State Bioenergy Primer 2009

8/8/2019 State Bioenergy Primer 2009

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Stat

BioenergyPrimeriat a rsucs Stats

issus, opptuts, a opts

Aac B

U.S. EnvironmEntal ProtEction agEncy

and

national rEnEwablE EnErgy laboratory

SEPtEmbEr 15, 2009


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TABle o ConTenTS

Acknowledgements ________________________________________________________________

Key Acronyms and Abbreviations______________________________________________________

excut Sua ___________________________________________________ 1

ituct _________________________________________________________31.1 How the Primer Is Organized ____________________________________________________ 5

1.2 Reerences____________________________________________________________________ 5

What is B?____________________________________________________ 7

2.1 What Are Biomass Feedstocks? ___________________________________________________ 8

2.2 Potential or Increased Production and Use o Biomass Feedstocks____________________ 11

2.3 How Are Biomass Feedstocks Converted into Bioenergy? ____________________________ 12

2.4 Resources or Detailed Inormation ______________________________________________ 21

2.5 Reerences __________________________________________________________________ 22

Bfts, Chas, a Csats B _____________________25

3.1 Energy Security Benefts _______________________________________________________ 26

3.2 Economic Benefts ____________________________________________________________ 27

3.3 Environmental Benefts, Challenges, and Considerations ____________________________ 29

3.4 Feedstock Supply Challenges ___________________________________________________ 35

3.5 Inrastructure Challenges ______________________________________________________ 37


3.7 Reerences __________________________________________________________________ 44

Hw Ca Stats it B opptuts?_________________________47

4.1 Step 1: Determine Availability o Biomass Feedstocks _______________________________ 48

4.2 Step 2: Assess Potential Markets or Identifed Biomass Feedstocks and Bioenergy _______53

4.3 Step 3: Identiy Opportunities or Action __________________________________________ 59


4.5 Reerences __________________________________________________________________ 65

opts Stats t Aac B gas ____________________________ 67

5.1 Favorable Policy Development __________________________________________________ 68

5.2 Favorable Regulatory Development ______________________________________________ 69

5.3 Environmental Revenue Streams ________________________________________________ 70

5.4 Direct Investment/Financing and Incentives ______________________________________ 70

5.5 Research, Development, and Demonstration ______________________________________ 74

5.6 Inormation Sharing___________________________________________________________ 74


5.8 Reerences___________________________________________________________________ 77

rsucs a Ts Stats _________________________________________ 79

gssa____________________________________________________________ 93

| Se Boeneg P


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ACknoWledgemenTS

Te U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)would like to acknowledge the many individual andorganizational researchers and government employeeswhose eorts helped to bring this extensive report toruition. Te ollowing contributors provided signif-cant assistance through their review o the document:

EPA - Paul Argyropoulos, Dale Aspy, Allison Dennis,Karen Blanchard, William Brandes, Kim Crossman(now with Energy rust o Oregon), Scott Davis, JimEddinger, Rachel Goldstein, Doug Grano, Bill MaxwelDonna Perla, Felicia Ruiz, Christopher Voell, RobertWayland, and Gil Wood.

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

- Ann Brennan, Scott Haase, Victoria Putsche, JohnSheehan (now with University o Minnesota), Phil

Shepherd, Walter Short, and Bob Wallace (now withPennsylvania State University).

U.S. Forest Service - Marcia Patton-Mallory and LarrSwain.

Te ollowing individuals authored this report:

EPA - Danielle Sass Byrnett, Denise Mulholland, andEmma Zinsmeister.

NREL - Elizabeth Doris, Anelia Milbrandt, Robi

Robichaud, Roya Stanley (now with the state o Iowa),and Laura Vimmerstedt.

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Key Acronyms And AbbreviAtions

| State Bioenergy Prim

Acore American Council on Renewable Energy

b100 100 percent biodiesel

b20 A blend o 20 percent biodiesel and 80 percent

petroleum diesel

b90 A blend o 90 percent biodiesel and 10 percent

petroleum diesel

bcAP Biomass Crop Assistance Program

bceX Biomass Commodity Exchange

bers Bio-Energy Recovery Systems

bPA Bisphenol A

bu British thermal units

cHP Combined heat and power

cmAQ Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement

program

cnG Compressed natural gas

co Carbon monoxide

croP Coordinated Resource Oering Protocol

dG Distributed generation

doe U.S. Department o Energy

dot U.S. Department o Transportation

dPA Diphenoloic acid

dsire Database o State Incentives or Renewable Energy

e10 A blend o 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent petroleum

e85 A blend o 85 percent ethanol and 15 percent petroleum

eere DOEs Oce o Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy

eGrid EPAs Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated

Database

eiA DOEs Energy Inormation Administration

eisA Energy Independence and Security Act

ePA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

ePri Electric Power Research Institute

etbe Ethyl tert-butyl ether

FFv Flexible uel vehicles

Fido USFS Forest Inventory Data Online

FPW Food processing waste

GHG Greenhouse gas

Gis Geographic Inormation System

Greet Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use

in Transportation

GW Gigawatts

ieA International Energy Agency

iGcc Integrated gasifcation combined cycle

Jedi Job and Economic Development Impact model

kWh Kilowatt-hours

LcA Lie-cycle assessment

LcFs Low carbon uel standard

LFG Landfll gas

LmoP EPAs Landfll Methane Outreach Program

LrAm Lost revenue adjustment mechanisms

mAct Maximum available control technologies

msW Municipal solid waste

mtHF Methyl tetrahydrouran

mW Megawatts

mWh Megawatt-hours

nAAQs National Ambient Air Quality Standards

nAcAA National Association o Clean Air Agencies

nesHAP National Emission Standards or Hazardous Air

Pollutants

nreL DOEs National Renewable Energy Laboratory

nsPs New Source Perormance Standards

ornL DOEs Oak Ridge National Laboratory

PbF Public benefts und

PedA Pennsylvania Energy Development Authority

PHmsA DOTs Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Saety

Administration

PLA Polylactide

Pm Particulate matter

rdF Reuse-derived uel

rec Renewable energy credit

rFA Renewable Fuels Association

rFs Renewable uels standard

rPs Renewable portolio standard

sAbre State Assessment or Biomass Resources

siP State Implementation Plan

sseb Southern States Energy Board

sga Synthesis gasUsdA U.S. Department o Agriculture

UsFs U.S. Forest Service

voc Volatile organic compounds

WArm EPAs WAste Reduction Model

WGA Western Governors Association

WreZ Western Renewable Energy Zones Project

WWtP Wastewater treatment plant


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describes fnancial, policy, regulatory, technology, andinormational strategies or encouraging investmentin bioenergy projects and advancing bioenergy goals(Chapter 5). Each chapter contains a list o selectedresources and tools that states can use to explore topicsin urther detail.

Bioenergy ConSiderATionS

Biomass energy, or bioenergyuel or power derivedrom organic mattercan be used to produce trans-portation uel, heat, electric power, or other products.Bioenergy currently represents approximately 3 to 4percent o the United States total energy production(EIA, 2008).

Te benefts o increased use o bioenergy dependupon the intended use and source, but can include: im-proved energy security and stability through reduced

dependence on oreign sources o energy; increasedeconomic development and job growth throughcreation o new domestic industries and expansiono existing industries; and expanded environmentalbenefts, including reduction o greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions.

