Structural Violence, Intersectionality and Indigenous Women in Morocco

Paige Duskie

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Introduction For eleven weeks during the summer of 2019, I worked as the Nongovernmental Organization

(NGO) and Human Rights intern at La Voix de la Femmes Amazighe, or The Voice of the Amazigh

Women, in Rabat, Morocco. This internship was carried out in association with the Moroccan Center for

Arabic Studies (MCAS), and the Florida State University Global Scholars Program. My placement was

guided by Ali Besbaa, the director of the Moroccan Center for Arabic Studies, and Ismail Khejjou, the

project manager at La Voix de la Femmes Amazighe. Before arriving in Morocco, I planned to research

gender inequality in Rabat, the capital city. However, as I leaned into my internship, I became interested

in the multifaceted oppression of indigenous women in Morocco. This paper will argue that the

intersectional identity held by Amazigh women exacerbates structural violence against them within

Moroccan society.

My positionality vis-à-vis the material laid out in this article is that of a university student from

the United States seeking a degree in International Affairs and French. I preceded my internship with

comprehensive knowledge of foreign policy, French-speaking countries, enduring legacies of

colonialism, gender equality, intersectional oppression and marginalization. The information included

within this paper was collected during my time in Morocco from May 2019-July 2019. I conducted

interviews with several individuals related to my social issue. The first of these was Dr. Muhammed

Almou, an accredited human rights lawyer who has worked on cases concerning gender equality and

Amazigh rights. The second was Ismail Khejjou, the project manager at La Voix de la Femmes

Amazighe. Youssra Benchouka, who is responsible for administrative and financial work at La Voix de

la Femmes Amazighe, was the final. This paper will first focus on an overview of gender equality in

Morocco, proceeded by background on the Amazigh people. Furthermore, this paper will delve into

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structural violence working against the intersectionality identity of the Amazigh woman and steps being

taken to dismantle this experience.

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Gender Equality in Morocco The promotion of gender equality is recognized as one of the Sustainable Development Goals

(SDGs) of the United Nations. The following indicators offered by the United Nations will be used to

offer background on the progress of gender equality in Morocco: violence against women, underage

marriage, workforce participation, and illiteracy rates.2 The measuring and defining of gender equality is

difficult when considering cultural translation.3 “Gender equality” is not constant across cultural

1 “IMSLI Organise Une Série De Rencontres D'échange Et De Plaidoyer Réunissant Les Femmes Amazighes Et Les Élu(e)s Locaux.” Joussour, July 3, 2017. https://www.e-joussour.net/fr/imsli-organise-une-serie-de-rencontres-dechange-et-de-plaidoyer-reunissant-les-femmes-amazighes-et-les-elues-locaux/. 2 “Goal 5. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform.” United Nations. United Nations. Accessed October 1, 2019. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg5. 3 Omprakash Edge Classroom Unit 7, Section 7: Religion and Culture

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boundaries and has different connotations globally. In Morocco, a strong force of the Islamic world, the

societal understanding of “gender equality” would be different from a country in Sub-Saharan Africa,

for example. Comprehending gender inequalities in Morocco will need to be viewed through a lens of

cultural translation. 4

In 1999, Morocco began to reconstruct its views on gender equality with the rise of King

Mohammed VI. The progress made for women’s rights by the current administration have shaped

Morocco into a “champion of stability and moderation”.5 In 2011, for example, in response to unrest, the

king backed a new constitution seeking to battle gender inequality and discrimination on the basis of

sex. However, as of today, there are still no concrete laws defining the illegality of violence against

women. The specifications attached to charging someone with sexual violence against a woman are

immensely situational. Morocco has salient cultural norms that often force victims of rape to marry their

rapists in an effort to avoid character defamation. The reformation of the Family Code, or Moudawana,

by the king represented more progress for gender equality. The Family Code made the legal age of

marriage as 18, however, it still allows judges to petition on the basis of religious or personal beliefs. 5

In my interview with Dr. Almou, I inquired about the most flagrant issues facing women in

Morocco, from a human rights perspective. Dr. Almou responded by describing the bulk of Moroccan

law and society as “secular” and “progressive”, except when dealing with women. He states “But when

it comes to The Family Code, I [the Moroccan government], need to inspire my laws from religion. And

4 Omprakash Edge Classroom Unit 7, Section 8: Women in Male-Dominated Cultures 5 Gagliardi, Silvia. “Violence against Women: The Stark Reality behind Morocco’s human rights progress” The Journal of North African Studies, 23:4, 569-590, 2018. https://docs.euromedwomen.foundation/files/ermwf-documents/7176_3.190.violenceinmorroccobehindthestarckreality-en.pdf.

