f i c a t i o nN a m e

S y m b o l L U T

C o l o r L U T

C l a s s i f i c a t i o nO b j e c t

C a r t o g r a p h i co b j e c t

A d d i t i o n a lC O A T y p e s

S t r u c t u r e

M e t a m o r p h i cF a c i e s

C O A R e l a t i o n

F o r m a l U n i t

C O A T r e e

R o c k U n i t

M e t a m o r p h i cg r a d e L U T

S t r u c t u r a lt y p e L U T

L U T s '

R o c kC o m p o s i t i o n

L i t h o l o g y L U T

G e o c h r o n A g e

S t r a t i g r a p h i cA g e

S t r a t i g r a p h i ct i m e S c a l e

L U T

F o s s i l

S p a t i a l O b j e c tA g e

S p a t i a l O b j e c tC o m p o s i t i o n

S t r u c t u r a lm e a s u r e m e n t

S p a t i a l O b j e c tN a m e

D a t aC l a s s i f i c a t i o n

LU T = Look up tab le


73

The Spatial Classification table correlates the legend to the spatial features in the GIS datasets. Each spatial feature in the GIS may possibly be classified in more than one way, on the same map (e.g. as contact and fault) or on different maps. This arrangement allows for multiple uses of spatial objects and creation of derivative maps. Compound Object Archive table defines which type of compound geological objects is being de-scribed and also links to the legend through the data classification table. The rock unit table is entry to description of map units based on rock features. Rock Composition describes a lithologic composition by specifying a user-defined rock name and by selecting the best matching rock name from the stan-dard lithology look up table. The remaining rock description is entered into the description attribute. Bain and Giles (1997) and Laxton and Becken (1996) present a data models used in the BGS for stor-age of geological map data and production of geological maps. In the former entities and entity sub-types of the model is presented. Intended for a national geological map database, it provides storage of geological map data linked to databases of spatial and non-spatial data. It is designed for production of digital and paper map products illustrating one or more themes tailored to customer requirements. Principal entities for the model are position, line segment and mapped unit representing geological reality. Each occurrence may be shown on a number of different map editions. Various representations of the entities in different map editions are position representation, line segment representation and mapped unit representation. These are linked to the database and GIS layers. The entity geological level is introduced to indicate a third dimension for position and line segment. This is an interpretative entity e.g. unconformity. Figure 4.23 below is part summary of the data model showing the subtypes of the major entities.

Figure 4.23 Simplified BGS geological map data model showing some of entity types and subtypes (Bain and Giles, 1997).

The Research Institute for Earth Sciences, Mining and Chemistry (INGEOMINAS) in Colombia, Murillo (1995) has developed its own data model for integrating Geology, Geophysics, Mining, Geo-

MAPPED UNITREPRESENTATION

MAP EDITION POSITIONREPRESENTATION

LINE SEGMENTREPRESENTATION

POSITION

SUBTYPESPhotograph

Point observationRock SLide

Point FeatureBorehole

DykeSection Position

Structure

Map Marginalia

SYMBOLMAP INDEXENTRY

MAPPED UNIT

SUBTYPESGeosphisical Area

Areal LandformMass MovementMan made areaLithologic Unit

LithostratigraphicUnit

Seam washout

LINE SEGMENT

SUBTYPESFold Axis

Fault SegmentLinear Landform

Boundary SegmentVein

Structural contourGeophysical

horizonFossil horizon


74

environmental engineering, Samples, Wells and Location data. The motivation is to address the sepa-ration of knowledge and information hindering its multidisciplinary projects, while each department independently maintains its data but having access to supplementary data in whole database. 4 major objects were identified as common to all geoscientific information form the backbone to other entities and the basis of integrated GIS model: Observation Point (a location). Description Point (point of interest on the surface of the earth which appears on maps). Spatial Referential Plane (grid system). Mapping Terrain Unit (a closed surface object having a homogeneous characteristic different from

the surrounding e.g. geological formations, geomorphologic units). Figure 4.24 below shows the geology scheme of the model. Detailed attribute organization is not pro-vided.

Figure 4.24 Geology scheme of INGEOMINAS GIS data model (Murillo, 1995)

4.7.3. Analysis of the data models for digital systems methodologies

Similarities in the geology map data models are discovered: In the database interpreted entities are stored as point, line or area features. The philosophy of models is storage of interpretations and desired attributes of geoscience infor-

mation from application of field-collected data. A common organization is in specialized thematic layers or entity subtypes. To account for the high subjectivity in interpretations, each interpreted world feature is attached to

some form of metadata, e.g. a geological map edition, organization or individual. This takes care of possibility of more than one interpretation that can be established at a site. This arises from the fact that geological maps are highly abstracted, generalized and subjective compilations represent-ing reality.

Incorporation of field observations is a desired improvement in integration studies (Schetselaar, 2000). According to Laxton and Becken (1996), the heart of the diversification and customisation is in cartographic symbology of areas, lines and points to reflect different attribute values in a database.

O B S E R V A T IO N P O IN T

D E S C R IP T IO N P O IN T

M A P P IN G T E R R A IN U N IT

R E F E R E N T IA L P L A N E

L IT H O L O G Y

L O C A L S T R U C T U R A L D A T A

U N C O N S O L ID A T E DD E P O S IT

L IN E A M E N T

R E G IO N A L S T R U C T U R A LD A T A

G E O L O G IC A L F A U L T

F O L D

G E O L O G IC A L M A P P IN GU N IT

G E O C H E M IC A L M A P P IN GU N IT


75

Therefore, having more attribution and analysis possibilities that are stored, the more diverse products and services. Applying the map model restricts the analysis to map centred activities. In this respect, Figure 4.25 is a depiction to compare the map model and fundamental database crea-tion. What is lacking in the geological map model can be achieved by extending the model of the geo-logical map to incorporate field data in a database. For this the development geological concept model is central.

Figure 4.25 Illustration of database and map approaches to data modeling for geological map systems.

4.8. Synthesis

We are likely to see an expansion in the demand for geoscientific information. The methodology is to help achieve the goal of the improved information system to service a diverse customer base with cus-tomized products and services according to specifications. The implication of this is that existing and future data and information will need to be converted into digital formats. Archiving and security will better. It will be possible to store data in different formats, several locations and ease duplication in digital format. Savings will come from concurrent and multiple uses of resources without altering the original data. Database management system will help in controlling access by use of passwords for different user views. The government machinery will be assured of access to required information re-sources to plan for the country. Access and distribution will be in a variety of formats. Services will be better in terms of response time, customization and cost. Thematic products will be an alternative to standard traditional reports and maps, courtesy of ability to software to extract and visualize in many ways and easily the same data source.. Quality will be checked by the standards elements and produc-tion system. There is going to be better-informed decisions incorporating geoscience data. Digital map production systems will facilitate production based on demand as opposed to mass production. Peri-

Real W orld

Database System

2D MapRepresentation

Abstraction ofw orld entities

Map databaseSystem

Abstract mapentities

Support map centredGIS activities

Support field dataGIS activities

Map model databasecreation

Fundamental databasecreation

Extension to field attribute data

Interpretation

STORE

STORE MAPENTITIES


76

odic customer survey with continuous process improvement will ensure that the department is not overtaken by trends in the environment.