Along with the opportunities, however, are potentialchallengesamong them the need or reliable eed-stock supplies, the problems o inrastructure con-straints or delivering o eedstocks and distribution o

products, the potential or ancillary environmental andland use impacts resulting rom increasing biomasssupplies to produce bioenergy, and the potential ortradeos in air emissions resulting rom direct com-bustion o biomass.

Se Boeneg Pe | ExEcutivE Summary

Each states individual geography, economic base, market conditions, climate, and state-specifc incentivesand regulations will impact the eedstocks and bioen-ergy outputs that make economic and environmentalsense or that state to pursue.

A decision maker starts identiying potentially ruitulbioenergy opportunities by examining all potential

eedstocksboth agricultural/energy crops (e.g., cornsoybeans, switchgrass) and waste/opportunity uels(e.g., wastewater treatment biogas, wood waste, cropresidues, manure, landfll gas, solid waste)and theirspecifc location and costs within the state. Te evaluation o biomass resources is ollowed by an assessmento the potential markets and competition or thoseeedstocks and what steps would be required to capitaize on the bioenergy potential.

I a decision maker determines that the benefts o

bioenergy outweigh the challenges or their state, nu-merous options are available or advancing bioenergygoals. Favorable policy development, avorable regula-tory development, capitalization o environmentalrevenue streams, direct investment/fnancing or incentives, and research and development are all options oreectively promoting bioenergy in a state.

Each o the chapters in this Bioenergy Primer describehow states consider these and other issues as theydecide whether or not to develop a bioenergy promo-tion strategy, and is augmented by case studies about

how states have successully implemented a variety oapproaches.


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CHAPTer one

ituct

chaPtEr OnE | Se Bioeegy Pim

CHAPTer one ConTenTS

1.1

1.2

H he Pme is ognze

reeenes

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inun

CHAPTer TWo

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CHAPTer THree

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ienyng benegy oppunes

CHAPTer five

opns avnng benegy

Biomass energy, or bioenergyfuel

or power derived from organic

matteris one of the keys to a

sustainable energy future in the

United States and throughout the

world. Bioenergy has the potential to:

Improve energy security and stability by reducing de-

pendence on ossil sources o energy.

Increase economic development and job growth

through creation o new domestic industries.

Produce environmental benefts, including reductiono greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

Along with the potential opportunities, however,are challengesamong them the need or reliableeedstock supplies, the problem o inrastructure con-straints, and the potential or environmental and landuse impacts resulting rom increasing biomass suppliesto produce bioenergy.

In 2006, and or the sixth year in a row, biomass was

the leading source o renewable energy in the UnitedStates, providing more than 3 quadrillion British ther-mal units (Btu) o energy. Biomass was the source or49 percent o all renewable energy, or nearly 3.5 per-cent o the total energy produced in the United States(EIA, 2008).


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doeS THe mArkeT for Bioenergy look

PromiSing in my STATe?

the quesns el n help se ls evlue he penl enegy mke

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ae enegy (eley, ppne, uel l,2.nul gs, lqu uel) ss n he se

elvely hgh?

is he s enegy (e.g., eley, gs-3.

lne, nul gs, l) pjee nese?

ae eley emn, enele ele-4.

y emn, n/ uels emn p-

jee nese?

ae ply mkes n he se nlne 5.

heg e gns penl uue vlly?

des he se hve n elel he-6.

ml enele pl sn h e-

ques use enele enegy?

des he se hve enele uel7.

sn h eques use uels?

ae fnnl nenves pun8.

enegy (e.g., pun nenves,

x nenves, l-nees lns, ees,

envnmenl evenue sems) ee n

he se?

des he se hve snze, smpl9.

fe uly nennen equemens

smlle enegy pues?

i se hs nsee yes me he quesns ve, he mke enegy

ul e pmsng. chpes 3 n 5 hs pme my e ms nees.

i se es n ye hve he nses hese quesns, he esues n hs pme shul

e helpul eemnng h pphes n e ken nse hem.

figUre 1-1. THe role of reneWABle energy ConSUmPTion in THe nATionS energy SUPPly, 200

Source: EIA, 2008

Se Bioeegy Pime | chaPtEr OnE

Solar 1%

Hydroelectric 41%

Geothermal 5%

Biomass 49%

Wind 4%

Total = 6.922 Quadrillion Btu

Renewable

7%

Coal

22%

Natural Gas

22%

Nuclear8%

Petroleum

40%

Total = 99.861 Quadrillion Btu


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Te U.S. Department o Energy (DOE) estimates thatthe land resources o the United States could produceenough biomass to replace 30 percent o the currentU.S. demand or petroleum on a sustainable basis bythe mid-21st century (U.S. DOE, 2005).

Ultimately, the outlook or bioenergy depends heavilyon policy choices made at the state and ederal levels.

Te ederal government and many states are exploringthe role o biomass as a means to achieve economic,energy, and environmental goals.

EPA has produced this State Bioenergy Primer with theollowing objectives:

o provide a basic overview o bioenergy, includ-

ing what it is, its potential benefts, and its potentialchallenges.

o describe the steps that state decision makers can

take to assess whether and how to promote bioenergy.o identiy opportunities or state actions to support

bioenergy.

o present resources or additional inormation.

o provide examples and lessons learned rom state

experiences with bioenergy.

1.1 HoW THe Primer

iS orgAniZed

In addition to providing basic inormation andoverviews o relevant issues, each chapter includesan extensive list o resources or additional,detailed inormation. Tese resources are alsocomplied into a stand-alone resource kit ound inAppendix A.

1.2 referenCeS

EIA (Energy Information Administration) ,2008. Renewable Energy Annual 2006., Washington,DC, 2008.

U.S. DOE (Department of Energy) , 2005. Biomass asFeedstock for a Bioenergy and Bioproducts Industry:Te echnical Feasibility of a Billion-on AnnualSupply. DOE/DO-102995-2135. Washington, DC,April 2005. http://feedstockreview.ornl.gov/pdf/bil-lion_ton_vision.pdf.

HoW THe STATe Bioenergy Primer iS orgAniZed

CHAPTER TWO: What Is Bioenergy?

Describes biomass feedstocks and conversion technologies for

producing bioenergy

CHAPTER FOUR: Identifying Bioenergy Opportunities

Presents steps for identifying biomass resource availability,

assessing market potential, and evaluating existing policies andopportunities for action

APPENDIX A: Tools and

Resources for States

Lists all resources referenced

throughout the document

APPENDIX B: Glossary

of Bioenergy Terms

Provides an at-a-glance guide to

key terms

CHAPTER FIVE: Options for Advancing Bioenergy

Describes how states can facilitate projects through policies

and regulations, incentives, direct investment, research anddevelopment, and information sharing

CHAPTER THREE: Benefits and Challenges

Discusses energy security, economic benefits and

challenges, and environmental issues

chaPtEr OnE | Se Bioeegy Pim
http://feedstockreview.ornl.gov/pdf/billion_ton_vision.pdfhttp://feedstockreview.ornl.gov/pdf/billion_ton_vision.pdfhttp://feedstockreview.ornl.gov/pdf/billion_ton_vision.pdfhttp://feedstockreview.ornl.gov/pdf/billion_ton_vision.pdf


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CHAPTer TWo

What is B?

chaPtEr twO | Se Boeegy P

CHAPTer TWo ConTenTS

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

wh ae bss Feesks?

