Stage 6 EnglishStage 6 EnglishStage 6 EnglishStage 6 English Reference BookletReference BookletReference BookletReference Booklet

This booklet incorporates the content

of English in Stages 4 & 5 to assist your study of the Stage 6 Course.

Make it your first point of reference when deconstructing and analysing texts.

Websites: lansenglish11.weebly.com lansenglish12.wikispaces.com Email: lansenglish@live.com

3

A GLOSSARY OF KEY WORDS

Syllabus outcomes, objectives, performance bands and examination questions have key words that state what students are expected to be able to do. A glossary of key words has been developed to help provide a common language and consistent meaning in the Higher School Certificate documents. Using the glossary will help teachers and students understand what is expected in responses to examinations and assessment tasks.

Account Account for: state reasons for, report on. Give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions

Analyse Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate implications

Apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation

Appreciate Make a judgement about the value of

Assess Make a judgment of value, quality, outcomes, results or size

Calculate Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information

Clarify Make clear or plain

Classify Arrange or include in classes/categories

Compare Show how things are similar or different

Construct Make; build; put together items or arguments

Contrast Show how things are different or opposite

Critically (analysis/evaluate)

Add a degree or level of accuracy depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to (analyse/evaluation)

Deduce Draw conclusions

Define State meaning and identify essential qualities

Demonstrate Show by example

Describe Provide characteristics and features

Discuss Identify issues and provide points for and/or against

Distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences between

Evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of

Examine Inquire into

Explain Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how

Extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details

Extrapolate Infer from what is known

Identify Recognise and name

Interpret Draw meaning from

Investigate Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about

Justify Support an argument or conclusion

Outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of

Predict Suggest what may happen based on available information

Propose Put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action

Recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences

Recommend Provide reasons in favour

Recount Retell a series of events

Summarise Express, concisely, the relevant details

Synthesise Putting together various elements to make a whole

4

Nominalisation

The process of changing verbs (processes), adjectives (describers) and adverbs

(circumstances) into nouns (participants) to make writing

objective and formal. It was so silent it was frightening. The silence gave rise to fear. He was punished because he refused to participate. His refusal to participate led to his punishment. Many people move to the cities to find work. A reason for population movement is employment. Hitler invaded Poland in 1939 which marked the start of WWII in Europe. Hitler’s 1939 invasion of Poland marked the start of WWII in Europe.

5

NOMINALISATION WORKSHEET

-ment convert

disagree analyse

involve fail

inflate

-al safe

refuse save

survive praise

approve sleep

propose ban

arrive prove

remove add your own nominalisation examples

deny

-ance

perform

resist

appear

disappear

assist

miscellaneous

weigh

complain

apologise

forgive

lose

6

area of Study & CLOSE STUDY OF TEXTS

In examining a text, consider the following:

1. Structures of texts:

• What form (text type) has the composer chosen?

• How has the composer decided to begin their text?

• How has the composer developed their ideas from this point?

• How has the composer brought their text to a conclusion?

• narrative voice: first, second or third person; single/multiple narrators

• time frame; multiple time frames; pace

• cyclical, episodic, flashback

• etc.

2. Language forms and stylistic features

• sentence construction and variety; paragraphing, and punctuation that is striking or unusual and effective

• figurative language (imagery, similes, metaphors, personification)

• tone and mood

• repetition; symbolism; allusion

• sound devices (alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, sibilance)

• word choices

• rhetorical devices

• visual or filmic techniques

• etc.

3. Meaning

• Perspective communicated by the composer and how effectively it has been created (or shaped) by choices about structures and language forms and features so as to develop a conceptual thesis/narrative elements/textual integrity.

IN SIMPLE TERMS YOU NEED TO CONSIDER:

What is being said?

What does it mean?

How is it being said?

How effectively has it been said?

What lessons/conclusions can we draw from the text?

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WHAT KINDS OF CRITICAL QUESTIONS CAN WE ASK OF TEXTS?

These questions can be asked of most spoken, written, visual, multimedia and performance texts. They encourage students to question beliefs that are often taken for granted.

Critical Literacy Questions

Textual purpose(s)

1) What is this text about? How do we know?

2) Who would be most likely to read and/or view this text and why?

3) Why are we reading and/or viewing this text? 4) What does the composer of the text want us to know?

Textual structures and features

5) What are the structures and features of the text?

6) What sort of genre does the text belong to?

7) What do the images suggest?

8) What do the words suggest? 9) What kind of language is used in the text?

Construction of characters

10) How are children, teenagers or adults constructed in this text?

11) How have stereotypes or archetypes been constructed in this text?

12) Why has the composer of the text represented the characters in a particular way?

Gaps and silences

13) Are there ‘gaps’ and ‘silences’ in the text?

14) Who is missing from the text?

15) What has been left out of the text?

16) What questions about itself does the text not raise?

Power and interest

17) In whose interest is the text?

18) Who benefits from the text?

19) Is the text fair?

20) What knowledge does the reader/viewer need to bring to this text in order to understand it?

21) Which positions, voices and interests are at play in the text?

22) How is the reader or viewer positioned in relation to the composer of the text?

23) How does the text depict age, gender and/or cultural groups?

24) Whose views are excluded or privileged in the text?

25) Who is allowed to speak? Who is quoted? 26) Why is the text written the way it is?

Whose view: whose reality?

27) What view of the world is the text presenting?

28) What kinds of social realities does the text portray?

29) How does the text construct a version of reality?

30) What is real in the text?

31) How would the text be different if it were told in another time, place or culture?

Interrogating the composer

32) What kind of person, and with what interests and values, composed the text?

33) What view of the world and values does the composer of the text assume that the reader/viewer holds? How do we know?

Multiple meanings

34) What different interpretations of the text are possible?

35) How do contextual factors influence how the text is interpreted?

36) How does the text mean?

37) How else could the text have been written? 38) How does the text rely on intertextuality to create its meaning?

8

Glossary of Terms

Term Definition Example/s

allegory a story or situation which stands for another situation, and the whole story is symbolic.

fable such as the Hare and the Tortoise

alliteration repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words slippery snake slithered

allusion use of a reference to another story or text, either directly or by implication Achilles heel means a weak spot. This is a reference to the story of Achilles, the Greek warrior

analogy a comparison demonstrating the similarities between to things, people, situations. It can be an extended metaphor or simile that continues to provide all the reasons why.

allegories, fables, parables are examples of analogies used in narratives

antagonist traditionally defined as an opponent the bad guy or anti-hero

anthropomorphism The representation of animal characters with human characteristics Mickey Mouse, Toad (Wind in the Willows)

antithesis the opposite or contrast. Involves the balancing of one point of view against its opposite.

my soul soars; my body is grounded

assonance repetition of vowel sounds within words go home Joe

appropriation the process of taking a text from one context and using it in another context, allowing new insights into the original text

Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice – Gurinda Chadra’s Bride and Prejudice

caesura a pause within a line of verse to what was being said ... He was all hooks, my dad, and we were just the things he caught ... I can hear him now (extract from ‘The Tackle Box’ by Bruce Dawe)

characterisation the way in which a character is created and developed during a text includes explanation as to background, physical appearance, personality, strengths/weaknesses, speech and thought

chronology refers to the sequence of events related to time linear, flashbacks

cliches a phrase or expression which was once novel, but has been used so often that it lacks real meaning

love at first sight, deep and meaningful, more than meets the eye, believe it or not

colloquial words and phrases that belong to everyday speech and conversation How’s things?

composer the person who has created a text Artist – painting, cartoonist Author - literature

composition the way that a whole visual text has been put together and the arrangement of elements within the text

consideration of what has been included and what has been left out

connotations the feelings, emotions, subleties suggested by a word or phrase, as opposed to the word itself. The extra meanings that we (readers/receivers) of texts apply to words.