4.9. Conclusions Geosciences information is required in many activities sectors that support the well being of the

society. Multidisciplinary approach is healthy approach to follow to guarantee that the money paid by the

public to make the geological map serve the society in the end. Customer focus is important in the design of information system that will perform as required. Geological surveys must adopt a product and service oriented strategy in meeting the present

needs of society. A high degree of flexibility in product and services diversity is required to cater for a wide spec-

trum of users and uses in many activity areas. GIS/IT and remote sensing is occupying key role in product and service for many of the activity

sectors. Standards are important in the implementation of databases. Categorization of products into core, value added and commissioned is necessary for the purposes

of a new model geological survey proposed. Product specifications need to be developed along the whole production line. A basic design of a geological database can be organized into themes of information with links to

database tables of extra information. The Database Management System can be used to maintain links between the layers.

Geology is fundamental base information set for the geosciences. Existing map geological data models capabilities can be extending tables of the model by model-

ling the geoscience concept. Geological interpretations applied in geological map making are very subjective. Standards for

database and a mechanism to track each interpretation or observation is very crucial.


77

5. Implementation issues

5.1. Introduction

In chapter 2, problems and external pressures in the environment of the Mines and Geological De-partment that necessitate change have been identified. By a structured step approach strategic changes were found to be necessary: A reengineering of the information system to provide product and services diversity strategy and in the framework of the GDI. The Mines and Geological Department of Kenya is to play a leading role in the development of the Infrastructure virtue of being the custodian of the nations geoscientific knowledge. The concepts and technologies to support the information system were discussed in chapter 3. Chapter 4 looked in more details at the database components of the in-formation system. Changes are therefore necessary in two spheres, inside and outside of the organization. This chapter considers the implementation issues to do with both sides. In the scenarios analysis presented in Chap-ter 2, it was found desirable to look into the solutions for an institutional context. It is proposed that any internal changes must have a strategic objective for the GDI. These two should therefore proceed in tandem or changes in the department should have this strategic focus.

5.2. Lessons from others

Implementations of concepts pertaining to realization role of geosciences in Geospatial Data Infra-structure are being implemented by National Geological Mapping Agencies. The implementations make possible various information services by the organizations. Underlying these services however is various activities and initiatives to address various issues that promote sharing and access of data and information at Fundamental and Framework level. Under a data-sharing program, the AGSO has insti-tuted the National Geoscientific Information System. BGS, designated the National Geoscience Data Centre by the Natural Environment Research Council has implemented the Geoscience Data Index, a web service web based service to provide a map-based index to BGS data holdings. A USGS initiative, the National Geological Map Database Project is developing data models and standards whose final goal is for online map database. The three phases of the project are: Phase 1 -- a searchable catalogue of simple metadata for paper and digital maps. Phase 2 -- populate the map catalogue with links to existing digital data, developed according to

an evolving set of standards. Phase 3 -- through a series of prototypes, build an online "living" database of digital geologic map

information. The characteristics are to include: o Built from edge-matched geologic maps at various scales. o Managed and accessed as a coherent body of map information, not as a set of map products. o Adheres to standard data model, with standard scientific terminology. o Available to users via browser and common GIS tools (e.g., ArcView). o Updated by mappers and/or a committee, "on the fly" with new information.


78

5.3. Structure of business plans In overall the implementation plans will fall under the umbrella of the corporate strategic plan. A busi-ness plan is generally a set of business objectives, what organization will do with appropriate perform-ance measurements and a detailed, complete list of required input and output of products and services that will meet customer needs as defined in strategic plan. It includes identification and definition of info requirements necessary for proper development of automated information systems. As a conse-quence an implementation plan for turning concepts into reality is needed. This spells what has to be done with time frames, milestones, decision points, resource allocations, training and workforce ele-ments and pilot testing within certain time framework and the expected “cost” to the organization (United states General accounting Office, internet accessed 20/8/2001). According to the United States General Accounting Office, the body of the business plan can be di-vided into four distinct sections: The description of the business involves product or service to be offered, location, partnership,

corporation, growth opportunities, mandate and monopolies. Unique aspects and special features of products and how or why they will appeal to consumers is part of business description and the benefits of the goods and services from the customers' perspective

The marketing plan involves knowing the customer expectations and using this fulfil the expecta-tions. The organization must therefore know its customers, the growth of the market, its share of the market, competitors, how to attract and increase a share of the market, pricing of goods and service and how to advertise and promote goods and services.

Financial management plan determines the actual amount of money needed to start (start-up costs) and amount needed to keep running (operating costs). Personnel, legal/professional fees, equip-ment, supplies, advertising/promotions, salaries/wages budgets.

The management plan of how to manage resources – human and non-human in terms of what to posses, what is lacking and what need to be acquired. Employees input in the management process getting their feedback regarding changes lead to new market areas, innovations to existing prod-ucts or services or new product lines or services which can improve overall competitiveness. In management planning the following will be considered: o The weaknesses and how can you compensate for them. o The composition of the management team. o The strengths and weaknesses. o Duties and responsibilities. o Definition of duties and responsibilities o Manpower development and capacity building. o Employment terms (salaries, benefits, vacations, and holidays).

Hitherto, only parts of the structure have been dealt with – describing the business, products and ser-vices and management planning. Fulfilling the requirements of implementing the GDI will in fact facilitate the meeting of the information needs of the Mines and Geological Department. This is obvious because it is at the centre of the system. For these reason, the following sections will approach the implementation requirements from the point of development of GDI.


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5.4. General factors to consider in implementation By definition given in section 3.3, this Infrastructure has components of databases, data handling fa-cilities, institutional, organizational, technological, human and economic resources and standardization to realize the sharing, access to and responsible use off geospatial data at affordable costs. The man-agement perspective of the problem has been addressed in the past chapters. This dealt with the corpo-rate mission, vision, policies and strategies. Under the management planning I came up with an infor-mation system strategy defining the requirements of the information system to service the mandate of the organization. The information system is not in isolation. Other factors are involved in its realiza-tion and maintenance. The implementation of Data Infrastructure requires a solid infrastructure based on policy, guidelines and administrative arrangements, technical standards, fundamental datasets, and a means by which spatial data is made accessible to the community (Australian Spatial Data Infrastructure).

5.4.1. Institutional issues

The GDI will bring together different actors for the common purpose to serve each other in a different environment not comparable to the analogue environment. The success of the GDI will depend on proper institutional arrangements. To work together in harmony and promote responsible use, provid-ers, users and coordinating bodies in the government and private sector need a stable institutional framework is necessary. These are policies and administrative arrangements for the working of the Infrastructure. Establishing the institutional framework to address institutional issues like those pointed below.

5.4.1.1. Legal

To do with the law set laws that will affect players in the system. Kabel (2000) provides a model of main legal issues. Geospatial Information Public Sector Private Sector Suppliers Commercialization of Public

information Protection of investments

Users Confidentiality of third Party information

Access to public information

Intermediaries Liability for incomplete or In-correct information

Incorrect information

Table 5.1 The main legal issues (Kabel, 2000)

Concerning the commercialization of public information – this has to do with approach to access of public information. How should the pricing be formulated? Should the government information be sold for profit or be given free of charge? Concerning protection of investments – protection of investment done by others is important to be pro-tected by law. Copyright laws and intellectual property rights issues should be covered in the informa-tion Policy governing the GDI. Liability of intermediaries – what form of liability or responsibility is undertaken by the data supplies in case of undesirable effects in using the data supplied by them?