Pe iese Pu Use

bss Feesks

H ae bss Feesks cvee beey?

resues dee i

reeees

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CHAPTer TWo

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CHAPTer THree

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CHAPTer oUr

iey beey oppues

CHAPTer ive

ops av beey

Bioeerg reers o reewable eerg

produced rom biomass, which

is orgaic maerial such as rees,

plas (icludig crops), ad wase

maerials (e.g., wood wase rom

mills, muicipal wases, maure,

ladfll gas (LFG), ad mehae rom

wasewaer reame aciliies).

Biopower reers to the use o biomass to produce

electricity. Biomass can be used alone or cored withanother uel, typically coal, within the same combus-tion chamber.

Bioheat reers to the use o biomass to produce heat.

Biomass combined heat and power (CHP) reersto the cogeneration o electric energy or power andthermal energy or industrial, commercial, or domes-tic heating or cooling purposes through the use obiomass.

Biouels are uels (oen or transportation) made rom

biomass or its derivatives aer processing. Examples ocommercially available biouels include ethanol, biod-iesel, and renewable diesel.

Bioproducts are commercial or industrial products(other than ood or eed) that are composed in wholeor in signicant part o biomass. Examples o bioprod-ucts include soy ink, cellophane, ood utensils, andpaints made rom biomass-based materials.


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Bioenergy is becoming an increasingly attractiveenergy choice because o high or volatile ossil uelprices, concerns about national energy independence,the impacts o conventional energy use on the environ-ment, and global climate change. More production anduse o bioenergy can improve environmental quality(provided best available technologies and pollutioncontrols are used); provide opportunities or economic

growth, oen in rural areas; support state energy andenvironmental goals; and increase domestic energysupplies, which will enhance U.S. energy independenceand security.

Te basic process or using the energy in biomass toproduce biopower, bioheat, biouels, or bioproducts isshown in Figure 2-1.

2.1 WHAT Are BiomASS

eedSToCkS?A eedstock is a material used as the basis or manu-acture o another product. Biomass eedstocks aresources o organic matter that are used as key inputs inproduction processes to create bioenergy. Both agricul-tural/energy crops and waste/opportunity uels can beused as biomass eedstocks.

AGRICULtURAL/EnERGy CROPS

Several traditional crops that are grown or ood and

other uses can also be used to produce bioenergy,primarily as biouels. Crops currently used as biomasseedstocks include:

Corn . Corn is the primary biomass eedstock currentlused in the United States to produce ethanol (and co-products, as described in Section 2.2.2).

Rapeseed . Rapeseed is the primary eedstock used inEurope to produce biodiesel (EERE, 2008).

Sorghum . Sorghum is used in the United States as analternative to corn or ethanol production. As o 2008,

15 percent o U.S. grain sorghum is being used orethanol production at eight plants (Biomass Researchand Development Initiative, 2008).

Soybeans . Soybeans are the primary biomass eedstoccurrently used in the United States to produce biodiesrom soybean oil.

Sugarcane . Brazil uses sugarcane to produce ethanoland uses the sugarcane residue or process heat.

Other crops that are planted and harvested specically

or use as biomass eedstocks in the production o bio-energy are reerred to as energy crops. Energy cropsare ast-growing and grown or the specic purpose oproducing energy (electricity or liquid uels) rom allor part o the resulting plant. Te advantages o usingcrops specically grown or energy production includeconsistency in moisture content, heat content, andprocessing characteristics, which makes them morecost-eective to process eciently (U.S. EPA, 2007a).Emerging energy crops include:

Microalgae . Te oil in microalgae can be converted

into jet uel or diesel uel (National Renewable EnergyLaboratory (NREL), 2006). Microalgae with high lipidcontent are best suited to production o liquid uel.

igUre 2-1. STAgeS o Bioenergy ProdUCTion

Source: Biomass Research and Development Board, 2008

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Microalgae are highly productive, do not use agricul-tural land or products, and are carbon-neutral (May-eld, 2008). More than 50 companies are researchingmicroalgal oil production, including development onew bioreactors and use o biotechnologies to inuencemicroalgal growth (NREL, 2008).

Switchgrass; poplar and willow trees . Tese energy

crops are not yet being grown commercially in theUnited States or bioenergy, but may have the great-est potential or dedicated bioenergy use over a widegeographic range. Te U.S. Department o Energy (U.S.DOE) estimates that about 190 million acres o landin the United States could be used to produce energycrops such as switchgrass and poplar and willow trees(U.S. EPA, 2007a; Antares, 2003). Several states in theMidwest and South could produce signicant biopowerusing switchgrass, which is currently grown on someConservation Reserve Program1 acres and on hay acres

as a orage crop (U.S. EPA, 2007a; Ugarte et al., 2006).

WAStE/OPPORtUnIty FUELS

Biomass eedstocks rom waste materials are oenreerred to as opportunity uels because they wouldotherwise go unused or be disposed o; bioenergyproduction is an opportunity to use these materialsproductively. Common opportunity uels include:

Biogas . Biogas, consisting primarily o methane, isreleased during anaerobic decomposition o organic

matter. Facilities that deal with large quantities o or-ganic waste can employ anaerobic digesters and/or gascollection systems to capture biogas, which can be usedas a source o on-site bioheat and/or biopower. Majorsources o biogas include:

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) . Anaerobicdigesters can be used during treatment o wastewaterto break down efuent and release biogas, which canthen be collected or subsequent use as a source obioenergy. According to an analysis by the U.S. EPACombined Heat and Power Partnership, as o 2004,

544 municipal WWPs in the United States use an-aerobic digesters. Only 106 o these acilities utilizethe biogas produced by their anaerobic digesters togenerate electricity and/or thermal energy. I all 544acilities were to install CHP systems, approximately

1 Te Conservation Reserve Program, administered by USDA, providestechnical and nancial assistance to eligible armers and ranchers to addresssoil, water, and related natural resource concerns on their lands in an environ-mentally benecial and cost-efective manner. For more inormation see www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/CRP/.


340 megawatts (MW) o biogas-ueled electricitycould be generated (U.S. EPA, 2007a).

Animal eeding operations . EPAs AgSAR Programhas identied dairy operations with more than 500head and swine operations with more than 2,000head as the most viable candidates or anaerobicdigestion o manure and subsequent methane capture

(U.S. EPA, 2007a). As o April 2009, 125 operators inthe United States collect and use their biogas. In 113o these systems, the captured biogas is used to gener-ate electrical power, with many o the arms recover-ing waste heat rom electricity-generating equipmentor on-arm use. Tese systems generate about244,000 MWh o electricity per year. Te remaining12 systems use the gas in boilers, upgrade the gas orinjection into the natural gas pipeline, or simply arethe captured gas or odor control (U.S. EPA, 2009b).

For more inormation on how anaerobic digestion isused to produce biogas or bioenergy, reer to Sec-tion 2.2.1 Conversion echnologies or Biopowerand Bioheat.