Father – formal relationship Dad – casual, close relationship Daddy – close, affectionate relationship with a young child Home – (a building) warmth, love, belonging, security Loser – an insulting term implying the person is hopeless

context that which is happening in the world in which a text is composed, as well as in the world of the responder.

social context = employment & intellectual status historical context = time period cultural context = nationality/ethnicity

couplet a two-line section of verse, often rhymed to make a rhyming couplet But if the while I think on thee, dear friend, All losses are restored and sorrows end. (Sonnet 30, Shakespeare)

deconstruction the breaking down and analysis of a text study of the parts of a text eg humour, music, setting

demand Used in visual texts when a figure gazes directly out of the image at the reader demanding a response

denotation The basic or dictionary definition of a word (see connotation) Loser: person or thing that loses (see connotation)

dramatic irony a situation where readers or viewers (and possibly some of the characters) have knowledge that is hidden from a character

Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare. When Romeo finds Juliet in a drugged sleep, he assumes her to be dead and kills himself. Upon awakening to find her dead lover beside her, Juliet then kills herself.

emotive language language specifically chosen to evoke and emotional response from the reader/listener. Commonly used in news media, advertising and persuasive texts.

positive – gorgeous, delicate, lovely negative – vain, fastidious, easily damaged

empathy to identify with the feelings/emotions of another person

enjambment Enjambment is the continuation of a sentence or clause over a line-break. It is derived from the French word meaning “to straddle”.

Perchance shall dry your pities; but I have That honourable grief lodged here which burns Worse than tears drown. (Shakespeare – ‘A Winter’s Tale’)

euphemism an expression to avoid directly saying something distasteful, unpleasant or confronting

dying – kicked the bucket, croaked it redundancies – down sizing, genocide – ethnic cleansing

features details of the language used in a text prose – paragraph structure, sentence construction, punctuation, imagery, word choice poetry – stanza, imagery, rhyme, rhythm

figurative language language that goes beyond the basic, factual meaning of a word and makes a comparison that cannot be understood as really true – See similes, metaphors, personification

See simile, metaphor, personification

form the medium of production. Form can also describe the text type. spoken, written or visual. News report, drama script …

framing the way that the subject is placed within a visual text

genre categories of literature and films. Each genre has certain conventions that influence the composer’s choice of subject matter, structure and language. The responder’s understanding of the text is enhanced through knowledge/expectations of genre conventions.

science-fiction, westerns, drama, comedy, action, romance, crime …

hyperbole the deliberate use of exaggeration for effect Hot of the press! I’ve told you a thousand times!

icons someone or something that is widely recognised in society as encompassing valued ideals or attributes

Don Bradman, Vegemite

idiom an expression or way of speaking which is peculiar to a language (local people He hit the sack. (He went to bed)

9

Term Definition Example/s

understand it to mean something other than its literal translation)

imagery when words create a picture in the responder’s mind crisp dry paddocks (gives reader a sense of the drought conditions)

intertextuality the relationship between other texts similar format or allusion to another text

irony o a tone that indicates that the responder is not intended to read the text as it appears

o dramatic irony o other types include contradictions

o sarcasm o when the audience knows more that some or all of the characters o a vegetarian who worked at McDonalds, or a flight attendant who

was afraid of enclosed spaces

jargon technical language or words associated with a particular topic megs, gigs, bits (computer jargon) scoop, stop-press, by-line (journalese)

juxtaposition when two things are placed side-by-side in order to contrast them or draw attention to their differences or similarities

if one needs to consider the concept of darkness one needs to first consider light (to deduce the absence of light)

metaphor a type of image where something is said to be something else The moon was a ghostly galleon

mise-en-scene how a film/stage scene is physically constructed includes use of lighting, props, costumes, placement of characters, choice of lenses, placement of cameras

mood the ‘feeling’ or atmosphere of a setting or the text itself. A canoe ride down rapids could be described very positively and convey an exhilarated mood. Alternatively the speed, and power of the water could be described in such a manner as to create a mood of fear and panic.

motif a recurring subject or theme in a work of art, music or literature the ‘splashes’ of colour that appear periodically in the dark setting of Gotham City in ‘Batman’

narrator the person or voice who tells the story 1st person – the story is told by a character IN the story 3rd person limited – the story is told by an anonymous voice that reveals some aspects of the story 3rd person omniscient – the story is told by an anonymous voice that sees, hears and knows everything about all the characters and their emotions

offer Visual texts in which the figure possesses an indirect gaze that does not address the reader directly.

onomatopoeia where the sound of the word itself imitates the sound being described bang, thump, screech, clank, pop

paradox a seemingly contradictory statement that contains a truth or opinion you have got to be cruel to be kind

parody an imitation or mimicking of a text, especially using exaggeration to create humour

The Chook from Snowy River (The Man from Snowy River)

personification giving human qualities/characteristics to non-human objects the icy fingers of the wind

perspective the angle from which you view a text looking over the shoulder of one character to see the face of another

protagonist central or main character the hero or subject of the text

pun a play on words, often where the words have two meanings Lifesavers advertisement – “Get a hole lot more out of life”

reading path the movement/path of a viewer’s gaze around a visual text

register the type of language chosen for a particular purpose, audience and context. difference in language used by a young person when speaking with their friends compared to speaking with their parents

rhetorical questions

a question asked for which no answer is expected. It is expected that everyone will agree with the only one possible answer and point being made by the speaker

“Do we want our children using drugs?” “If Steven jumped off a bridge, would you?”

rhyme the repetition of sound at the ends of words fast and last, behind and kind

rhythm the combination of stressed and unstressed syllables in the way words are presented or said

I had written/ him a letter/ which I had for / want of better

salience the prominence given to particular elements within the composition of an image. Typically it is certain visual techniques that create salience.

satire where the text pokes fun at something for the purpose of criticising or ridiculing it. Cartoons are often satirical

Frontline satirises current affairs programs and their ethics, Strictly Ballroom satirises ballroom dancing

sibilance The presence of strongly emphasized s, sh, ch, z, j sounds in speech to create a hissing sound.