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5.4.1.2. Political and economic issues

This is to do with how to justify in the political circles and in economics terms government invest-ments in the implementation and running/maintenance of the Infrastructure (Groot, 2001). The credi-bility and justification of production and dissemination programs of geospatial information against other programs such as in health care or education that compete for the same limited budgets should be undertaken by geological survey and benefiting disciplines. The government has two major interests in the Infrastructure: Responsibility of providing for initial investments in Infrastructures for the country (e.g.water and

electricity). It requires availability and unlimited access to fundamental data necessary to govern and make

policies. For this reason it is expected that the big proportion of the initial cost should be a burden of the Gov-ernment. Other sources of funding can come from donor agencies and sponsorship by interest groups and stakeholders, NGOs, private companies (advertisements), donor agencies e.g. world bank funding in innovative IT to facilitate good governance.

5.4.1.3. Policies, regulations and guidelines

Policies are plans of action by the government as to what is adopted. Regulations deal primarily with the place of public data producers in the machinery of Governments. Guidelines deal with general rules or instructions. Particularly important to the GDI is the pricing policy. Pricing levels that are product/service specification e.g. access, customisation or use restrictions will determine cost condi-tions. Pertaining to the pricing of fundamental data, the following schedule can apply: Free of charge data with no restrictions placed on its re-use other than to gain permission from the

custodian to copy and use the data in commercial products, acknowledge copyright in the data and take responsibility of liability from derived products. No royalties will be sought for commercial application of the data.

Marginal Cost of Transfer reflecting the short-run marginal cost of transfer, which is the cost of distributing an additional unit of information after a number of units have already been produced and distributed. They may include staff costs, material consumed, accounting, postage and other direct distribution costs. No restrictions are placed on its re-use other than to gain permission from the custodian to copy and use the data in commercial products, to acknowledge copyright in the data and take responsibility for any liability arising from the derived product. No royalties will be sought for commercial application of the data.

Full Cost of Transfer reflects the long-run marginal cost of transfer, which includes all the costs directly related to the distribution function (as opposed to collection, maintenance and storage of the data). It may include staff costs, material consumed, energy, telecommunication and Internet costs, plant maintenance and repairs, marketing, accounting, packaging, postage costs, etc. Restric-tions may be applied to the use of data supplied at Full Cost of Transfer. Those restrictions may include the application of a royalty.

(AGSO Spatial Data Access and pricing, assessed 14/02/2002) http://www.csdc.gov.au/access_pricing_submission.pdf

5.4.2. Technology issues

Implementation from the technology side will require that a definition of technologies to be acquired. From a strategic point of view, an Information Technology Strategy is required. This is a statement of


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how to meet the needs for computer-based information system as expressed in the Information System Strategy (Reeve and Petch, 1999). An Information Technology specialist performs details of software and hardware requirements.

5.4.3. Internal and external social culture issues

Some failures in are seen or found to be in part due to an underestimation of non-technical issues like culture, affecting introduction of technology, (Toorn and Man, 2000; Kanungo et. al., 2001; Reeve and Petch, 1999). Chrisman (1987) points out that as technology finds practical use, economic, political, social and ethical accountability become issues that determine basic designs of database and collection and processing of the geographic information. Fears that arise due to introduction of technology that would result in opposition need to be addressed internally and externally. There is bound to be changes in organizational structures and power centres. A great commitment is required on the part of the top management in effecting the changes.

5.4.4. Capacity building

In the context of this research, capacity building refers to improvements in the ability of the depart-ment to perform appropriate tasks within the broad set of principles of a Geospatial Data Infrastructure (Meer et. al., 2001). Training and education in terms of human resource development will be needed to implement, run, maintain and keep the system abreast with advance in technology. A new crop of pro-fessionals is required combining expertise in the traditional mapping science with managerial and computer science skills to mange projects. Business management, policy understanding and organiza-tional skills are required for project leadership (Coleman et. al., 2000).

5.4.5. Standards development

According to Croswell (2000), many different kinds of standards can have a bearing on the GDI. Some of these standards have been introduced in 4.3.2 related to the database. To have an overview of stan-dards that directly affect the GDI, a list is given below from Croswell (2000). Some of these are pre-existing and may be beyond the control of the development team. These are grouped as:

Hardware and physical connection standards. Communication and network management standards. Operating system software standard. User interface. Data format, exchange and access. Programming and application development standards. User design standards (database schemas, geospatial data coding and classification, geospatial

metadata, map compilation and map accuracy standards and map presentation standards). Where within the reach of the development team, the appropriate standards to adapt must be decided.

5.4.6. Operational/technical issues

The GDI brings together data sources from different sources. Within the GDI, procedures to ensure system integrity and data quality management are required. Quality of datasets submitted to the GDI should be known. Some aspects quality in terms of various standards that is necessary for interopera-bility of diverse databases have been mentioned in other sections of this research. Quality is the degree of user satisfaction in using the product or service and also in relation to timeliness and price (Doucette and Paresi, 2000). Quality should be a concern within the organizations in the processes that relate to the GDI and also in the Geospatial Data Services Centre. The lead organization has responsi-bility of Certification of member organizations to ensure that the metadata is as stated.


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Its task will be to prepare and administer quality manuals and quality systems. A quality system is a document providing clients with an auditable standard of the ability of the organization to deliver on contractual promises. It documents the organization structure consisting of purposes, procedures and methodologies, resources and techniques with the objective to ensure quality in the organization. The ISO 9000 is an international quality system that could be adapted in implementing quality.

5.4.7. Users/Markets

A comprehensive user survey and market analysis is required to determine potential users of the GDI services and the requirements. Interaction with user and markets surveys should as a first priority de-termine the centre the detailed specifications of basic and specific products.

5.5. Addressing the issues

It is proposed that an organizational body be constituted to address these issues. The structure of the organization is proposed in Figure 5.1. The overall mission of the proposed committee is “To spear-head the development of a geoscientific data and information sharing facility for now and the future.” To do this it has to create awareness and bring together potential beneficiaries of the system towards the common vision of achieving the goal. A National Geoscientific Data Committee is proposed, with a secretariat support staff and working groups composed of representatives from the stakeholder groups. This committee should seek a legal basis for the GDI in the form of a high-level policy document like the Executive Order 12906 of USA. This order gave the executive branch powers for coordinating geographic data acquisition and access through the National Spatial Data Infrastructure in co-operation with other interested departments and agencies. It is the duty of the committee on behalf of participating organizations to convince the politi-cians of the importance of geoscientific information and the benefits of coordinated national data and information sharing facilities. For this reason it will have to liase strongly with the executive arm of the government. The National Committees is concerned with ensuring that issues that require policies and laws are given the right political limelight to have a formal backing.


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The Secretariat constitutes a more or less permanent administrative staff for the organization proposed. It is composed of coordinators attached to each working group and headed by a Director. The teams should be competent in the areas to which they are assigned.