Landflls . As the organic waste buried in landllsdecomposes, a gas mixture o carbon dioxide (CO

2)

and methane (CH4) is produced. Gas recovery

systems can be used to collect landll emissions,providing usable biogas or electricity generation,CHP, direct use to oset ossil uels, upgrade to pipe-line quality gas, or use in the production o liquid

uels. As o December 2008, EPAs Landll MethaneOutreach Program estimated that, in addition to theapproximately 445 landlls already collecting LFG toproduce energy, 535 landlls are good candidates orlandll gas-to-energy projects (U.S. EPA, 2008a).

Biosolids . Biosolids are sewage sludge rom wastewatertreatment plants. Biosolids can be dried, burned, andused in existing boilers as uel in place o coal, or co-red with coal to generate steam and power. Biosolidscan also be converted into biogas or bioenergy (seeBiogas section above). Te high water content o mostbiosolids can present challenges or combustion. As aresult, biosolids must generally go through a dryingprocess prior to being used or energy production.

Crop residues . More than 300 million acres are usedor agricultural production in the United States. As o2004, the most requently planted crops (in terms oaverage total acres planted) were corn, wheat, soybeans,hay, cotton, sorghum, barley, oats, and rice.

Following
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/CRP/http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/CRP/http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/CRP/http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/CRP/


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the harvest o many traditional agricultural crops, resi-dues such as crop stalks, leaves, cobs, and straw are lein the eld. Some o these residues could be collectedand used as bioenergy eedstocks (U.S. EPA, 2007a).

Food processing wastes . Food processing wastesinclude nut shells, rice hulls, ruit pits, cotton gin trash,meat processing residues, and cheese whey, among

others. Because these residues can be dicult to useas a uel source due to the varying characteristics odierent waste streams, the latter two o these oodprocessing wastes are oen disposed o as industrialwastewater. Work is under way in the ood processingindustry to evaluate the bioenergy potential o theseresidues, including collection and processing methodsto allow more eective use as biomass eedstocks.Utilities and universities have used ood wastes such aspeanut hulls and rice hulls or biopower. Many anaero-bic digester operators are currently adding agricultural

and ood wastes to their digesters to provide enhancedwaste management and increased biogas generation(U.S. EPA, 2007a).

Forest residues . Residues rom silviculture (woodharvesting) include logging residues such as limbsand tops, excess small pole trees, and dead or dyingtrees. Aer trees have been harvested rom a orestor timber, orest residues are typically either le inthe orest or disposed o via open burning throughorest management programs because only timber o acertain quality can be used in lumber mills and other

processing acilities. An advantage o using orest resi-dues rom silviculture or bioenergy production is thata collection inrastructure is already in place to harvestthe wood. Approximately 2.3 tons o orest residues areavailable or every 1,000 cubic eet o harvested timber(although this number can vary widely); these residuesare available primarily in the West (U.S. EPA, 2007a).

Forest thinnings . Forest thinnings can include un-derbrush, saplings, and dead or dying trees removedrom dense orest. Harvesting, collecting, processing,and transporting loose orest thinnings is costly. Teuse o orest thinnings or power generation or otheracilities is concentrated in the western United States;in other areas not already used or silviculture, there isno inrastructure to extract orest thinnings. ypically,the wood rom orest thinnings is disposed o throughcontrolled burning due to the expense o transportingit to a power generation acility (U.S. EPA, 2007a).

CellUloSiC eedSToCkS

ceus eesks ue ppuy ues (e..,

se, p esues) eey ps (e.., shss,

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s se eh he ue pu

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he Ue Ses. Eh pu euseesks hs ye ue e se u s

vey ue evepe (see Se 2.2.2 cves

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hees eh pu, see chpe 3, bees,

chees, cses beey.


Municipal solid waste . Municipal solid waste(MSW)trash or garbagecan be collected at land-lls, dried, and burned in high-temperature boilers togenerate steam and electricity. Mass burn incinerationis the typical method used to recover energy rom

MSW, which is introduced as is into the combus-tion chamber; pollution controls are used to limitemissions into the air. Some waste-to-energy acilitieshave been in operation in the United States or morethan 20 years. More than one-h o incinerators usereuse-derived uel (RDF), which is MSW that hasbeen thoroughly sorted so that only energy-producingcomponents remain (U.S. EPA, 2008b). RDF can beburned in boilers or gasied (U.S. DOE, 2004). (See threlated section above on biogas, which describes collection o biogas rom landlls or use as bioenergy.) Te

waste-to-energy industry currently generates 17 billionkilowatt-hours (kWh) o electricity per year. Howeverbased on the total amount o MSW disposed o in theUnited States annually (250 to 350 million tons), MSWcould be used as uel to generate as much as 70 to 130billion kWh per year (U.S. EPA, 2008e).

Restaurant wastes . Used vegetable oils, animal ats,and grease rom restaurants can be used as biomasseedstocks to produce biodiesel. Small-scale eortshave been successully implemented in a number ocities, counties, and universities across the country.

For example, San Francisco initiated a program touse restaurant wastes to uel the citys eet o morethan 1,600 diesel vehicles, which were retrottedto accept the biodiesel (City and County o SanFrancisco, 2007). Te use o restaurant wastes maybe less expensive than using new vegetable oil as theeedstock to produce biodiesel i collection costs canbe minimizedcollection o small volumes rom nu-merous locations can increase costs (Commonwealtho Massachusetts, 2008).


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Wood waste . Wood waste includes mill residues romprimary timber processing at sawmills, paper manu-acturing, and secondary wood products industriessuch as urniture makers. It also includes constructionwood waste, yard waste, urban tree residue, and dis-carded consumer wood products that would otherwisebe sent to landlls (U.S. EPA, 2007a). Wood wastessuch as woodchips, shavings, and sawdust can be com-

pressed into pellets, which oer a more compact anduniorm source o energy (Biomass Energy ResourceCenter, 2007).

Mill residues . Mill residues include bark, chips,sander dust, edgings, sawdust, slabs, and black liquor(a mixture o solvents and wood byproducts, usuallyassociated with the pulp and paper industry manu-acturing process). Tey come rom manuacturingoperations such as sawmills and pulp and paper com-panies that produce lumber, pulp, veneers, and other

composite wood ber materials. Almost 98 percent omill residues generated in the United States are cur-rently used as uel or to produce wood pellets or relogs, or ber products, such as hardboard, medium-density berboard, particle board, and other woodcomposites (U.S. EPA, 2007a). Te U.S. Departmento Agriculture (USDA) estimates that 2 to 3 percento mill residues are available as an additional uelresource because they are not being used or otherpurposes. Te largest concentrations o mill residuesare in the West and Southeast (U.S. EPA, 2007a).

Construction (and demolition) wood waste .Wood waste comprises about 26 percent o the totalconstruction and demolition waste stream; about30 percent o that debris is uncontaminated bychemical treatment and available or recovery (U.S.EPA, 2007a).

Discarded consumer wood products . Tese productsinclude discarded wood urniture, cabinets, pallets,containers, and scrap lumber (U.S. EPA, 2007a).

Yard trimmings . Yard trimmings can be generatedrom residential landscaping and right-o-way trim-ming near roads, railways, and utility systems suchas power lines. Yard trimmings comprise about14 percent o the MSW stream. Approximately 36percent o yard trimmings are recoverable, and thusabout 5 percent o the total MSW waste stream isyard trimmings that could be useable as a eedstock(U.S. EPA, 2007a).