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this for me shows the hypocrisy of Moroccan law. The one and only hope to protect women, is still

imprisoned by religious reference”. He continued his opinions on Morocco’s gender reforms,

“If you compare us to other countries like Saudi, UAE, etc. (except Tunisia) we have taken large

strides, we are exceptional. But when we talk about family code, in the balance of international

conventions, especially those pertaining to human rights conventions, we will document a

contradiction between the international standard laws and family code. The file of women’s

rights, it is a sacred file governed by religious figures, there is little room to discuss or change

it.”.6

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6 Interview with Dr. Muhammed Almou. Record of Perspective, 19 July 2019. 7 Paige Duskie. Dr. Almou’s Office, Sale, Morocco. 19 July 2019.

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Amazigh When walking through a Moroccan souk, it is almost guaranteed that one will encounter pieces

labeled as Amazigh, or Berber. In Fez, the oldest Moroccan city, “Amazigh” and “Berber” are often

attached to higher-priced, higher-quality items. This representation offers an interesting perception of

the Amazigh people, considering the social issue of this paper. This paper will use the “Amazigh” rather

than “Berber” to endorse the reclamation of indigenous culture and verbiage. In many cases, the two

names are used interchangeably, however, “Berber” has a negative historical legacy of colonialism

attached to it. “Berber” originates from “barbarian” or “savage” in Arabic and Greek.8

The Amazigh are the indigenous population to North Africa, spanning across Morocco, Libya,

and Tunisia. “Amazigh” translates to “free-man”, embodying the vibrancy of Amazigh culture. Today,

20 million Amazigh exist across North Africa, with the majority residing in Morocco. There are

estimations that nearly 70% of Moroccans are Amazigh or have Amazigh ancestry. Despite this

majority-holding, the indigenous group has been marginalized in Moroccan society. The ostracism of

the Amazigh has a legacy in colonialism by different groups: the Greeks, Romans, French, and the Arab

people over the course of centuries. In a more recent understanding, the dissent between the Arab and

Amazigh people can be trace to French rule in Morocco during the 20th century. The French pitted the

two groups against one another to establish destabilization and maintain rule. After the French left, the

conflict intensified with political transitions. King Mohammed VI’s ascent offered hopeful

developments for the Amazigh plight. The king has, comparatively to past leadership, embraced the

Amazigh identity. In 2001, he legislated demands from an Amazigh manifesto curated by Amazigh

8 Brett, Michael. “Berber.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Accessed August 21, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Berber.

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academics. By 2011, the king legalized Tamazight, the Amazigh language, as one of the two official

languages of Morocco, the other being Arabic. This signified a monumental win for social movements at

the height of the Maghreb Spring. However, the question remains whether these moves created

sustainable progress or were merely political choices influenced by international norms and

expectations.9

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9 Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce. “Arabization and Its Discontents: The Rise of the Amazigh Movement in North Africa.” The Journal of the Middle East and Africa, 2012. https://www.academia.edu/5417995/Arabization_and_its_Discontents_The_Rise_of_the_Amazigh_Movement_in_North_Africa. 10 Paige Duskie. Chefchaouen, Morocco, June 2019.

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Context “Intersectionality” is a relatively recent term that was born in 1989 from the mind of Kimberlé

Crenshaw, a black feminist scholar. Crenshaw sought to create a term that could describe the

multifaceted suffering faced by black women in America. Black women have historically been

confronted by a distinctive combination of racism and sexism, which inspired Crenshaw to offer the

terminology. Intersectionality means that an individual of a marginalized identity, might face different

types of marginalization based on their other identities; such as race, gender, class, religion, national

origin, etc.11 Axes of inequality are a further development within the world of intersectionality focused

on the different facets targeting individuals. The formidable action being taken against marginalized

individuals, focused on their intersectionality and using axes of inequality, is known as structural

violence. According to Omprakash,

“Structural violence is a term used to describe the systematic ways in which social structures

harm or disadvantage individuals. Structural violence is also relevant to think about on the local

level. For many people, life choices — both large and small — are limited by structural issues

such as racism, sexism, political violence, and poverty.”.12

11 “Kimberlé Crenshaw on Intersectionality, More than Two Decades Later.” Columbia Law School. Accessed October 3, 2019. https://www.law.columbia.edu/pt-br/news/2017/06/kimberle-crenshaw-intersectionality. 12 Omprakash Edge Classroom Unit 4, Section 8: Structural Violence, Intersectionality, and Axes of Inequality