Figure 5.1 Proposed committee structure for initiating the GDI

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5.6. Implementation for the Department In chapter 2, the current objective direction of the department was found to be wanting. This research has therefore developed and applied a methodological planning process to determine new role actions for change towards new goals and objectives that further and expand existing the objective directions. These are to do with introducing GIS and databases and strengthening the institutional framework around the department as custodian and responsible organization for geoscientific information. Arising out of this exercise, product and service oriented strategy out of core programs activities is advocated. With this program, the department will take into account the needs of stakeholders in its operations and developments. To accomplish the strategy, a methodology for product and service di-versity and the global specifications of databases was presented in chapter 4. The potential customers in terms of activities were also presented. Implementing these findings has got some cost on the part of the department. Even without the imple-mentation of the GDI, changes must take place within the department for its survival. It is therefore important to consider the implementation cost.

5.6.1. Organizational changes

Implementation of a service-oriented strategy will result in changes in organizational structures. The product and service delivery require integration of services from deferent departments. To optimize processes, the existing functional driven process structures will be replaced by process driven structure (Karioki, 1999). In a process driven structure, functional units or departments support one another in cross-functional processes, not requiring that a process be carried out in a functional unit. Process based management is suitable when rapid response to customer requirements and when parts of work-flows can be re-used in other process to generate different products (Radwan et. al, 1999). Changes in organizational structures and decision centres go hand in hand with process orientation and introduction of technology. Strategic management, with periodic reviews and employee participation should be implemented within the organization. Under the corporate strategy, lower level business and functional strategies should be made. By strategic planning using the proposed methodology, periodic continuous process improvement or process reengineering can be decided. Strategic plans should be delivered to the employees as working documents with the employee’s contribution in meeting the objectives clearly outline. This enlists employee support and provides a shared responsibility in the success of the plan. Sub strategies for information.

5.6.2. Hardware and software

To implement the system, hardware and software will have to be obtained. This is for data capture, data manipulation, and product and service delivery. This will involve costs in terms of money for the initial investment and for the continued operations. Computers with enough storage space to mange the different kinds of data. Computer infrastructure. Secondary storage media like CD-ROMs. Digitising tables, scanners. Database Management Systems, Servers and software. Image processing and photogrammetric equipment and software. Networking requirements e.g. Bandwidth, communication.


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GPS. Software for data capture, editing and transformation. GIS software’s for PC and Internet. Upgrading hardware and software.

This will definitely cost a lot of money, and items outside the normal budget allocation are will have to be allocated resources. A careful analysis of the specification of hardware and software should be done so that the right investment is made. This can be done by in consultation with organizations, which have implemented digital systems. But the department should also be in a position to access the rec-ommendations given by the consultants.

5.6.3. Human resources

System administrators, database administrators, application programmers, cartographers and scientists-mangers to design and run projects such as in Section 5.6.4 below are required. This will require train-ing, recruitment from outside or hiring as the need arise. Doctoral programs are necessary for research and development. Training partnerships within implementation programs is recommended. To increase the support by the employees, the present staff should be given first opportunity to train and take up the new careers. New career structures that motivate staff to stay in the department and produce more will have to be instituted. Programmers will be required to program in-house applications and service components.

5.6.4. Data acquisition, conversion and storage

Digital data is the heart of the system. Its capture is expected to be a time consuming and costly proc-ess. For the data conversion, appropriate databases must be designed and standards tables to be used with it must be developed. Another item to be dealt with is resolving heterogeneity when attempts are made to make regional datasets. The levels to which inconsistency can be ignored without affecting the subsequent user must be determined. These inconsistencies arise from the different purpose of the original mapping and subjectivity associated with map-making process.

5.6.5. Culture of quality and accountability

Quality control was identified in Chapter 2 as one of the areas requiring improvement. Quality man-agement in the department has been based on undocumented checks for mapping and on standards for cartographic representation of the final products. In section 5.3.6, a definition of quality was given and the quality system introduced as an auditable way for customers to check quality. The organization should have a Total Quality Management Strategy. This is a corporate business strategy that deter-mines and implements a quality policy – an overall statement and direction of quality by top manage-ment. It is based on customer focus, continuous improvement and teamwork. Customer focus.

o Understand internal and external customer needs and measure own performance against the expectations.

Continuous Improvement. o Establish customer’s requirements. o Ensure meeting these requirements by building reliable interrelated processes. o Measure success. o Keep on improving.

Total involvement. o Leadership and not directorship.


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o Teamwork requiring all levels to be involved for benefit of organization. o Flexible organization structures and communication. o Education and training. o Reward.

Anther way to implement a quality culture controlling processes by workflow management. Workflow management is the coordination of activities to have the right information at the right place at the right time. A workflow is a system of activities in which completion of one leads to the execution of an-other.

5.7. Conclusions Geological surveys are working towards National Information Infrastructures. In the implementation, many other factors have to be considered. A concerted effort is require on the part of the government, private sector, universities and re-

search institutes, customers and civil society. Financial cost and organizational changes will be incurred on the part of the department.


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6. Conclusion and recommendations

6.1. Conclusion

The main objective of this research was to find a methodology to determine the new role that the Mines and Geological Department should play in response to pressures in its environment. To achieve this objective, several research sub objectives were put forward, meeting them of which contribute to meeting the main objective. The research began by identifying a cross section of issues in static and dynamic state of the Mines and Geological Department of Kenya. The objective direction, business process, customers and inter-actions with stakeholders are analyzed and found to be wanting in improvement. Subsequently, broad directions and areas under pressure to be changed are identified. A simple methodology to analyze the diverse factors in the environment of the organisation is pre-sented. Actions for change towards reengineering of the Information System are determined following the methododlogy. The methodolgy borrows on best practices by Geological Surveys Organisations that are undergoing and have obtained appreciable success. Scenarios of implementing some of the actions are considered. The best scenario in focus with the objective of the thesis is selected. This is related to information system development in the context of a Geospatial Data Infrastructure (GDI). The new system is supported by existing technology and concepts. General study of leading Geologi-cal Survey Organizations that are embracing change in response to new challenges show that strategic planning is becoming a way of management. A methodology to diversify in products and services can be implemented with support of digital data and database, GIS and remote sensing to organize, store, abstract, process, analyse and visualize the geological data and information. This is in line with the new goal, “Improve access to resources by diversity of products and services through research and innovative thinking” arising out of the SWOT actions. For the purpose of the GDI, the nature of core products and value added products are distinguished. The objective to identify users, products and information specifications of geoinformation products is attempted. It proved a difficult and big task to specifically define attributes levels for the domains, given the wide variation in attribution and levels of interpretation that can be applied to field geologi-cal data. The details of these should be defined by stakeholders’ involvement. However the research has made an attempt to identifying possible standard themes in a geoscientific database defining some specifications of the database. The kind of information for some of the themes identified is also pro-vided. A complete exercise in these areas is beyond the present work and much remains to be done. In a new functional process model suggested, procedures, methodologies and dictionaries for conver-sion of raw data into digital formats is required. It is expected that in this way, the existing system will not be disturbed much and can be gradually adjusted. Developing these methodologies and procedures


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and dictionaries could not be done in this research and further work is required in this area. A demon-stration of a data model is presented. In implementation stage, other factors are to be considered are introduced. The implementation of the GDI for Kenya require at this stage that working groups be formed to address these issues. Strategic management is to be instituted. As demonstrated this is a useful step in preparation of sub strategies and policies to direct the activities of the organization.