For more inormation about biomass eedstocks, see

EPAs CHP Biomass Catalog o Technologies at www.epa.gov/chp/basic/catalog.html#biomasscat.

Wood PelleTS

w pees, quees, e s, he pesse

pus e e ypus es pus

uu, es ee, eye u se. these pus e he ehe y he he

he hey e ese huh suje he

pessue. Pees e uue u szes

shpes (usuy eee 1-1 hes y ppxey 1/4-

5/16 hes ee) hve hhe eey e y

eh (uhy 7,750 bu pe pu sx pee sue

e) h y he ss eesks ue he

hh esy -sue e. these hess

eve y he pe ssues sse h s

ss esues. w pees e s ee es

se he sh pue u us eve he

u ue e he pee e ( 1

3 pee). Ses eue he sps / suseque

use he sh.

Source: Biomass Energy Resource Center, 2007


2.2 PoTenTiAl or inCreASed

ProdUCTion And USe o BiomASS

eedSToCkS

CURREnt PRODUCtIOn AnD USE

In 2006, renewable energy accounted or 7 percent o

the nations energy supply; o that, biomass was thesource o 49 percent o renewable energy consumption(see Figure 1-1). Wood (used as uel wood), orestresidue, and wood waste eedstocks supplied the mostbioenergy in 2005 (64 percent), ollowed by other typeso wastes (e.g., MSW, LFG, agricultural residues, bio-solids) (18 percent), and corn and soybean oil used toproduce biouels and related coproducts (18 percent)(EIA, 2008a; EIA, 2008b).

FUtURE PRODUCtIOn AnD USE

Signicant potential exists to increase the productionand use o many dierent types o biomass eedstocks.In 2005, U.S. DOE and USDA convened an expert pan-el to assess whether the land resources o the UnitedStates could produce a sustainable supply o biomasssucient to displace 30 percent o the nations currentpetroleum consumption (U.S. DOE, 2005). Te panelconcluded that by the mid-21st century:
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igUre 2-2. BiomASS ConverSion TeCHnologieS



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2.3.1 COnvERSIOn tECHnOLOGIES FORBIOPOWER AnD BIOHEAt

Te three main types o conversion technologies usedor producing electricity and heat are direct combustion,coring, and gasication systems. An important smallerscale conversion technology is anaerobic digestion.

Direc Combusio

Solid Fuels to Electricity, Heat, or CHP. In directcombustion systems used to produce electricity, asolid biomass eedstock (e.g., agriculture residues,orest residue, municipal solid waste, wood waste) iscombusted with excess oxygen (using ans) in a boilerto produce steam that is used to create electricity. Di-rect combustion, commonly used in existing ossil-uelpower plants, is a dependable and proven technology,and is the conversion technology most oen used orbioenergy power plants. However, the typically smallsize o bioenergy power plants (oen due to high costso transporting eedstocks), coupled with the low e-ciency rates associated with the direct combustionprocess, can result in higher costs to produce electricitythan with conventional ossil-ueled power plants (U.S.DOE, 2007). Some new combustion technologies areusing compressed hot air (either directly or indirectlythrough a heat exchanger) to re a combustion turbine.

In direct combustion systems used to produce heat,biomass eedstock loaded into a boiler or urnace canbe used to create steam, hot water, or hot air which is

then used or thermal applications. Large open build-ings can be heated very eciently with wood-redurnaces or hydronic heating systems such as radiantoors. Direct combustion technologies or producingheat can utilize modern, computer-controlled systemswith automatic uel eeders, high-eciency boilers,and add-on controls to reduce particulate matter (PM)and toxics emissions to relatively low levels (providedbest available technologies are used). Tese systems aretypically less expensive to operate than systems that useelectricity, uel oil, or propane but more expensive thannatural gas systems (U.S. EPA, 2007a). However, all

economic comparisons are site-specic.

CHP systems generate electricity and recapture wasteheat rom the electricity generation process, resultingin higher eciency o uel use. Te electricity and heatcan be used by the entity producing them as on-sitepower and heat, sold to others (such as an electricutility company), or in some combination o the twoapproaches. Te orest products, chemical, and ood-processing industries use on-site CHP systems widely.

Increased use o biomass in CHP systems at pulp andpaper mills has contributed to bioenergy surpassinghydropower as the leading source o renewable energyin the United States since 1999 (EIA, 2008a). Increas-ingly, on-site CHP (and to a limited degree, biomassCHP) is also being used at ethanol production acilitiedue to its increased eciency and lower uel costs (U.SEPA, 2007b).

For more detailed inormation on direct combustiontechnologies used or combined heat and power rombiomass, see EPAs CHP Biomass Catalog o Tech-

nologies (U.S. EPA, 2007a) at www.epa.gov/chp/basic/catalog.html#biomasscat.

Gaseous Fuels to Electricity, Heat, or CHP. As solidwaste decomposes in a landll, a gas is created thattypically consists o about 50 percent methane and 50percent CO

2.2 Te gas can either disperse into the air o

be extracted using a series o wells and a blower/are(or vacuum) system. Tis system directs the collectedgas to a central point where it can be processed andtreated. Te gas can then be used to generate electric-ity, heat, or CHP via direct combustion; replace ossiluels in industrial and manuacturing operations; beupgraded to pipeline quality gas, compressed naturalgas (CNG) or liquid natural gas (LNG) or vehicleuel; or be ared or disposal. As o December 2008,approximately 490 LFG energy projects were opera-tional in the United States. Tese 490 projects generateapproximately 11 million megawatt-hours (MWh) o

electricity per year and deliver more than 230 millioncubic eet per day o LFG to direct-use applications.EPA estimates that approximately 520 additionallandlls present attractive opportunities or projectdevelopment (U.S. EPA, 2007a, U.S. EPA, 2009c).

For more inormation about LFG systems, see in-ormation on converting LFG to energy rom EPAsLandfll Methane Outreach Partnership at www.epa.gov/landfll/overview.htm#converting.

Cofrig

Solid Fuels to Electricity. Coring to produce electric-ity involves substituting solid uel biomass (e.g., woodwaste) or a portion o the ossil uel (typically coal)used in the combustion process. In most cases, theexisting power plant equipment can be used with onlyminor modications, making this the simplest and

2 Te amount o methane generated by a landll over its lietime depends othe composition o the waste, quantity and moisture content o the waste, anddesign and management practices o the acility.

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heat as No. 2 heating oil. In addition, bio-oil weighsabout 40 percent more per gallon than heating oil(Easterly, 2002).

A coproduct o producing bio-oil is char or bio-char

(see Section 2.2.3 Biochemical).

Aaerobic Digesio

Solid Fuels to Gaseous Fuels or Electricity, Heat, orCHP. Anaerobic digestion is the decomposition obiological wastes (i.e., wastewater treatment sludge oranimal manure) by microorganisms in the absenceo oxygen, which produces biogas. Digestion occursunder certain conditions (psychrophilic, mesophilic,and thermophilic), which dier mainly based onbacterial anity or specic temperatures. Tis processproduces a gas that consists o 60 to 70 percent meth-ane, 30 to 40 percent CO

2, and trace amounts o other

gases (EPA, 2002). Te methane can be captured (andsometimes ltered or cleaned) and used to produceelectricityand/or heat, directly used to oset ossiluels, upgraded to pipeline quality gas, or used inthe production o liquid uels. Anaerobic digestion iscommonly used at wastewater treatment acilities andanimal eeding operations.