"And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain" Edgar Allen Poe

simile comparison of two objects/things using the words ‘like’ or ‘as’ Tom was as quick as a fox The diamond dazzled like the sun

slang language that is not really correct but created by particular groups in particular times

bikers, chicks

structure the organisation of a text (layout or sequence) narrative – orientation, complication, resolution linear or non-linear arrangements

symbol/symbolism symbolism occurs when something in the text stands for something abstract, such as an emotion or idea

rose – beauty snake - evil

tenses refer to the time things occur past – John walked to school. present – John is walking to school future – John will walk to school

theme central idea or argument death, money, love

tone the overall mood or attitude of the text. It is often a good indicator of the author’s purpose in composing the text

sarcastic, persuasive, serious, jovial

vector lines the thing in a visual text that directs the eye of the responder around the text a pointing finger directs the responder to the object, a line of people in a queue will direct the responder to the beginning/end of the queue.

word choice the deliberate selection of words used by a composer to produce a particular effect on the responder

The horrific attack has left the residents in a fury.

appropriated text A text which has been taken from one context and translated into another. The process of translation allows new insights into the original text and emphasises contextual differences between

the two

context The range of personal, social, historical, cultural and workplace conditions in which a text is responded to and composed.

conventions Accepted practices or features which help define textual forms and meaning.

genre A category of text that can be recognised by specific aspects of its subject matter, form and language.

meaning in and through texts This expression implies that meaning variously: resides in texts, is a dynamic process through which responders engage with texts, and · involves the incorporation of understanding gained through texts into a wider context.

textual integrity The unity of a text; its coherent use of form and language to produce an integrated whole in terms of meaning and value.

10

ELEMENTS OF ‘GOOD’ SPEECH MAKING

ethos Proof deriving from the character of the speaker himself/herself. The tone of the speech should

establish the speaker’s virtue and moral worth.

pathos The emotions induced in the audience. The audience begins to feel that the speaker must be right

and is won over to his side.

logos Demonstration of the speaker’s position by means of argument such as syllogisms, examples and

maxims.

Features of Speech Manner of Speech

repetition of words and phrases

pause utterances

straight pauses

cliches

jargon

slang

individualised choice of words

truncated sentences

immediacy of expression

peculiarity of expression

grammatical flexibility

� tone

� pitch

� intonation

� pace

� volume

� stress

� rhythm

� length

� body language

� word choice

� sequencing of ideas

Persuasive Techniques

Technique Definition/Description Example

allusion reference to some text, person or event

outside the present situation. The effect is

to enrich the text by inviting the responder

to consider more information than can be

dealt with in detail

Biblical, political, philosophical,

scientific and literary allusions are

common, and in texts such as

magazine and newspaper columns,

allusions to popular culture are

frequent.

amplification (see

repetition)

repeating a word or expression while adding

more detail to it, in order to emphasize

what might otherwise be passed over

He showed a rather simple taste,

a taste for good art, good food,

and good friends.

anadiplosis repeats the last word of one phrase, clause,

or sentence at or very near the beginning of

the next

I crave reward/ Reward me not

unkindly; think on kindness/

Kindness becommeth those on high

regard/ Regard with clemency a

poor man’s blindness.

analogy any figure of speech based on comparison

between two, unlike, objects or actions or

processes

comparison of the workings of

the heart to a mechanical pump

anaphora repetition of a word at the beginning of

consecutive phrases, clauses, or sentences

I have a dream ...

anastrophe arrangement by reversal of ordinary word

order, usually confined to the transposition

of two words only

She looked at the sky dark and

menacing. (Normally: She looked

at the dark and menacing sky.)

anecdote a short tale narrating an interesting or

amusing biographical incident.

anti-climax abrupt decline (either deliberate or

unintended) on the part of a speaker or

writer from the dignity of idea which he

appeared to be aiming at

Die and endow a college… or a

cat.

11

antithesis establishes a clear, contrasting relationship

between two ideas by joining them together

or juxtaposing them, often in parallel

structure.

That's one small step for a man,

one giant leap for mankind. --Neil

Armstrong

aphorism a brief saying embodying a moral, a concise

statement of a principle given in pointed

words

Lost time in never found again. -

Franklin

aporia expresses doubt about an idea or

conclusion

I have never been able to decide

whether I really approve of dress

codes, because extremism seems to

reign both with them and without

and without them.

asyndeton omission of conjunctions between words,

phrases, or clauses

They spent the day wondering,

searching, thinking, understanding.

authorities Reference to institutions, experts, accepted

bearers of power or thought

For I have sworn before you and

Almighty God the same solemn oath

our forebears prescribed nearly a

century and three-quarters ago.

cliché a phrase or expression which was once novel, but

has been used so often that it lacks real meaning

love at first sight, deep and meaningful,

more than meets the eye, believe it or

not

climax consists of arranging words, clauses, or

sentences in the order of increasing

importance, weight, or emphasis

At 6:20 a.m. the ground began to heave.

Windows rattled; then they broke. Objects

started falling from shelves. Water heaters

fell from their pedestals, tearing out

plumbing. Outside, the road began to break

up. Water mains and gas lines were

wrenched apart, causing flooding and the

danger of explosion. Office buildings began

cracking; soon twenty, thirty, forty stories of

concrete were diving at the helpless

pedestrians panicking below.

circumlocution use of many words to say something that

can be said in a few words.

“The driveway was not unlike that

military training device known as an

obstacle course” is a circumlocution

for “The driveway resembled an

obstacle course.”

contrast/

juxtaposition

When two opposite viewpoints, ideas or

concepts are placed close to each other for

effect.

Let us break the chains, shackles and

nightmare of slavery and embrace

each other in the dream of freedom.

emotive language choice of words packed with emotion can

influence an audience for or against your

ideas, to be with you or against you.

Imagine the perfect scene, not a care in

the world, walking down the street hand

in hand ... OR

Their top lips quiver and sneer in unison

like Elvis with a toothache. They see you

and appear to scowl and grunt at each

other and point at you accusingly.

enumeration A speaker can connect and, at the same

time, separate the points in the message by

using connective words

Firstly, secondly, thirdly ...

To begin with; Additionally; To

sum up; Finally; In conclusion

euphemism an expression to avoid directly saying something

distasteful, unpleasant or confronting

dying – kicked the bucket, croaked it

redundancies – down sizing,

genocide – ethnic cleansing

figurative language similes, metaphors, personification

humour amusing phrases, ideas

hyperbole/

exaggeration

trying to impress or influence by overstating

a viewpoint, statement or idea

Millions of students all over the world go

home and rush eagerly into their homework

in order to secure their future.