6.2. Recommendations The proposed roles for the Mines and Geological of Kenya are desirable in:

o Meeting the present directive objective and anticipated future needs of the department in the geoscientific community. The user community will be served better.

o Improving the department in line with GDI development. The internal improvements are not to be seen in isolation, but as a larger infrastructure.

Undertaking the imitative to develop the GDI in line with at this early stage is desirable. Using established concepts, tools and technology will reduce problems and costs of harmonization aris-ing as the geoscientific community develop datasets and standards for digital systems.

The system will address aspects of privatisation and rationalization of government services. It is expected to contribute to good governance facilitating equitable access to information to civil so-ciety.

The proposals will have a corrective measure on the image of the department and promote the rele-vance of its work to the society.

Reduced cost on the part of the department in publications, updating maps, advertisements.

6.3. Further work to be done The output of this work is limited by information accessed and available time. A reengineering

process requires a mix of knowledge specialization that is only possible to be realized in team-work. Such a team should be composed of:

Executive management Information system analysts Systems and database designers Government officials Public representatives Customer and stakeholder representative Process modelers

This team should carry out a good survey of user requirements and needs for proper database design. Second it is to develop a competent project and implementation plan for prototyping, design, implementation and operation. Data model design was found to be a big task. However it is possible to build further on what has

been done here. There is need to strengthen the geological concept models and associated data-bases for use in Geological Information Systems.


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URL of websites visited http://geixs.brgm.fr/en/geodata.html

The European Geological Data Catalogue project of EuroGeoSurveys

http://www.agso.gov.au/ Australian Geological survey Organization Home website

http://www.auslig.gov.au/ The Australian Surveying and Land Information Group (AUSLIG), Australia's National Mapping Agency

http://www.bgs.ac.uk British Geological Survey Home website

http://www.bgs.ac.uk/dfid-kar-geoscience/r7199/home.html Home page for Strategies and systems for maximising geoscience data value project

http://www.c3i.osd.mil/bpr/bprcd/ The electronic college of process innovation, Planning for Business Process Reengineering

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http://www.seamic.org/ The Southern and Eastern African Mineral Centre (SEAMIC

http://www.usgs.gov/usgs-manual/ USGS policies and procedures

http://ncgmp.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/mapsymb/mapsymbpubrev.html Digital Cartographic Standard for Geologic Map Symbolization

http://geology.usgs.gov/dm Digital Geological Map Data Model Development website.

http://www.agso.gov.au/pdf/RR0028.pdf AGSO Geoscience Data DICTIONARY: Data Structure and Definitions for GIS Products Version 2001.08

http://www.usgs.gov/usgs-manual U.S. Geological Survey Manual

http://ncgmp.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/mapsymb/mapsymbpdfs.html Proposal for a Geologic Map Symbolization Standard. (Federal Geographic Data Committee, Geologic Data Subcommittee)

http://www.isotc211.org/, assessed 15/2/2001 International Standards Organisation

http://www.iso.org/iso/en/ISOOnline.frontpage Intrnational Organization of Standardization Home page

http://www.gao.gov/ United States General accounting Office

http://www.csdc.gov.au/access_pricing_submission.pdf AGSO Spatial Data Access and pricing

APPENDIX

1

Appendix A Methodology

A structured approach to bring about change in an organization is profitable for managing the process. This appendix describes the steps of a BPR methodology that can be applied to bring changes in an organization. The process is intended to change organizations from being data holders to be being providers of relevant information those who need it. A1 Business Process Reengineering Definitions for provided for Business Process Reengineering reveal the multiple aspects it has. Pep-pard and Rowland (1995) define it as a philosophy aimed at achieving step improvements in perform-ance by redesigning the processes through which an organization operates, maximize their value added content and minimize everything else. The Electronic College of process innovation rightly point that it is based on the increased shared vision of shared information-as a cooperate asset contained in a co-operate database, mission support- capture and maintenance processes of data must support mission of the organization, reduced costs-high cost, non value adding activities area eliminated and resources directed to high return activities, reusable technology from custom developed unique information sys-tems to use of off the shelf technology and software to support standard business processes, Just in time approach- information is delivered electronically to the work site at the precise time it is needed and single interface-one system interface for accessing information resources. BPR is increasingly being studied applied by private and public sector management to help re-focus and make business goals be customer oriented, lower production cost and increase competitive posi-tion. Several studies have been conducted to apply business techniques to Geoinformation production. Karioki (1999) has applied BPR in the reengineering of GI production organizations and Dominquez (1998) did a study on implementation of service-oriented strategy in a mapping organization. Geo-logical surveys in general are under pressure and many are developing and controlling their activities by strategic plans. A2 Business Process Reengineering- an approach to organizational change There have come many change philosophies driven by information technology. The table below is a comparison of Total Quality Management (TQM), Just In Time Approach (JIT), Simultaneous Engi-neering (SE), Time Compression Management (TCM), Fast Cycle Response (FCR) and Business Process Reengineering. The table below is a comparison of the above philosophies based on some chosen elements.

APPENDIX

2

Element TQM JIT SE TCM/FCR BPR Focus Quality

Attitude to cus-tomer

Reduced inven-tory Raised through-put

Reduced time to market Increased quality

Reduce time Processes Minimize on value added

Improvement scale

Continuous Incremental

Continuous Incremental

Radical Radical Radical

Organization Common goals Across func-tions

Cells and team working

R&D and Pro-duction Work as a single team

Process based Process based

Customer focus

Internal and external satis-faction

Initiator of action pulls production

Internal part-nerships

Quick response Outcomes driven

Process focus Simply improve Measure and control

Work flow/through put efficiency

Simultaneous R&D and pro-duction devel-opment

Eliminate time in all processes

Ideal or stream-lined

Techniques Process maps Benchmarking Self assess-ment Diagrams

Visibility Small batches Quick set-up

Program teams CAD/CAM

Process maps Benchmarking

Process maps Benchmarking Self assess-ment IS/IT Creativity/out of box thinking

Figure A 1 Business philosophies comparison (Pepperd and Rowland, 1995).

JIT, TQM and SE may deal with only parts of an organization while FCR and BPR is based on one way of working to another. Continuous Process Improvement CPI philosophy is complementary to BPR, assuming that there is always room for improvement and regularly observing existing Business processes to improve there performance and reducing cost minimal impact to suppliers, customers and organizations within func-tional area by minor redesign. A structured BPR methodology for geological surveys is useful for coordinating the enormous task required to bring dramatic improvements in performance from many angles of the traditional Geologi-cal survey organization. Changes are required in managing business processes, in organization struc-ture and people, policies and regulations, management and decision support structures, information and technology acquiring and integration, data management and analysis, customer interaction and quality improvement. BPR often brings together proven elements from other philosophies of change. A 2.2 Proposed methodology for BPR The BPR methodology proposed below has the following objectives: Analyze the complexity of problems and simplify them. Achieve unity in system architecture. Establish and improve interaction between user and system development. Enable efficient parallel development of sub systems. Sound analysis and administration through a well-defined procedural framework.

APPENDIX

3

Breaks down a process in stages, tasks, and outputs order of tasks, support tools and management. The methodology shown Figure A2, analyses the environment of the organization, identifies possible actions, models the core process based on products and services, models information system and data-base to meet the business objectives. From the core business process other reengineering plans are de-veloped and analyses implementation issues. This section briefly describes the activities of the methodology.

Figure A 2 Proposed methodology.