Anaerobic digestion at wastewater treatment acilitiesis used to process, stabilize, and reduce the volume obiosolids (sludge) and reduce odors. It is oen a two-phase process: First, biosolids are heated and mixedin a closed tank or about 15 days as digestion occurs.

Te biosolids then go to a second tank or settling andstorage. emperature, acidity, and other characteristicsmust be monitored and controlled. Many wastewatertreatment plants that use anaerobic digesters burn thegas or heat to maintain digester temperatures and heatbuilding space. Te biogas can also be used to produceelectricity(e.g., in an engine-generator or uel cell) orared or disposal.

Anaerobic digesters at animal eeding operations areused to process, stabilize, and reduce the volume omanure, reduce odors and pathogens, separate solids

and liquids or application to cropland as ertilizer orirrigation water, and produce biogas. Farm-based an-aerobic digesters consist o our basic components: thedigester, a gas-handling system, a gas-use device, and amanure storage tank or pond to hold the treated efu-ent prior to land application. Te biogas can be used togenerate heat, hot water, or electricity, directly usedto oset ossil uels, upgraded to pipeline quality gas,or used in the production o liquid uels. Te captured

biogas is typically used to generate electrical power,with many arms recovering waste heat or on-armuse. Tese systems generate about 244,000 MWh oelectricity per year in the United States. Te biogas canalso be used in boilers, upgraded or injection into thenatural gas pipeline, or ared or odor control.

For more inormation about anaerobic digestion, see

EPAs Guide to Anaerobic Digesters at www.epa.gov/agstar/operational.html.

2.3.2 COnvERSIOn tECHnOLOGIES FORBIOFUELS

Conversion o biomass into ethanol and biodieselliquid uels has been increasing steadily over the pastdecade. As o November 2008, there are 180 uelethanol production acilities in operation or expan-sion and another 23 under construction (RenewableFuels Association [RFA], 2008). otal uel ethanol

production in 2008 was 9 billion gallons (RFA, 2009).In addition, as o January 2008, 171 companies haveinvested in development o biodiesel manuacturingplants and were actively marketing biodiesel. Te an-nual production capacity rom these biodiesel plantsis 2.24 billion gallons per year (National BiodieselBoard, n.d.). Tis discussion ocuses on ethanol andbiodiesel production; however, other biouels can alsobe produced, such as methanol, butanol, synuels, andalgal uel. Additional details about current and devel-oping technologies or converting solid biomass into

liquid uels are available rom the Western Governors2008 Association Strategic Assessment o BioenergyDevelopment in the West, Bioenergy Conversionechnology Characteristics (Western Governors As-sociation, 2008).

Both ethanol and biodiesel can be produced using avariety o eedstocks and processes. Teir eedstocks

eTHAnol And BiodieSel.

bh eh ese e esee s ue ueves h he U.S. EPa.

as y eque ue he Eey Py a 2005

susequey evse he Eey iepeee

Seuy a (EiSa) 2007, cess ee reee

Fue S (rFS) esue h sp ue s

he Ue Ses s u vues eee

ue, suh s eh ese. the ue rFS p

ese he vue eee ue eque e ee

se 36 s y 2022.

Source: U.S. EPA, 2009

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and conversion technologies are shown in Figure 2-2and described below.

thermochemical ad Biochemical Coersio

Solid Fuels to Cellulosic Ethanol. Ethanol can be maderom cellulosic materials such as grasses, wood waste,and crop residues. Cellulosic ethanol is made rom

plant parts composed ocellulose, which makes upmuch o the cell walls o plants, and hemicellulose, alsoound in plant cell walls. Lignin, another plant part thatsurrounds cellulose, can also be used to make ethanol.Feedstocks that use both cellulose and lignin are some-times reerred to as lignocellulosic eedstocks; orsimplicity, this section uses the term cellulosic to reerto both cellulosic and lignin-based ethanol production.

Breaking down the cellulose in cellulosic eedstocksto release the sugars or ermentation is more dicultthan breaking down starch (e.g., in corn) to release

sugars; thus, cellulosic ethanol production is morecomplex and more expensive than conventional etha-nol production. Cellulosic biouel production uses bio-chemical or thermochemical processes (NREL, 2007).

eTHAnol

a ype h h s use s eve eeysp ue, e e ps suh s

, sue, shu, shss, s e s

ppuy/se ues suh s uu es/

esue.

Conventional ethanol hs ee e sue ees us pesses h hve evve ve e, u

e eheess see ve eh pu.

Cellulosic ethanol s ee eus eesks

us pesses h hve ee evepe e eey

e ye ey epye. ceus eh s

see ve se ee, us e

pex pesses pey e vey ss

eesks.

Biochemical conversion . Biochemical conversion or

ethanol production rom cellulosic eedstocks involves:Pretreatment o the eedstock using high-tempera-

ture, high-pressure acid; enzymes; or other methodsto break down the lignin and hemicellulose that sur-round the cellulose.

Hydrolysis using enzymes and acids to break down

the cellulose into sugars.

Fermentation to convert the sugars into ethanol (as

in conventional production).

Distillation to produce purer ethanol (as in conven-

tional production).

Termochemical conversion .Termochemicalconversionuses heat and chemicals to break down cel-lulosic eedstock into syngas. Depending upon the pro-cess being used, the gas can be converted to liquid uelssuch as ethanol, bio-butanol, methanol, mixed alcohols,

or bio-oil (through pyrolysis). Termochemical con-version is particularly useul or lignin, which cannotbe easily converted to ethanol using the biochemicalprocess described above; up to one-third o cellulosiceedstock can be composed o lignin. Forest and millresidue eedstocks generally have high lignin contents,and thus would be more suitable or thermochemicalethanol conversion than biochemical conversion.

Te thermochemical conversion process involves:

Drying the cellulosic eedstock.

Gasication (using heat to convert the eedstock to

a syngas) or pyrolysis (using heat and pressure toproduce an oil).

Contaminant removal.

Conversion o the syngas to ethanol, bio-oil, or other

products.

Distillation to separate ethanol rom water (i pro-

ducing ethanol).

A number o researchers and organizations areevaluating process changes and refnements to make

cellulosic ethanol production more commerciallyviable and cost-competitive. For more inorma-tion, see NRELs Research Advances: NREL Leads theWayCellulosic Ethanolat www.nrel.gov/biomass/pds/40742.pd.

For more inormation on cellulosic ethanol produc-

tion, seewww.adc.energy.gov/adc/ethanol/produc-tion_cellulosic.html.