12

imagery when words create a picture in the responder’s mind crisp dry paddocks (gives reader a sense

of the drought conditions)

inversion the syntactic reversal of the normal order of

the words and phrases in a sentence

Came the dawn ...

irony o a tone that indicates that the responder is

not intended to read the text as it appears

o other types include contradictions

o sarcasm

o a vegetarian who worked at

McDonalds, or a flight attendant

who was afraid of enclosed

spaces

isocolon repetition of phrases or clauses of equal length

and corresponding grammatical structure

I speak Spanish to God, Italian to

women, French to men, and German

to my horse. –Charles V

listing In order to emphasise important points lists

are often used

This law change will impact on town

people and country people; rich people

and poor people, maori, pacific islander,

Asian and European; employed and

unemployed alike

oxymoron is a paradox reduced to two words, usually

in an adjective-noun or adverb-adjective

relationship, and is used for effect,

complexity, emphasis, or wit

I do here make humbly bold to

present them with a short

account of themselves and their

art.....--Jonathan Swift

qu

est

ion

s

quaesitio string of questions in rapid succession for sake

of emotional emphasis

rogatio rhetorical question and answer Why is there so much opposition to

women remain in industry? The

secret isn’t far to seek. It’s simply

that they got paid less.

percontatio enquiry in atone of bewilderment and allowing

no satisfactory or easy reply

Must they be made to return home?

Are they going to take them out of

the factory, the office, off the land?

interrotatio employing a question as a way of confirming or

reinforcing the argument one has just made.

Then we must change many of our

conventions. Why should a woman

do all the work in the home?

paradox a seemingly contradictory statement that

contains a truth or opinion

you have got to be cruel to be kind

parallelism Several parts of a sentence or several

sentences are expressed similarly to show

that the ideas are equal in importance.

Parallelism adds balance, rhythm and clarity

to the sentence.

Quickly and happily he walked around

the corner to buy the book.

polysyndeton the use of a conjunction between each

word, phrase, or clause, the rhetorical effect

is multiplicity, energetic enumeration.

They read and studied and wrote and

drilled. I laughed and played and talked

and flunked.

pro

no

un

s

pronouns to

address the

audience

Basically to address an audience as a group,

but not necessarily to persuade them at this

stage.

You are here tonight to witness the

finals of the speech contest, where

your sons and daughters face up to a

great challenge.

pronouns to

include

(inclusive

language)

Speakers want the audience to be on their

side and agree with their statements/ideas

We came here tonight to choose our

town symbol. We don't want a clock

- Alexandra has a clock. We don't

want a humungus trout as our

symbol - Rakaia and Turangi have

megatrouts. Let us choose our White

Horse - it's ours and always will be.

13

pronouns to

exclude or to

distance the

audience

Sometimes we want to distance the

audience from those who have differing

arguments.

So our elders want a curfew in Waimate.

They think it is a good idea to have a

curfew of 8 o'clock on a school night for

people of our age. Let them have a

curfew of 8 o'clock so that they can be

out of the pubs and clubs and home

with their families as well. They cause

more harm in society than teenagers do.

punctuation the use of punctuation to create an effect or

shape a meaning

Apostrophe: shows possession and missing

letters.

Colon: causal connection, presaging lists

and strong contrast.

Comma: creating separation and pauses in

sentences.

Dash: significantly separated aside.

Ellipsis...: for tension-building pause.

Hyphen: connecting words together.

Parentheses: conspiratorial aside.

Period: ending sentences and in

abbreviations.

Quotation marks: showing speech and

'different' words.

Semicolon: separation of related text and

lists.

repetition involves repeating a word or expression

while adding more detail and emphasis

Trust is an important concept in society.

If you can't trust friends not to blab your

secrets all over school; if you can't trust

teachers not to blast you for something

that he or she let someone away with

yesterday; if parents can't trust you

enough to let you borrow the car - how

can you survive in the modern world.

research/ statistics/

quotations

Reference to statistical information or

references to well-known sources, such as

the Bible, television, movies, proverbs and

clichés: to link with our audience and our

common, shared experiences.

Turn the other cheek; An eye for an

eye, a tooth for a tooth. It's

moments like these..... Make my

day; I'll be back!; Straight from the

horse's mouth

rhetorical question a question asked for effect, but not

necessarily needing to be answered

How do you stay healthy on a diet

of chips and chocolate?

sound devices alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia,

sibilance, rhyme

syllogism a logical argument in three parts - two

premises and a conclusion which follows

necessarily from them

Firstly ...

Secondly ...

In conclusion

understatement understating a viewpoint for effect. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake

interrupted business somewhat in

the downtown area.

14

reading visual texts

Angle Where has the photographer/artist placed the objects in the photo/frame?

o A low angle (where we look up to the object) shows the subject as strong

and powerful.

o A high angle (where we look down to the object) shows submission and

weakness.

Body Language Posture, gesture and facial expression all tell about the way we are feeling and

thinking.

o What does the posture and gestures of people suggest?

o What do the expressions reveal?

o Is this meant to be seen as a happy moment? Serious moment?

Camera shot The distance from which a photograph is taken (close up, mid shot, long shot etc)

o What has the distance of the shot allowed the viewer to comprehend?

Caption The descriptive, printed line of text that appears in a visual text

Clothing Reflects our personality and can also be a symbol of the period, culture and status.

Collage Random gathering of visual images that have some relationship to a theme, issue

or concept

Colour Colour can be used as symbols

o white = innocence

o black = death

o soft pastel colours = female

o dark primary or metallic colours = male

Composer The person who has created a text (Artist – painting, cartoonist; Author –

literature; Film – director)

Composition The way that a whole visual text has been put together; the arrangement of

elements within the text

Direction/Eyeline In what direction are the objects, figures, people etc facing?

o Is it at the camera, past the camera or at a person or object in the

photograph?

o Where are the people looking? At the viewer? At each other? At

something out of frame?

o What do the eyelines suggest about what is considered important?

Focus The degree of sharpness or distinctiveness of an image (deep focus, shallow focus,

soft focus etc)

Font The design of the text that accompanies a visual text.

o What is it about the design of the text that adds meaning to the visual text?

o What mood/tone/emotion is suggested by the font?

o How has colour been used in the font to add meaning?

Framing The way that the subject is placed within a visual text

o How has the borders of the image defined the image?

o What might appear outside the frame?

Light Different lighting effects or colours can provide meaning:

o Soft yellow light creates a halo effect and can suggest innocence.

o The time of day can be established through lighting.

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Objects Shapes or figures (people, animals, places or objects).

Position Of the objects, shapes and figures in the frame can give meaning.

o Who or what holds the centre of attention in the frame?

o How does the position help make this the centre of attention?

o How does the background contribute to the ideas you get from the

photograph/frame?

o How are people/objects placed in relationship to each other?

o What is suggested by the placements? (Respect? Affection? Conflict?

Unity?)

Settings Have symbolic significance and influence our response to a visual text.

o Dry, country settings suggest ruggedness and hardship.

o Soft, green, rural settings suggest tranquillity.

Shading The dark areas of an image that result from lack of lighting

o What use has been made of shading?

o What effect is gained from this shading?

Size Of the object of interest.

o Important objects are usually large and located in the foreground

o Small objects that are in the background are considered less important.

Symbol/symbolism When something in the text sands for something abstract, such as an emotion or

idea

o rose = beauty, snake = evil

Vector lines The thing in a visual text that directs the eye of the viewer

o A pointing finger directs the responder to the object

o A line of people in a queue will direct the responder to the beginning/end of

the queue.