IMPLEMENTATIONImplementation plans (organizational and cultural changemanagement), Issues: Institutional, Technical, Financial,

Capacity building, Pricing policy

IdentifyBest practices

Strategies and procedureshandling, verifying, validating, loading and

managing

Corporate Strategic Management

IDENTIFY CHANGE TRIGGEREVENTS

Identify Processes for re-engineering

Model Target Process(s)

Analyze key customer/stakeholderIdentify needs in Productsand services improvement

Environmental Scan

Internal factors External factors

Swot matrix

BusinessVision

Information System analysis& Design

APPENDIX

4

A 2.3 Activities of the Methodology

A 2.3.1 Corporate strategic management Strategic management is that set of managerial decisions and actions that determine the long run per-formance of an organization. It is the domain of top management to make the final decisions, but usu-ally with the help and inputs from the middle and lower cadres. Such decisions Have implications in the future of an organization not only in the short, but more in the long run to

lower the risks of changing or not changing in response to trigger events. Provide plans for effective management of opportunities and threats in light of corporate strengths

and weaknesses. In the process are defined the mission, vision, objectives, goals, strategies and policy guidelines. Strategy formulation is accomplished through the SWOT analysis derived from environmental scanning.

Identify mission, vision, goal, performance measures and priorities. Performance measures in the Strategic Planning: Indicate how progress toward agency goals and objectives will be measured. Used in allocating resources and determining appropriation levels. Help focus efforts on achieving priority goals and objectives. Monitoring tool to help guide government and make it accountable to the taxpayer.

The life cycle of strategic management is characterized by an iteration of four basic activities as shown in the diagram below.

Figure A 3 Basic steps of strategic management process (Hunger and Wheelen, 1997)

A top-level corporate strategy usually dictates strategies at various other levels in the organization in a hierarchical manner.

Figure A 4 Hierarchy of Strategy after Hunger and Wheelen (1997)

E n v i r o n m e n t a ls c a n

S t r a t e g yim p le m e n t a t io n

Evaluation and control

S t r a t e g yf o r m u la t io n

s t r a t e g ic m a n a g e m e n t a c t i v i t i e s , H u n g e r a n d w h e e lm a n

CORPERATEHEADQUATERS

Division BDivision A Division C

Finance manufacturingR&D Marketing HumanResource

CorporateStrategy

BusinessStrategy

FunctionalStartegy

APPENDIX

5

Hunger and Wheelen (1997) identify three levels of strategy formulation 1) Cooperate strategy describe the overall direction of the organization in terms of its attitude towards growth, industries and the market it competes. 2) Business strategy also called competitive strategy emphasize improvement of the competitiveness of corporations products and services, by increase of profit margin in production and sales products and services. 3) Functional strategy concerned with maximizing resources productivity. Developed by functional departments within corporate and business strategies. These three form a hierarchy of strategy, each operating in a different environment. The lower levels inherit the strategic environment of the preced-ing one as its environment. Three types of strategies at corporate level are growth strategy -expand activities of organization, sta-bility strategy - no change to current activities and retrenchment strategy - reduce activities. Identify important change trigger events Change trigger events result in re-examination (and redefinition) of roles and responsibilities. They can be identified in new mandates, new management, assessment of products, services and delivery modes with respect to meeting needs of customers and stakeholders, shift in priority customers and stakeholders and their current and future needs and expectations (Cost, quality, duration of product and service), budget cuts, staff cuts, privatisation and commercialization of government agencies and services, technology, changed functions. These usually put new demands on organization resources. Evaluation of mission, goals and priorities While mandates and missions of government agencies are normally dictated, roles, responsibilities and how they fulfil their responsibilities is usually their own. Evaluation will involve determining if the mission, strategic goals, core business processes targets, customers, stakeholders and priorities are still valid. Control takes place if with passage of time the organization operates outside or is not fulfilling its mandate. The organization identifies problems existing in the organization, the performance prob-lems and defines broad areas requiring improvement. These are at the corporate level dealing with the strategic elements, business level dealing with products cost, quality, timeliness, new customers, pub-lic image or opinion and operation level dealing with performance of process e.g. consistent standard production and who does what, when and how. Questions to be answered, “Has the mission been redefined? Are our strategic goals aligned with mis-sion, highest priority customers and stakeholders’ needs? What are the core business processes, prod-ucts and whom are they made for? Who are the suppliers of the organization? Who are our custom-ers? What is the performance in terms of measured actual cooperative activities and performance re-sults with projected values? These are done so that corrective measures can be taken to solve the prob-lem based on clear understanding of the situation Hunger and Wheelen (1997). This stage can end with the management agreeing on and outlining broad areas that require improve-ment

APPENDIX

6

Formulating a new strategy Situation Analysis Having recognized need for reorganization through evaluation of strategic performances in respect to cooperate mission and goals and customers, the purpose of situation analysis is to perform a more de-tailed the factors analysis of the environment of the organization: stakeholder needs, benchmarking, change driving factors etc to define a new corporate strategy. Known facts are carefully analyzed to define new goal. A strategy plan is developed detailing how to achieve mission and objectives/goals by describing what needs to be done to move from the present situation to the new situation while maximizing on competitive advantage and minimizing on competitive disadvantage. Usually included are customers and stakeholders and what needs it will fulfil (products and services) within context of mission. Situation analysis involves Internal and external environmental scan, a process of identify factors that are important for the organizations future. Internal environment are factors contribute to strengths or weakness and external environment factors to opportunities or threats to the organization. A useful model to apply is on proposed by Hunger and Wheelen (1997). These model groups the sources of factors to analyze internal and external environments of an organization. These forces arise from ex-ternal areas to do within the society and task or industry environment. Society factors arise from socio-cultural factors, economic factors, technological factors and political-legal and industry factors arise from customers, suppliers, stakeholders, interest groups, employees and competitors. Internal factors arise from the areas of organizational structures, culture and resources.

Figure A 5 Five forces model of environmental factors affecting an organization (Hunger and Wheelen, 1997)

Internal environment Scanning This is the environment within the organization itself identified with resources, structures and cultures. It identifies factors, which contribute to strengths or weaknesses within the organization. Strengths provide competitive advantage in the things done or can potentially be done better than the competi-tion and weaknesses as the opposite (Hunger and Wheelen, 1997). One factor to consider is in relation to meeting critical customer and stakeholders. The general question is how the structures, use of re-sources, lack of resources and cultures affect meeting goal objectives. The following questions may be asked.

ExternalIn Societal Area

Externalin Task Area

InternalEnvironment

StructureCulture

Resources

Econo

mic

Forces

Socia-cultural

forces

Political-L

egal

Forces

Technology

stakeholders

suppliers

customers

creditors

interestgroups

competitors

employees

APPENDIX

7

How do the organization structures and processes directed to meeting customer needs? What is the effect of organizational culture on its roles and responsibilities? How are the resources e.g. staff and equipment adequate or inadequate to support the mission and

goals of the organization? What is the attitude of the organization towards technological changes and innovation? What is the performance rating in the sight of customers and stakeholders? Is the process integration within the organization optimal in support its mission? Who are the stakeholders of the organization and are their interests being met? What is the culture of the organization in relation to data and information management, quality

management, commitment to change, commitment to cooperate success and how does it affect the fulfilment of the mandate?