Solid Fuels to Bio-Oil. Bio-oil has limited market pres-ence and does not yet enjoy the popularity o otherbiouels such as ethanol and biodiesel. Current researchand development in pyrolysis ocuses on maximizingliquid (bio-oil) yields because o the ability to transportand store liquid uels and the ability o bio-oil to beurther rened in existing petroleum reneries intotransportation uels. In 2005, successul tests producedsyngas through gasication o bio-oil, which can be ur-ther processed into syndiesel. Syndiesel can be used in

http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/40742.pdfhttp://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/40742.pdfhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/production_cellulosic.htmlhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/production_cellulosic.htmlhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/production_cellulosic.htmlhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/production_cellulosic.htmlhttp://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/40742.pdfhttp://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/40742.pdf


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all diesel end-use devices without modication (Dyna-motive, 2005). Recent tests also show that it is possibleto take bio-oil and rene it into a green diesel productusing existing petroleum reneries. Tis technologypathway eectively takes advantage o the inrastructureassociated with the existing petroleum industry (Hol-mgren et al., 2005). Beyond energy products, bio-oil canbe urther rened into a range o specialty chemicals,

including avor enhancers, and uel additives.

Fermeaio

Solid Fuels toConventional Ethanol. In the UnitedStates, all commercially established ethanol productionto date has been based on the biochemical process oermentation, which involves conversion o sugars instarchy plants (such as corn or sugarcane) by microor-ganisms into alcohol. As o November 2008, 171 o the180 operating ethanol bioreneries in the United Statesused corn as the primary eedstock (RFA, 2008).

Ethanol rom corn is produced in either dry mills or wetmills. In dry mills, corn is ground into our, water andenzymes are added, the mixture is cooked, and yeastis added or ermentation. Te mixture is then distilledand water is removed to produce ethanol. In wet mills,corn is soaked in hot water to separate starch and pro-tein, the corn is ground and the germ is separated, theremaining slurry is ground, and some o the remainingstarch is urther processed to produce sugars. Te mate-rial is then ermented and distilled to produce ethanol.

In recent years, most new ethanol production acilitieshave been dry mill plants. As o July 2008, approxi-mately 95 percent o United States corn-ethanol acili-ties were dry mills, accounting or nearly 90 percent ogallons produced. Dry mills typically produce ethanol,animal eed, and sometimes CO

2(U.S. EPA, 2008d).

For more inormation on conventional corn-basedethanol production, see www.adc.energy.gov/adc/ethanol/production_starch_sugar.html.

traseserifcaioOils to Biodiesel. Biodiesel production converts oilsor ats into biodiesel, which can be used to uel dieselvehicles (or stationary engines). In biodiesel produc-tion, ats and oils are converted into biodiesel througha process known as transesterication. Te oils andats are ltered and pretreated to remove water andcontaminants (e.g., ree atty acids), then mixed withan alcohol (oen methanol) and a catalyst (e.g., sodiumhydroxide) to produce compounds known as atty acid

methyl esters and glycerin (U.S. DOE, 2008). Te esterare called biodiesel when they are intended or use asuel. Glycerin is used in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,and other markets. Oen biodiesel and glycerin areproduced as coproducts.

In the United States, biodiesel is made primarily romsoybeans/soy oil or recycled restaurant grease; inEurope, biodiesel is produced primarily rom rapeseed(EERE, 2008). About hal o current biodiesel produc-tion acilities can use any ats or oils as a eedstock, in-cluding waste cooking oil; the other production acilitierequire vegetable oil, oen soy oil. Biodiesel productionacilities are oen located in rural areas, near biodieseleedstock sources such as arms growing soybeans.Farmers oen use biodiesel in their arm equipment.

Increased demand or biodiesel eedstocks romarms, as well as establishment o locally sited and/orowned biodiesel production acilities, can help boostrural economies.

For more inormation about biodiesel production,

see the U.S. DOE Web site at www.adc.energy.gov/adc/uels/biodiesel_production.htmland the NationaBiodiesel Boards Web site at www.biodiesel.org/pd_fles/uelactsheets/Production.PDF.

2.3.3 COnvERSIOn tECHnOLOGIES FORBIOPRODUCtS

Biomass eedstocks are made o carbohydrates, andthus contain the same basic elementscarbon and hy-drogenas petroleum and natural gas. Many productsuch as adhesives, detergents, and some plastics, can

be made rom either petroleum or biomass eedstocksLike biouels, technologies or converting biomasseedstocks into bioproducts use three main processes:biochemical conversion, thermochemical conversion,or transesterication.

Biochemical conversion or bioproducts includesermentation and plant extraction. Termochemicalconversiontechnologies, such as direct combus-tion, gasication, and pyrolysis, use heat, chemicals,

BiodieSel

bese s usuy ee h peeu ese ee

ehe b20 ( 20 pee ese e) b90 ( 90 pee

ese e), hh e use ese ees h e

pves ee ee pee

u h peeu ue (U.S. EPa, 2008e).

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/production_starch_sugar.htmlhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/production_starch_sugar.htmlhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_production.htmlhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_production.htmlhttp://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Production.PDFhttp://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Production.PDFhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/production_starch_sugar.htmlhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/production_starch_sugar.htmlhttp://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Production.PDFhttp://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Production.PDFhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_production.htmlhttp://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_production.html


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catalysts, and pressure to break down biomass eed-stocks. ransesterication uses alcohols to break downvegetable oils or use in bioproducts.

As o 2003, use o biomass eedstocks provided morethan $400 billion o bioproducts annually in the UnitedStates (U.S. DOE, 2003). Production o chemicals andmaterials rom bio-based products was approximately

12.5 billion pounds, or 5 percent o the current pro-duction o target U.S. chemical commodities (U.S.DOE, 2005).

BioProdUCTS

my us sue pus, suh s sp,

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Cut Bpuct Appcats

ay es Pheus

ahesves Pyes

cses ress

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Ps texes


Biochemical

Biochemical conversion or bioproducts includes er-mentation and plant extraction.

Sugars and Starches to Bioproducts. Fermentationwith microorganisms or enzymes is commonly used toconvert starches and the sugar glucose into a variety oorganic acids and ethanol that are then used to createbioproducts or intermediate materials used in manu-acturing bioproducts. Food processing wastes are usedas biomass eedstocks in the ermentation process orbioproducts (A.D. Little, Inc., 2001).

Specically, ermentation can also be used to convertsugars into:

Lactic acid derivatives such as acrylic acid, which can

be used in coatings and adhesives;

Ethyl lactate, which can replace many petroleum-based

solvents; and

Polylactide (PLA), a plastic that can be used in packag-

ing and ber applications, and can be melted and reusedor composted when it reaches the end o its useul lie.

Ongoing research and pilot-scale applications o

bioproducts made rom lactic acid derivatives showgreat promise. Advances in ermentation technology(e.g., new microorganisms and separation techniques)may allow other sugars (e.g., pentose sugars such asxylose) to be converted to bioproducts. Tese advanceswould open up use o cellulosic biomass eedstocks(e.g., corn stover, switchgrass, wheat straw) to makebioproducts. Such advances may allow additionalbioproducts to be made through ermentation at costscompetitive with conventional petroleum-based prod-ucts (U.S. DOE, 2003).

Plant Components to Bioproducts. Lumber, paper,and cotton ber are well-known examples o plantsused to make bioproducts. ocopherols and sterols aresubstances in plants that can be extracted and puriedor use in vitamins and cholesterol-lowering products.A plant known as guayule produces nonallergenic rub-ber latex that can replace other types o rubber to whichmany people have developed allergies (U.S. DOE, 2003).

thermochemical

Termochemical conversiontechnologiessugar

conversion, gasication, and pyrolysisuse heat,chemicals, catalysts (such as acids, metals, or both),and pressure to break down biomass eedstocks, di-rectly converting sugars into bioproducts or producingintermediate materials that can be converted into nalbioproducts through other means.