Reading Path The reading path is the order that the responder makes their way through a visual

text. The path begins with the most salient element and moves to other less

salient elements.

Offer/Demand The mood of a visual image can be read from the offers and demands present in an

image.

o Demand: when direct connection is made with the responder (subject

looking directly at responder)

o Offer: when the responder is an invisible and detached onlooker not invited

to participate with the subject directly.

Social Distance Positioning of objects within a visual text that indicate a ‘distance’ or connection by

the subject/ object to the viewer/responder (key words: intimate, personal, long-

shots, close-ups, medium shots, far /close personal distance)

Modality The degree of ‘credibility’ found in a visual text

o High modality: a high degree of truthfulness or reality (eg photograph)

o Low modality: a low degree of truthfulness or reality (eg comic, cartoon)

Salience The ‘visual weight’ or importance allocated to elements within a visual text.

Factors that CREATE salience include size, focus, colour, distance, placement

(heavier salience if placed towards the top or left of an image).

Dutch Angle An image using a camera shot made with the camera leaned to one side and

filming at a diagonal angle. The shot is used to either represent a sense of

confusion or disorientation in a character on the screen, or to create that same

sense for the viewer.

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Deconstruction of Texts Revision/Reference SheetDeconstruction of Texts Revision/Reference SheetDeconstruction of Texts Revision/Reference SheetDeconstruction of Texts Revision/Reference Sheet

REGISTER = purpose + audience + context

Techniques to consider in different texts: generally • text structure or layout

• imagery (language & visual language)

• word choice

• perspective

• narrative/dramatic/poetic/visual techniques

film • camera angles

• sound

• editing

• acting, casting

• music

• special effects

short story • narration

• language techniques

• structure

• characterisation

• themes

feature articles • language techniques

• layout of article

• headline

• structure

• graphics

• photos

painting, photos • visual images

• colour

• texture

• composition

• vectors

• size

poem • poetic techniques such as rhyme, rhythm, word, choice, sound devices,

imagery, similes, metaphors

• symbolism

song • language and poetic techniques

• musical setting

• tone

website • language techniques

• visual images

• sound

• links

• interactive options

PURPOSE

To: entertain, inform, advertise, persuade, educate, convince, etc….

REGISTER = purpose + audience + context

formal, informal, colloquial, slang, personal, expressive, transactional, poetic, etc …

THEMES

o family

o love

o hate

o relationships

o trust

o journeys

o childhood

o adulthood

o survival

o identity

o change

o work

o betrayal

o parents

o revenge

o peace

o age

o birth

o personal-growth

o loneliness

o challenges

o gender

o good vs evil

o friendship

o pressure

o greed/desire

o power

o honesty

o war

o education

o despair

o race

o enemies

o abuse

o hope

o ????

MOOD (look up those you are not familiar with) o sadness

o indifference

o anger

o humour

o politeness

o modesty

o simplicity

o sarcasm

o enthusiasm

o geniality

o friendliness

o frustration

o serious

o dignity

o arrogance

o tenderness

o excitement

o fun

o emphatic

o precision

o joy

o sincerity

o hostility

o affection

o passion

o warmth

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TONE (look up those you are not familiar with) o friendly

o frustrated

o jubilant

o serious

o adult

o condescending

o meek

o arrogant

o tender

o simple

o dignified

o sad

o indifferent

o angry

o humorous

o informal

o polite

o modest

o sarcastic

o formal

o enthusiastic

o warm

o amiable

o jovial

o emphatic

o precise

o excited

o pleasant

o genial

o vague

o scientific

o considered

o sarcastic

o cynical

o joyful

o conversational

o childish

o sincere

o hostile

o blunt

o affectionate

o passionate

Language Features of Texts Effect of Text Features

Verbal Features Visual Features Text features can have many effects including:

� Attracting attention

� Making the text more appealing and

interesting

� Highlighting one point or opinion in the text

� Making the text seem urgent

� Creating a sense of sympathy or empathy

� Getting the attention of a particular audience

� Starting something specific

� Persuading the audience about something.

A single feature can also have more than one effect.

It is important that you can explain how features help

create the meaning in a text. To do this, you need to:

1. Identify the feature

2. Identify the purpose (or effect required)

3. Explain how the feature helps achieve the

purpose

Helpful phrases:

� The meaning of this text is …

� The composer has used [verbal/visual feature]

to …

� Using the feature of [verbal/visual feature]

helps the composer to …

� The features support the purpose of the text

by …

� The [verbal/visual feature] draws the

responder’s attention to …

� The effect of this language feature is to …

� We are made to … when the composer uses

[verbal/visual feature] because …

• Figurative language eg.

similes, metaphors,

personification

• Imagery

• Alliteration/assonance/

onomatopoeia

• Verbs, nouns, adjectives,

adverbs (word choice)

• Sentence structure

• Emotive language

• Punctuation

• Use of pronouns

• Repetition

• Idioms

• Hyperbole

• Imperative

• Pun

• Quotation

• Statement

• Rhetorical Question

• Rhyme

• Rhythm

• Motif/Symbols

• Allusion/association

• Dialogue

• Script

• Headings

• Voice-over

• Sound effects

• Tone of voice

• Music

• Silence

• Captions

• Point of View

• Syntax (sentence structure)

• Connotation

• Dominant Image

• Symbol

• Composition

• Contrast/juxtaposition

• Balance

• Graphics/pictures

• Font style

• Font size

• Spacing

• White space

• Shape

• Frames & borders

• Depth – background &

foreground

• Proportion

• Camera shots/angles

• Colour

• Light & shadows

• Lines

• Vectors

• Allusion

• Sequence

• Structure

• Shot

• Camera movement

• Transitions

• Texture

• Mood

• Scenery

• Logos & graphics

• Facial expressions

• Body language

• Caption

• Layout

• Logos/icons

• Symbols

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text analysis prompts REGISTER = purpose + audience + context

formal, informal, colloquial, slang, personal, expressive, transactional, poetic, etc …

Level of Language Explanation Examples

Formal This is language that is correct and proper. It does not contain

contractions. It is carefully composed.

This is how we speak in formal situations when we are

watching what we say. It is also the level we use in essays. It is

more elevated than colloquial language.

The care was dilapidated and needing repair.

Mum was very upset because she was

extremely worried about us.

“Can you not come?”

Informal or Colloquial This is everyday language. It is the level of language we use

with our friends and family. It may include contractions and

colloquialisms (every day expressions like, driving me crazy,

over the moon…).

It generally sounds far more chatty than formal language.

The car was an old bomb.

Mum was having a fit because she was

worried sick about us.

“Can’t you come?”

Slang This is language that belongs to a set group in society. It is

somewhat exclusive since, if you do not belong to the group,

you are unlikely to understand it. Slang tends to be words and

phrases rather than complete sentences.