What is the organization strength and weakness in terms of manpower, resources, market share, equipment and software?

What is the commitment to research and development and Innovation? What is the commitment to marketing and meeting diverse user needs? What is the management culture in the organization – are their laid down and well documented

rules and policies, strategic plans? What is the attitude of the organization towards relationship of the organization and customers? How flexible are the processes and operations to new market demands - new products, services,

custom products and unpredictable needs? External environment Scanning External Scan is performed in two areas as below: Societal environment factors affect the organization in the long run and not directly under its control. The following need to be asked in the societal environment. What are the opportunities accorded by socio-cultural and government changes? For example so-

ciety want more involvement in Government hence access to relevant information, are ready to pay for information etc.

What are the priorities and changes in the government and society that affecting the organization? Is there change in the way people share data and information? How is adoption of technology is various sectors of society affecting the organization and is likely

to affect it in future? How serious is the organization taking technology solutions? How is the use of ICT an asset for the organization? What new opportunities does it offer? How are mandates, laws, regulations and statutes delivered by the government affecting the or-

ganization for example taking away monopoly? Changes in government funding and management policies?

Task environment factors are elements or groups directly affecting the cooperation in short term and in turn affected by it. The following need to be asked in the task environment. What do the customers and stakeholders present and anticipated needs that the organization can

capitalize on? Are their alternative sources of products and services that the organization supplies? Are there any threats from the suppliers of resources necessary for the organizations operations?

What would the organization for example do if they lowered quality standards or increased the prices?

APPENDIX

8

What is the potential for new entrants and how could they affect the organization? Do the customers have power to dictate terms? The factors in the external environment are opportunities to exploit or threats to avoid.

The SWOT Analysis SWOT is an acronym for Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. The SWOT analysis is a technique to evaluate possible strategies or actions to address performance problems taking into ac-count the environment factors. The product of SWOT strategic actions or alternatives falling in 4 sets defined within the mandate. These use Use strengths to take advantage of opportunities Take advantage of opportunities by overcoming weaknesses Use strengths to avoid threats and Minimize weakness and avoid threats to lead to an improved organization.

Strengths (S) Consider four or five major factors

Weaknesses (W) Consider four or five major fac-tors

Opportunities (O) Consider four or five major factors

SO strategies Use strengths to take advan-tage of opportunities

WO strategies Take advantage of opportunities by overcoming weaknesses

Threats (T) Consider four or five major factors

ST strategies Use strengths to avoid threats

WT strategies Minimize weakness and avoid threats

Figure A 6 SWOT matrix set of strategic alternatives.

Strategic Plan The step of environmental scan and SWOT analysis provides possible actions to take to address per-formance problems. Strategy formulation makes corporate strategic choices to guide the move from the AS-IS to the TO-BE situation. The resulting document, called the strategy plan describes what the management has decided to given as a set of corporate decisions, policies and actions. In the process are developed qualitative or quantitative statements about mission, goals, performance measures and priority strategies Mission states what the organization is all about and does in relation to – Purpose in society in provision of services and products. Uniqueness to other organizations. Scope of operations. Boundaries of activities. Promotes a sense of shared expectations. Communicates public image to stakeholders in task environment. The vision describes what the organization intends to be in future.

Internal Factors

External Factors

APPENDIX

9

Objectives define the end results of activities to be performed, in terms of what is to be accomplished by when and in quantified term to assess the performance. Achievement of the objectives fulfils the mission. Closely relate is the goal, which is an open-ended statement of wishes to achieve with no quantification of what and time frame. It is a general end toward effort are directed. Objectives are usually reflected in the policies, programs and budgets approved or disapproved even though not ex-plicitly defined Policies are broad and formalized guidelines of decision making for managers at all levels serving as a link between formulation of strategy with implementation. It guides all levels at staff in making deci-sions in support of organizations mission, goals and strategies. Initiatives/Programs describe how improvement strategies are to be accomplished/implemented in terms of actions, time lines and resources in a creative environment. Implementation strategies (operational planning) define process of putting into action strategies and policies through development of programs or initiatives (statements of activities or steps to accomplish a single plan), budgets (cost details of each program) and procedures or action (detail of various activi-ties that must be carried out to complete programs) to guide day-to-day decisions in resource alloca-tion. Outward effects include a change of culture, structure and management system of the organiza-tion. A strategic plan document may have the following structure

Figure A 7 A possible structure of strategy document.

The business plan a set of business objectives, what organization will do with appropriate performance measurements and a detailed, complete list of required input and output of products and services that will meet customer needs as defined in strategic plan. Include identification and definition of info re-quirements necessary for proper development of automated information systems. Analyze key customers and stakeholders Reengineering is customer-focused, outcome, mission and goal oriented. A comprehensive understanding of current, changes in and anticipated customers (internal and external business) needs and expectations is essential. Stakeholders are external or internal groups or individuals that are involved or affected by the organizations activities and will be affected by changes. Included are government agencies, interest groups, funding agencies, staff etc. Determining the customer and stakeholders’ requirements is an activity, which must be carried out by the organization as it is bound to vary from one place to another. Since needs are very variable, it is important to identify and

Background and rationales for the planMission statementVision statementGoals or objectives

Goal/objective 1Strategy 1

Initiative/Programs) implementationAction/Procedures) implementation

Goal/objective 2Strategy 2

Initiative/Programs) implementationAction/Procedures

APPENDIX

10

place to another. Since needs are very variable, it is important to identify and prioritise stakeholders needs in responding to them. Prioritize processes for reengineering Core and Non-core Processes The Business Process show process activities that must be undertaken to achieve an explicit goal and their relationships with resources in the process – people, material, information and technology. Proc-ess models are used to understand the business, to improve or innovate and as a basis for other models, for example GIS and IS requirements, integration of parts and impacts to workflow to be addressed through business process reengineering. Eriksson and Penker (2000) define core processes are those having interactions with the external world or is crucial to the delivery of products and services. Non-core processes support the core processes. Business process are steps and procedures that govern how resources are used to create products and services that meet the needs of particular customers or markets. Business process can be decomposed into specific activities, measured,, modeled and improved, redesigned or eliminated. One aim of reen-gineering is to identify, analyze and redesign an organizations core business processes with the aim of achieving dramatic improvements in critical performance measures such as cost, quality, service and speed, GAO report. Reengineering of processes will necessarily drive many changes in management and decision support structures, Policies and regulations, people and organizations and information and technology. Identify and model process for reengineering We need selection criteria to prioritise for reengineering improvements, assign appropriate perform-ance improvement goals for them and which customer and stakeholders needs are taken into account. These criteria can be based on Processes with strongest link to organizations mandate and mission, and highest impact on cus-

tomers Processes with the biggest potential return on investment in improving them Processes where change management issues can be more easily resolved or there is strong consen-

sus Processes that can be redesigned with currently available resources and infrastructure Less complex processes where improvement goals can be achieved within a short period of time

(US General Accounting Office). The new reengineered processes to meet particular customer or market needs and also contribute to the business of organization are modeled at sufficient details to allow required analysis. These can range from high level or coarse process models depicting inputs, outputs, activities and procedures, con-straints, responsibilities and interdependencies of processes to show how a process works and how they are interconnected to more detailed or machine based model for simulation, Vernadat (1996). Ac-tivities may involve transformations, transfers and delivery, Peppard and Rowland (1995). Model pro-vide a common understanding of the process, identify problem areas and activities needing to be changed or added, and understanding what will be changed. Further use of models Specific models are prepared to analyze the target process workflow, problem areas and improvement opportunities. Special models can be prepared for particular purposes for example computer-based