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The Amazigh Woman In an interview with Women in the World, Amina Zioual described the unique violence Amazigh

women face, “Women’s groups always speak of ‘the Arab woman’ but we are not Arab women – we

have Amazigh culture, language and identity which has nothing to do with the Arab woman from the

Middle East”.13 Zioual is the founder and former president of La Voix de la Femmes Amazighe, whom I

had the pleasure of working with on several occasions. I started my research into the intersectionality of

13 Kate-Symons, Emma. “Morocco's Indigenous Amazigh Women Unite against Islamists and Arab Elites.” Morocco's indigenous Amazigh women unite against Islamists and Arab elites – Women in the World, March 24, 2016. https://womenintheworld.com/2016/03/24/matriarchal-traditions-in-north-africa-under-threat-from-islamists-and-arab-elites/.

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being an Amazigh woman by speaking with Zioual, Ismail Khejjou, and Youssra Benchouka. When

asked about the largest problems facing Amazigh women, Khejjou, the project manager at La Voix de la

Femmes Amazighe, stated,

“I think one of the largest issues affecting the Amazigh woman… and men are the fact that they

are linguistically excluded. The language is now being recognized but there is still exclusion.

One example is, when you [an Amazigh individual] go to the court… the judge does not speak

your language, and the official language of Morocco is Amazigh. French is just a language used

when doing business and it is dying within the country…, If the government doesn’t speak your

language, it is difficult to access health, justice, jobs, etc. And in many areas, which I can’t count

or spot, there is discrimination against the Amazigh”.14

Benchouka echoed Khejjou’s response, stating that the largest issue is “illiteracy”.15 Dr. Almou

responded to the question with the same concerns, but added takes responding that,

“When we talk about Amazigh, we talk about different victimizations. There are different

sufferings. I am Amazigh myself; I have written many books about this topic. I wrote a book this

year about the Amazigh. We are in the system which is characterized by racism towards

Amazigh. Recently, the report from the UN Morocco has been called to remove the form of

racism against the Amazigh. The state adopts Arabic as an official language. There is an

exclusion against the Amazigh and for women Amazigh, the victimization, the suffering, and the

results that are affecting the Amazigh women are doubled. For example, I have gendered cases,

some women that were raped, when they come to court, the court speaks to them in a language

14 Interview with Ismail Khejjou. Record of Perspective, 15 July 2019. 15 Interview with Youssra Benchouka. Record of Perspective, 15 July 2019.

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that they don’t understand. How is this a fair trial? Why any trial should be done and conducted

in a language that both the defendant and plaintiff understand. In the convention of children’s

rights, in psychology, insists to learn in the modern tongue. And so, the Amazigh women, are not

given the opportunity to study the mother tongue. And this victimizes her, does not help her,

does not give her opportunities. Does not give the opportunity to assert herself, merely because

of the language she does not speak.”6

Structural violence against the Amazigh woman is multidimensional in its approach. Amazigh

women face an intensified risk of violence, linguistic oppression, underage marriage, lacking access to

education, with varying degrees of intensity based on region. Within my interviews and interactions, I

found that language was one of the largest barriers strengthening the marginalization. If an Amazigh

woman cannot speak Arabic or French, there are limited paths for survival. Despite Tamazight’s

recognition as the second official language of Morocco, an individual must know French or Arabic to

engage in the workforce, get medical treatment, defend oneself in court, et cetera.

Advocacy La Voix de la Femmes Amazighe was created in 2009 at the height of rising tensions from the Maghreb

Spring. Amina Zioual succeeding in creating the first association dedicated to the plight of Amazigh

women, specifically. The association was born out of an innate understanding of intersectionality and

structural violence against this intersectional identity. The association is led by a 9-person

predominately-female board and works on creating projects with, and for, Amazigh women. When

speaking to Khejjou about current focuses, he said the following:

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“We are working on different issues, ranging from child marriage to capacity building for

Amazigh women at the language level. Literacy… There are many women who are not aware of

laws that affect their daily lives. So, the association works in the rural areas… Rabat doesn’t

need La Voix… we work in regions like Agadir where women are not educated, they don’t know

their rights. Working with cooperatives and helping cooperatives become start small businesses...

this is one of our biggest concerns.”14

In particular, a campaign about underage marriage has been one of the associations most successful.

Workshops and educational sessions were led in rural areas to educate community organizers about laws

concerning underage marriage, which are often not promoted. Advocacy work for indigenous women is

an area of social movements that is often overlooked and disregarded. The immense necessity for this

work, and those willing to amplify the voices of indigenous women cannot be devalued.