Some slang is that of young people and some belongs to

interest groups like surfers, skaters etc. Slang tends to date

quickly. It can actually move into everyday language if it

becomes widespread and stays in our vocabulary.

In the 1960s and 1970s there was a lot of slang

that is no longer common eg fuzz for police,

bread for money or cat for a hip young man.

One word that has moved into our colloquial

vocabulary is cool. Its use is so widespread

that it is no longer exclusive.

More recently young people have used sick to

mean ‘great’ and this is a form of slang.

The language of the text is [FORMAL, INFORMAL, COLLOQUIAL, SLANG] that is ….

o understated

o impartial

o assertive

o biased

o propagandistic

o cynical

o ironic

o polite

o sarcastic

o enthusiastic

o jovial

o hostile

o affectionate

o personal

o transactional

o sophisticated

o simplistic

o superficial

o antagonistic

o distorted

o euphemistic

o rational

o emphatic

o precise

o genial

o vague

o blunt

o passionate

o expressive

o ambiguous

o persuasive

o serious

o condescending

o arrogant

o dignified

o indifferent

o angry

o humorous

o scientific

o considered

o sincere

o childish

o poetic

This language/visual feature/technique ….

o attracts/draws attention to …

o shows that …

o suggests that …

o contrasts with …

o implies …

o adds appeal by …

o reinforces …

o enhances …

o involves …

o describes …

o emphasises …

o promotes …

o illustrates …

o encourages …

o creates empathy for …

o encourages …

o enriches …

o involves readers in …

o describes …

o enriches …

o tells the audience …

o discusses …

o highlights …

o features …

o creates a sense of …

o suggests a sense of …

o makes it more …

o maximizes …

o appeals to …

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PURPOSE LANGUAGE FEATURE PURPOSE LANGUAGE FEATURE

INFORM

o factual statements

o technical language

o ‘who, what, when, where, and how’ statements PERSUADE

o slogans

o facts and figures

o subjective comments

o emotive terms

EXPLAIN

o factual statements

o technical language

o ‘why and how’ statements INSTRUCT

o action words beginning statements

o ‘how’ statements

o sequences / steps

o technical language

ENTERTAIN

o poetic language

o adjectives

o subjective comments

o humour

o emotive terms

….EDUCATE, CONVINCE, AMUSE, ADVERTISE ….

This text’s purpose and intention:

o This language is designed to provoke …

o The clearest illustration of the writer’s purpose is …

o The writer has concentrated his/her effort on …

o This text pinpoints …

o This text provides a map of …

o The writer probes … so that …

o The writer’s purpose emerges as …

o The writer is attempting to sway the reader by …

o This text constructs a picture of …

o The writer tends to …

o Media attention is clearly focused on …

o The argument advanced in the text is designed to..

o The text gives prominence to …

o The intensity of the focus on …

o The [feature] supports the purpose of the text to …

o The writer means to fuel the debate on …

o The position we are asked to share is that …

o The article attempts to enlist the support of …

o This text provides a view that contradicts …

o The writer opts for …

o The writer stresses …

o The appealing imagery of the text is aimed at …

o This text describes interesting developments in …

o The writer questions …

o This text clearly reveals the writer’s view on …

o The writer enters the arena of discussion by …

o The writer’s attitude is exemplified by …

o The article endorses …

o The text attempts to mobilize support for …

o The meaning of this text is …

Analysis and impact of text:

o The composer has used [feature] to …

o Using the feature of [ ] helps the composer to …

o It reads rather like …

o This text is a significant contribution to discussion because …

o The [feature] draws the responder’s attention to …

o The effect of this language feature is to …

o We are made to … when the composer uses [feature] because ….

o The power of this text stems from …

o The coverage of the issue is extensive: ….

o The content of this article is dominated by …

o For the reader, this text produces …

o Perhaps the most surprising/interest aspect of the text is …

o The general pattern of language evokes …

o A mood of … prevails in this text due to …

o A reader’s response may well be to …

o Visual interest in the text is created by …

o The influence of this text lies in …

o The text generates …

o The perceptions of the reader are sharpened by …

o This text increases the level of debate over … by …

o This text accentuates …

o The language features used attract …

o This text sharply focuses attention on …

o The text magnifies

THESAURUS / WORD BANK to use when writing about texts:

THEMES/IDEAS concerns, issues, messages, concepts, notions, principles, motivations

MAIN/

IMPORTANT

major, primary, central, pivotal, frontal, most intense, paramount, above all, key

LESS OBVIOUS underlying, hinted at, implied, more subtle, underneath, secondary, minor

CERTAINLY clearly, definitely, absolutely, indeed, obviously, in fact, importantly, undoubtedly, without doubt, surely,

distinctly

SHOWS displays, emphasises, informs, presents, highlights, mirrors, acknowledges, reflects, reinformces, delineates,

expounds, elucidates, outlines, exposes, relates

THEREFORE consequently, hence, thus, since

BUT yet, however, although, alternatively, whereas, nevertheless, nonetheless, while, admittedly,

EXPECIALLY in particular, moreover, more specifically

SIMILARLY likewise, again, once more, additionally

OTHER ‘GOOD’

EXPRESSIONS

not surprisingly …, neither … nor, either … or, rather …, in summary …, not only … but also, both …, in

conclusion …, firstly …secondly … finally

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Visual Language Analysis Sheet The following visual language analysis proforma should help you to explore texts to work out what they are about and how they shape meaning. It is useful to develop a systematic approach to each text you study, focus on the language forms and features and write detailed notes. This sheet offers a fairly comprehensive list of visual language techniques, so remember that some will be relevant to one text but not another.

TEXT:

Visual Language forms and features Notes and examples

Form: cartoon, comic strip, photo, computer image, advertisement …

Purpose: to satirise, amuse, illustrate, demonstrate, advertise, persuade …

Audience

Structure (the way in which ideas/content are organised): What is emphasised? What is the eye drawn to first, second, third? Are there vectors to guide the reading of the text? Is there a logical sequencing of images if it is a photo series or cartoon strip? If a computer screen, are the visual images layered or hyperlinked? Why? How?

Framing Is there an image in the centre of the frame? If so, why? If not, why not? What is at the top of the frame? What is at the bottom of the frame? What is on the left/right?

Point of View Are we looking up to, straight at or down at the subject? What is the effect? Is the subject looking at the viewer or somewhere else? What is the mood? What is the effect? How close are we to the subjects of the image?

Icons, motifs or symbols Are there recurring or dominant icons, motifs or symbols? What effect do these have?

Colour and light Is colour used, or black and white? Why? What would be the effect if it were the opposite? Is there a dominant colour? Has the composer deliberately manipulated colour eg. used sepia tones, altered normal ideas of colours eg. a green person? What sort of lighting has been chosen for the image? What is the effect?

Written text Is it used to support or subvert the visual text?

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Written Language Analysis Sheet: The following written language analysis proforma should help you to explore texts to work out what they are about and how they shape meaning. It is useful to develop a systematic approach to each text you study, focus on the language forms and features and write detailed notes. This sheet offers a fairly comprehensive list of language techniques, so remember that some will be relevant to one text but not another.