Sugars to Bioproducts. Termochemical conversionhas been used or more than 50 years to convert thesugar glucose into sorbitol. Sorbitol derivativessuchas propylene glycol, ethylene glycol, and glycerinareimportant commercial products used in solvents,

coatings, pharmaceuticals, and other applications. Cur-rently, propylene glycol and ethylene glycol are maderom petroleum; thermochemical conversion usesbiomass eedstocks (rather than petroleum) to producethese sorbitol derivatives.

Termochemical conversion can also convert sugarsother than glucose (e.g., xylose) to sorbitol. Ter-mochemical conversion is also used to convert sugarto levulinic acid, which is then used to produce a


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2.4 reSoUrCeS or deTAiled inormATion

rsuc dscpt Url

B

W Bass Utzat, u.S.

Foes Seve d Be of Ld

mgee.

ths U.S. Fes Seve bueu l mee

we se pves ks vey esues eps

y ss uz, u s eeees

spey ee se vees.

www.forestsandrangelands.gov/

Woody_Biomass/index.shtml

BWb, S G ive. a e e esues

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ehes; sues eev pes. the

esues e sehe y h p eve e

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g ive, ek - uveses

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uhe essh -se ey.

http://bioweb.sungrant.org/

Bass as stc a

B a Bpucts

iust: Th Tchcaasbt a BT

Aua Supp, u.S. DOE, uSDa,

2005.

deses ssues sse h eh he 1

s u ss pu (see espey pp.

3437).

www.osti.gov/bridge

Bass e data B, u.S.

DOE, Sepebe 2006.

Pves p ss-ee ss . http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/index.

shtml

Bass stc Cpst

a Ppt databas, u.S. DOE.

Pves esus he ps phys

ppees yses e h 150 spes

pe eey eesks, u sve; he

s, sse, shss, he sses; pps

he s- ees.

www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/

feedstock_databases.html

A gaphc Pspct th Cut Bass rsuc

Aaabt th Ut Stats,

mlbd, a., 2005.

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www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39181.pdf

kt a rs Hab

iusta Chst a

Btch, Ke, 2007.

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e ss ves ehes.

Bpw/Bhat

Bass Cb Hat a

Pw Cata Tchs,

u.S. EPa, Sepebe 2007.

dee ehy hez ss cHP

syses, u eh e hez

ss esues, ss pep, eey

ves ehes, pe pu syses, pee ee syses. iues exesve suss

ss eesks.

www.epa.gov/chp/documents/

biomass_chp_catalog.pdf

Cb Hat a Pw

mat Ptta opptut

us, u.S. DOE, resoe

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2004.

deees he es ppuy ues sue

eey sues cHP pps.

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chp_opportunityfuels.pdf

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2.4 reSoUrCeS or deTAiled inormATion (cont.)


2.5 reerenCeS

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According to the American Council on Renewable En-ergy (ACORE), biopower projects could see a 10-oldincreaseto 100 gigawatts (GW)by 2025 with coor-dinated ederal and state policies to expand renewableenergy markets, promote and deploy new technology,and provide opportunities to encourage renewableenergy use in multiple market sectors and applications(ACORE, 2007).

With the potential or increased production and use obiomass and bioenergy comes the potential or states

to take advantage o benets associated with bioenergy,but also the need to guard against pitalls. Some ben-ets and challenges will be o greater interest to statesin particular regions (e.g., arid vs. wet, nonattainmentvs. in attainment) or with particular characteristics(e.g., urban vs. rural). States will want to weigh thechallenges and benets when deciding whether andhow to pursue bioenergy development.


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A brie overview o benets and challenges is providedbelow, ollowed by a more detailed discussion.

BEnEFItS

Policy makers are looking to production and use obiomass or power, heat, uels, and products as an e-ective means o advancing energy security, economic,

and environmental goals.

For example, an analysis o the primary drivers citedin legislation or state renewable uel standards (RFSs)ound that state goals included (Brown et al., 2007):

Energy Security : Increasing use o domestic uelsto reduce dependence on oreign oil and its potentialdisruptions, while keeping money or energy inlocal communities.

Economic : Improving the rural economy by generat-ing jobs, income, and taxes through demand or localbiomass resources and construction o biomass conver-sion acilities.

Environmental : Achieving air quality goals and im-proving public health by using bioenergy that reducesGHGs and other air pollutants and by turning wasteproducts into bioenergy.

In addition, compared with some energy alternatives,bioenergy may be one o the easier options to adopt inthe near term (e.g., coal-red power plants can corebiomass and vehicle engines can use biouels with ew

i any modications).

CHALLEnGES

At the same time, there are potential challenges as-sociated with deployment o any bioenergy project.While the benets o using biomass instead o otheruel sources to meet state energy needs are numerous,states should be aware o several potential issues whenexploring bioenergy. Tese include:

Environment : Potentially adverse environmentalimpacts could result i increased production is nothandled sustainably, including air and water pollu-tion, negative impacts o direct and indirect land usechanges, and increased water consumption.

Feedstock Supply : For a variety o reasons, securinga suitable and reliable eedstock supplyparticularlyone that will be available over the long term at areasonable costdoes not always prove easy. Many

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eedstocks are seasonal and may only be harvestedonce a year. In order to cover their uel needs orenergy production over the course o a year, bioenergyproducers may need to utilize exible conversion pro-cesses capable o using a variety o eedstocks availablein dierent seasons.

Inrastructure : Te location and nature o eedstock

inputs or bioenergy outputs produced at bioenergyplants can make their delivery dicult. Additionally,current inrastructure levels may not support marketdemand or can be constrained by other economic ac-tors despite demand.

Tese benets and challenges are described in the ol-lowing sections. Note that not all are relevant to everytype o bioenergy production or use.

3.1 energy SeCUriTy BeneiTS

3.1.1 InCREASED EnERGy InDEPEnDEnCEtHROUGH BIOFUELS

Te United States currently imports 65 percent o thepetroleum it consumesthe majority or transporta-tion uels (U.S. Energy Inormation Agency, 2008).Relying on oreign energy sources leaves the nationvulnerable to price increases and supply limits thatoreign nations could impose. Reliance on oreignpetroleum also contributes signicantly to the U.S.trade decit. Increasing the domestic energy supply byexpanding biouels production could help reduce U.S.dependence on oreign oil, thus increasing the nationsenergy security.

3.1.2 DECREASED InFRAStRUCtUREvULnERABILIty tHROUGH BIOPOWER

Te vulnerability o our energy inrastructure to at-tacks is also an energy security concern. Increased useo domestic bioenergy can help reduce this vulnerabil-ity because bioenergy involves a domestic, dispersed

energy inrastructure that may be less prone to attack.

When a reliable eedstock supply is available, biopowecan be a baseload renewable resource, compared toother renewable resources such as wind and solar,which may be available on an intermittent basis, andcompared to ossil uels, supplies o which may

State Bioenergy Primer 2009

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Transcript of State Bioenergy Primer 2009