Conclusion For an individual to have the identity of women, in any space, holds a degree of oppression. If

this were not the case, there would be no need for gender equality to be recognized as a Sustainable

Development Goal of the United Nations. Globally, it has been agreed on that the identity of “woman”

faces varying degrees of marginalization. In the same dimension, indigenous people have historically

faced oppression. This is well-known in the Western world in examples like North America with Native

American groups. In Morocco’s case, the marginalization of the Amazigh by the Arab people has less

clarity due to the conflict imposed by Western colonization. Moroccan Arabs and the Amazigh people

have both suffered at the hands of colonialism.16 However, today, Amazigh remain the marginalized

16 Omprakash Edge Classroom Unit 4, Section 7: Enduring Legacies of European Colonialism

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majority in Moroccan culture and society. The intersectional identity held by Amazigh women is

targeted by a distinct form of structural violence. This form is illustrated through linguistic oppression,

sexual violence, deficient access to education, and underage marriage. Additionally, it is important to

recognize the danger of a single story, in the words of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie.17 The Amazigh

women are not merely a marginalized group. Amazigh women are powerful individuals, usually at the

forefront of massive social and political movements such as the Maghreb Spring. Amazigh women were

at the front of the movement for preserving the Tamazight language and pushed for its recognition. To

conclude, there needs to be a heightened focus on this indigenous group, the space they are creating for

themselves, and the intersectional dimension of violence working against them.

18 17 Omprakash Edge Classroom Unit 9, Section 3: The Danger of a Single Story 18 Hicks, Celeste. “Morocco's Amazigh Women Fight for Language Rights and Place in Society.” Middle East Eye. Accessed October 4, 2019. https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/moroccos-amazigh-women-fight-language-rights-and-place-society.

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Bibliography Brett, Michael. “Berber.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Accessed August 21,

2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Berber.

Gagliardi, Silvia. “Violence against Women: The Stark Reality behind Morocco’s human rights

progress” The Journal of North African Studies, 23:4, 569-590, 2018.

https://docs.euromedwomen.foundation/files/ermwf-

documents/7176_3.190.violenceinmorroccobehindthestarckreality-en.pdf.

“Goal 5. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform.” United Nations. United Nations. Accessed

October 1, 2019. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg5.

Hicks, Celeste. “Morocco's Amazigh Women Fight for Language Rights and Place in Society.” Middle

East Eye. Accessed October 4, 2019. https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/moroccos-

amazigh-women-fight-language-rights-and-place-society.

“IMSLI Organise Une Série De Rencontres D'échange Et De Plaidoyer Réunissant Les Femmes

Amazighes Et Les Élu(e)s Locaux.” Joussour, July 3, 2017. https://www.e-joussour.net/fr/imsli-

organise-une-serie-de-rencontres-dechange-et-de-plaidoyer-reunissant-les-femmes-amazighes-et-

les-elues-locaux/.

Interview with Dr. Muhammed Almou. Record of Perspective, 19 July 2019.

Interview with Ismail Khejjou. Record of Perspective, 15 July 2019.

Interview with Youssra Benchouka. Record of Perspective, 15 July 2019.

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Kate-Symons, Emma. “Morocco's Indigenous Amazigh Women Unite against Islamists and Arab

Elites.” Morocco's indigenous Amazigh women unite against Islamists and Arab elites – Women

in the World, March 24, 2016. https://womenintheworld.com/2016/03/24/matriarchal-traditions-

in-north-africa-under-threat-from-islamists-and-arab-elites/.

“Kimberlé Crenshaw on Intersectionality, More than Two Decades Later.” Columbia Law School.

Accessed October 3, 2019. https://www.law.columbia.edu/pt-br/news/2017/06/kimberle-

crenshaw-intersectionality.

Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce. “Arabization and Its Discontents: The Rise of the Amazigh Movement in

North Africa.” The Journal of the Middle East and Africa, 2012.

https://www.academia.edu/5417995/Arabization_and_its_Discontents_The_Rise_of_the_Amazi

gh_Movement_in_North_Africa.

Omprakash Edge Classroom Unit 4, Section 8: Structural Violence, Intersectionality, and Axes of

Inequality

Omprakash Edge Classroom Unit 4, Section 7: Enduring Legacies of European Colonialism

Omprakash Edge Classroom Unit 9, Section 3: The Danger of a Single Story

Omprakash Edge Classroom Unit 7, Section 7: Religion and Culture

Omprakash Edge Classroom Unit 7, Section 8: Women in Male-Dominated Cultures

Paige Duskie. Dr. Almou’s Office, Sale, Morocco. 19 July 2019.

Paige Duskie. Chefchaouen, Morocco, June 2019.