TEXT: Chapter/Pages/Scene

Written language forms & features Notes and examples Form

Purpose

Audience

Structure (the way in which ideas/content are organised). Check against the usual organisation of content in a particular text type/form eg. feature article.

Sentence structure and punctuation, grammatical structure • simple

• compound

• complex Effect of the structure:

• short: generally create a sense of abruptness, immediacy, movement

• loose: a number of linked clauses, often resembling spoken language, which create a flowing mood or sense of rambling

• periodic: main idea at the end of a series of linked clauses, has the effect of emphasising a particular point or idea, building to a climax or anticlimax

• complex: generally more formal, often found in a stylised, sophisticated piece of writing; possibly giving the writing more authority

Word choice and language devices strong verbs, descriptive words (adjectives and adverbs), emotive language, personification, similes/metaphors, connotations, clichés, puns, alliteration, assonance, rhyme, rhythm, onomatopoeia … (some of these my be more relevant to poetry than prose)

Rhetorical features (to compare, contrast, emphasis)

• rhetorical questions

• juxtaposition

• analogy

• antithesis

• irony

Point of view 1st, 2nd or 3rd person narration? How do you know this? Is there only one point of view? If there is, how does the author represent this?

Voice/tone/mood How is language used to convey this? Are there any changes? Is the tone ironic, satiric, serious, light hearted or ?

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Film Language Analysis Sheet: The following written language analysis proforma should help you to explore texts to work out what they are about and how they shape meaning. It is useful to develop a systematic approach to each text you study, focus on the language forms and features and write detailed notes. This sheet offers a fairly comprehensive list of language techniques, so remember that some will be relevant to one text but not another.

TEXT:

Film Language forms/features Notes and examples

Form: feature film, short film, documentary, animation, TV program, advertisment …

Purpose: to satirise, amuse, illustrate, demonstrate, advertise, persuade …

Audience

Context

Textual Style factual historical fictional humorous satiric

Structure/Form • What does the title mean in relation to the film as a whole?

• How are the opening credits presented? Do they relate to meaning?

• Why does the film start in the way that it does?

• Filmic techniques?

• Are there any motifs (scenes, images) of dialogue which are repeated? What purpose do they serve?

• What three or four sequences are most important in the film? Why?

• Non-diegetic sound: voice- overs, music?

• Is sound used in any vivid ways either to enhance the film? (i.e. enhance drama, heighten tension, disorient the viewer, etc.)

• How does the film use color or light/dark to suggest tone and mood in different scenes?

• Whose perspective is given? Why?

• Are there any striking uses of perspective (seeing through a character's eyes, camera angle, etc.) How does this relate to the meaning of the scene?

• How and when are scenes cut? Are there any patterns in the way the cuts function?

• What specific scene constitutes the film's climax? How does this scene resolve the central issue of the film?

• Does the film leave any disunities (loose ends) at the end? If so, what does it suggest?

THEME • What issues and questions are suggested or evoked by the film?

• Does the film present a clear point-of-view on your topic? How?

• Are there any aspects of theme which are left ambiguous at the end? Why?

• How does this film relate to the other literary texts you are familiar with?

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Begin with your

MOTHERHOOD STATEMENT

(conceptual idea/thesis)

AMPLIFY by describing the

assumptions behind your

thesis or provide greater

detail about your thesis.

M

A

Identify the composer’s

choice of TECHNIQUE (or

structure/stylistic feature).

Example: Incorporate quote

or textual reference.

Effect: Explain the

effectiveness of this

technique/feature on the

responder and how it

supports your thesis.

T

E

Repeat T & E for several

techniques

(aim for 4 techniques per paragraph)

Conclude paragraph with a

SUMMARY statement about

what we learn or understand

as a result of this text. This

should make a link to your

topic (first) sentence.

S

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Paragraph Marking Guidelines Mark: ……………….. • Well-focused and persuasive analysis of the text/s in terms of the question.

• Strongly argues a personal response with significant insight and understanding.

• Appropriate and specific text references used to support analysis.

• Highly effective control of mechanics

13-15

• Sound analysis of the text/s in terms of the question

• Argues a personal response with some insight and understanding

• Suitable text references used to support analysis

• Sound control of mechanics

10-12

• Minimal analysis of the text/s in terms of the question. Reverts to retelling the text rather than analysing it, OR response

does not meet the terms of the question.

• Argument/s are plausible, however need greater development

• Minimal text references used, OR those used do not support the response

• Adequate control of mechanics. Meaning is still clear, however errors are present.

7-9

• Inadequate analysis (partial, unconvincing or irrelevant) of the text/s in terms of the question.

• Response lacks a plausible argument, often characterised by an unfocused, oversimplified or repetitive presentation of ideas.

• Absence of textual references, OR those used are incorrect

• Limited control of mechanics. Errors affect the meaning of the response.

4-6

• Unacceptably brief response

• Incoherent in presentation of ideas

• No supporting evidence of any kind.

• Control of mechanics flawed. Meaning is affected.

1-3

• Non- attempt OR virtual non-attempt 0

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PARAGRAPH EXEMPLAR (MATES) – colour code each elements of

‘MATES’ in the paragraph below.

How has the concept of journeys been represented in your text?

Journeys can be negative and or life-changing. They can involve

hardship and loss, creating negative attitudes and emotions for the

participants. Bruce Dawe’s poem, Drifters, explores the negative

impact of a pending journey on the wife of an itinerant farm worker.

Dawe has written his poem in free verse that details the reaction of

the woman through an anonymous, detached narrator. We feel as

though we are observing the woman and are made to understand the

resignation with which she accepts this journey. A fruit motif is used

throughout to indicate the short period in which the family has been

at the latest location. Berries were ‘bright’ when they first arrived

and now on the eve of their departure the vines contain their ‘last

shriveled fruit’. This motif allows us to understand that only months

have elapsed before they will leave on their latest journey. Before

leaving the woman will ‘pick all the green tomatoes from the vine’ in

an attempt to salvage something of her investment in this latest

place. There is a pathos in her action as we see her try to derive

some benefit from her stay here through the symbol of the green

tomatoes. The final line uses repetition, ‘Make a wish, Tom, make a

wish’, as the wife hopes that her husband would share the wish to

settle down in one location and leave the hardship of an itinerant life

behind. We find ourselves wishing it for her as she is powerless to

achieve stability for her family. Dawe effectively reveals that not all

journeys are welcome and we understand that they can in fact be a

burden to be endured.

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Media Text Types

o Newspaper reports

o Newspaper/Magazine Feature Articles

o Brochures and Advertisements

o Letters to the Editor

o Editorial

o Diaries / Memoirs

o Reviews

o Interviews

o Speeches

o Songs

o Visual texts eg cartoons, posters, promotional material

o Information Reports

o Documentaries

o Multi- Media – Radio, Television, Film

Newspaper Reports

Common features

• Tabloids target a mass audience

• They present ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ news and package it in entertaining,

sensationalised ways

• Column layout is used to make the report easier to read.