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model for simulation, performance analysis, Activity Based Costing, Workflow Management System, Data modeling and Total Quality Management. Performance analyses can be done based on modeling of activities and is used to test and improve the design of the process or predict the effects of the changes before implementation. Tools in form of computer software exist for testing processes within the framework provided by particular software. Data modeling describing exact information needed to perform each and every activity in a business process. Activity based costing technique helps to determine the cost of producing primary products and ser-vices. Product and Service quality- Business process models also facilitate implementation of quality man-agement procedures. Quality management is a process to ensure that the organization is going to main-tain quality as stated by defining the evaluation criteria, what to control, schedule, responsibility, pro-cedures and techniques can be defined along the lines of activity models. The components of quality management are quality control, quality assurance and quality system. Workflow management system Total quality management Total quality management is a corporate business strategy to ensure an organization is going to main-tain quality as stated. Its principles are based on being customer needs focused, never ending process of improvement and total involvement of people in the organization. The components of Total Quality management Quality policy: a corporate quality intention or statement and direction as expressed by the top

management Quality control: operational techniques and activities used to fulfil requirements for quality Quality assurance: planned and systematic actions providing confidence that a product or service

will satisfy given requirements of quality Quality System: a document describing organization structures, responsibilities and procedures of

attaining and improving quality. A standard for quality system has been described by Internal Organization of Standards ISO 9000 based on seven principles of customer focus, Leadership, Involvement of the people, Process ap-proach, System approach to management, continual improvement and factual approach to decision making. Information System Analysis and Design Core process should be considered in the wider context based on other changes it is bound to drive. Changes will occur in the organizations information systems, technology, policies and regulations, organization structures and management and decision support structure. United States general Ac-counting Office. The information system is a set of supporting technology, people, organizations, processes and policies facilitating effective and efficient data and information collection and acquisi-tion, storage processing, presentation, interpretation and analysis storage aimed towards meeting a cer-tain goal or objective.

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Figure A 8 Information system development life cycle (Paresi, 2000).

Information system analysis and design is part of a whole process of information system development life cycle. It follows from user requirements and business process that they are supposed to support. It is aimed at detailed analysis of the existing system and of the information requirements to enable specifying an improved system requirements and selecting the engineering design needed to imple-ment the system in terms of changes to existing programs, databases and procedures of using the sys-tem. Various Policies, Strategies, Procedures and Plans These are strategies within the corporate strategy to direct various activities according to the hierarchy of strategy model above. Information Strategy Functional Information Strategy is a strategy to support business objectives, plans for the various parts of the business for development of Information System, policies, programs and its infrastructure. At-tention is increasing on Information Strategy as a major component of cooperate strategy as a man-agement tool to bring change (Reeve and Petch, 1999). It is: A way of ensure that investment in information, information technology, systems and services is

efficient Way of seeing that Information produced by the organization is exploited for its benefit Focus for information issues Forum for expressing diverse ideas of information needs Help define use of Information technology in achieving mission and relating better to the envi-

ronment Three strategies are found within Information strategy Information Systems Strategy - This answers what and why of the kind of Information System to

meet business strategy. Information Technology Strategy - Answering how to technologically meet the needs of Informa-

tion System Strategy and detailing the software and hardware.

I m p le m e n t a t i o n

S y s t e m s a n a ly s i s

S y s t e m S t r a t e g y a n dP la n n in g

P r o b le m D e f in i t i o n

S y s t e m D e s ig n

G lo b a l d e s ig n

D e t a i le d D e s ig n

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Information Management strategy answering the whom, what and where dealing and with identification and coordination of tasks, Role of end users and specialists, tasks to centralize/decentralize, training, research and human resources development.

Data Policy Data management policy is a formalized corporate approval and commitment to increase and maxi-mize the value of geoscientific data as corporate resources, BGS Data Policy http://www.bgs.ac.uk/dfid-kar-geoscience/r7199/management/policy.htm. The site provides extensive literature on the data management policy. The policy covers the areas Data Acquisition, Data Man-agement, Data use and access, Charging for data access. The policy is the highest-level policy within the organization that is dictated by other policies outsized its jurisdiction. The next levels of strategies are data management plans at corporate, program of project level for specific data or datasets. Below this are data management procedures and methodologies for example for digitising maps, site investi-gation records, geological field data management, and data entry and validation methodologies. Best practices Best practices is searching and identifying best practices from similar organizations and comparing and adapting them for the organization to achieve improved performance. Processes, products and ser-vices and customer base, data modeling, quality and other standards, data policy, data management policies, pricing policy information system specification and human resource management can be looked at and adapted Evaluation and control – This relies on a performance measurement system producing measures at each level in the organization. It helps in monitoring activities and performance results so that actual results can be compared with set targets. The results are useful to managers to make correction and resolve problems and may show the need of iterating the process of strategic management all over again.

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Appendix B Screen shots of products from databases This appendix shows few examples of screen shots from Internet based services from GIS and Data-base applications form Australian Geological Survey Organization and British Geological Survey. Australian Geological Survey Organization Web services at http://www.geoscience.gov.au/bin/agsoPortal?portal=geopotal&action=show&page=database.html&&user=general$ and relate sites 1) Standards databases Look Up tables enable query for standards in: Geological Provinces Geological Time Scale Mineral Names Rock Attributes Originators Broad Rock Types Structural Attributes Lithologies Lithology qualifiers Mineral Commodities Deposit Attributes Regional Attributes Thin Section Clast Types Thin Section Attributes Environmental Hazards Landform Types Regolith Types Landform Structural Controls Biostratigraphy etc.

Table B 1 Standards databases maintained by the AGSO

B 1 A part of the result of querying the Rock data type look up table

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2) Community Risk is an online mapping facility providing maps of risk information at scale up to individual suburbs. Screen shorts of such a map is shown below

Figure B 2Community Vulnerability.

B 3 Sub-urban query result

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3) ArcView based application delivered over the Internet from the field geology database of AGSO. Querying the point features retrieve field attributes shown insert.

Figure B 4 ArcView application from field geology database with a query result

4) The National Datasets Online GIS, http://www.ga.gov.au/map/ is accessed based on themes of ge-ology, geochemistry, geophysics, geohazards, raster images, resources, topography and culture. The screen shots show a map on geology theme overlain with the field geology data. Querying a field site gives the result attributes on the right side.

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Figure B 5 Map view and point identification results from the database

Figure B 6Geohazards map and query results

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British Geological Survey examples

Internet GIS applications from the British Geological Survey provide theme maps and tools to gener-ate combined maps at various scales. The screen shot below show a combining of topography and solid geology and a with query results on solid geology theme.

Figure B 7 Mineral occurrence map overlain on geology map, mineral data retrieved from query

Figure B 8 Topography data overlain on solid geology.

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Below is a combination of solid geology layer with rock samples layer, query on rock sample results inset

Figure B 9 Solid geology and mineral occurrence theme with results on mineral occurrence

Minerals theme with geology and geochemical sample with query on sample point locations

Figure B 10 A printable map legend generated by user.

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