• Graphics add visual information are used to add interest and variety

• Sub-headings are sometimes used if the report is lengthy.

• Newspapers aim to present the news in the form of clear, unbiased factual

reports

• The most important details are usually given first. This is often described in

textbooks as an inverted pyramid structure. This approach ensures that the

bulk of the information is found in the heading or opening paragraph of the

news report.

• Six basic questions of who, when, where, what, why and how are quickly

addressed. Sometimes in a very short news report this can be done in the

first few sentences.

• The headline is short, direct and eye-catching. It aims to summarise the main

focus of the report.

• The introductory paragraph or ‘lead’ enables the reader to scan the main

facts quickly.

• Topics are ‘high-interest’ and can relate to regional, national or international

events depending on the geographical circulation.

• If the topic is considered significant such as a war battle or a political

scandal, often some background details are also given within the report.

Such details are seen as appropriate in clarifying the issues that are

concerned.

• Some eyewitness accounts can also be given for further detail.

• No conclusion is normally given

• The overall tone should therefore be impersonal, objective and unbiased

• The writer’s opinion is not called for and should not be given.

• It is inappropriate for journalists to use emotive terms or frequent adjectives.

Their role is to report the news rather than pass comment or judgement on it.

• Dramatic words are often used however to make a story seem more

sensational even though vocabulary should remain fairly neutral rather than

chatty or colloquial in tone.

Style

• Headlines do not use normal sentence structure. Words are often left out to

make the tone more attention getting and dramatic.

• Sentences tend to be declarative statements rather than questions, commands

or exclamations. Compound or complex sentences are used only sparingly.

• Paragraphs are short and usually present only one main idea. They are

typically about 25-30 words in length and often only contain one sentence.

They often begin with sequencing words such as ‘then’, or ‘after’.

• Numbers from 1-10 are written as words but for numbers more than ten

numerals are used.

• People’s names are written in full at first but thereafter only as Christian

names or by their title.

• Key words or names are used as cohesive ties that are repeated from one

paragraph to the next. Time references are also used to link paragraphs.

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• Pronouns are used such as ‘he said’ or ‘she said’ to replace nouns in order to

avoid monotonous repetition.

• Individual quotes may use emotive or colloquial language

• Third person narrative is used throughout except for direct speech quotations

which are written in first person narrative. Journalist do not use “I”

statements,

• Hyphenation at the end of the line is common

• direct speech is put in quotation marks

• indirect, reported speech is also used-no quotation marks Mrs brown

said…………

Tense

• Use of the active voice in the past tense, in the body of the article

• headlines are written in the present tense

• Main body of report will be written in the past tense

• Present tense occurs when the report is describing current situation

Graphics

• Accompanying photograph supports the story and the headline. It often

contains pictures of key figures mentioned in the article or an important

setting that is referred to. It is also a dramatic shot or an unusual or

unflattering angle to catch the eye of the reader. Usually only one graphic is

used and then only if the report is long enough to warrant visual clarification

or added interest.

• Captions are used below the graphic to briefly clarify the picture and

identify the focus of the report.

Feature Articles

Common features

• Feature Articles are commonly found in newspapers but are especially popular in

magazines and online.

• They vary in style according to context and audience.

• They differ from newspapers in that they are less ‘news’ focused.

• They are more topical in their approach to subject matter and they offer

far more information than the factual framework found in newspaper reports.

• They often target a particular audience, and so the language and style is often

suited to a particular market interest.

• They are often informative and deal with high interest topics which can be current,

controversial or human interest in subject matter.

• Feature articles aim to inform, entertain, persuade or convince their readers

to agree with the writer’s point of view.

• Being more detailed than news reports, they often explore an issue quite

extensively in terms of timeframe or the amount of background information.

• Information is presented in fairly simple terms by means of short paragraphs

and introductory and concluding sections.

• The writer’s personal impressions, attitudes and opinions are often included.

Presentation is is often eye-catching in terms of layout and the use of colour.

• The language is often quite informal and colloquial in tone.

• Personal anecdotes and details as well as direct quotes is commonly found.

Drop quotes, sub-headings and graphics add visual interest and maintain

reader focus.

• A persuasive tone is used which is marked by emotive vocabulary.

• Key personalities that are associated with the topic are often presented in

depth, presenting details about their personalities, actions and experiences.

• The introduction or lead section still needs to grab the reader’s attention but

unlike that of a news report, it tends to be more imaginative in nature in

feature articles. It can include for example extra features such as a statistic,

rhetorical question or a quote.

• A circular structure is often found within the article with the conclusion

returning to an earlier, significant statement or idea.

• Issues tend to relate to contemporary, social concerns or events.

• Graphics, graphs, lists, etc are frequently used to add factual detail as well as

variety.

Style

• Linking words and sentences are often used between the paragraphs to

maintain the flow and development of ideas.

• Direct and indirect speech is used to report people’s ideas and beliefs.

• Jargon can add authenticity to information and opinions that are presented.

• Factual evidence is often used to validate the writer’s viewpoint about the

topic.

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• Language is often far more descriptive in style than that found in news

reports. Often use is made of figurative techniques such as symbolism and

imagery.

• Wit, irony and other forms of humour are also frequently used, especially in

headlines where the journalist often wants to give an emotional punch-line.

• A concluding observation about the issue is often presented.

• Drop quotes are used to summarise and emphasise a key concern that is

raised. These also add visual variety to the layout format.

• Colour imagery is often incorporated to enhance the article’s visual

appearance.

• First person narrative and an informal, colloquial style of language is used.

• A more personal, opinionated, subjective tone is used compared to news

reports.

• Humour, exaggeration and anecdotes are often used to engage the reader

Brochures and Advertisements

All forms of advertising are characterised by the following four AIDA principles:

• Attention-the consumer’s attention must be caught. This is done

through the use of things such as striking graphics, catchy headings and

innovative use of layout and colour.

• Interest-the potential buyer’s interest must be aroused and this is

achieved by making a range of emotive appeals.

• Desire- Interest must be heightened by a strong desire to possess the

product. The language used to promote the virtues of what is being sold, often

makes more subtle appeals to the emotional psyche of the target audience.

This can be done at the conscious or sub-conscious level by appealing to

desires such as health, fitness, beauty and status.

• Action-Desire is made urgent by implications that immediate action is

required. Language which implies discounts, special or limited offers or

similar benefits is often sufficient to make the would-be buyer follow

instructions and promply fill in the coupon or phone a certain number.

Common Features:

• Advertisements can be are highly exaggerated and biased.

• sensory appeals that are made to readers

• Persuasive language techniques are used

• Tone can be conversational and personable

• Beautiful and visually striking images are often used to evoke strong

emotions in the would be client.

• Eye-catching illustrations provide emotional stimulus by communicating

perceptions of pleasure, relaxation, freedom or anticipation.

• Broad generalisations and repetition of key words add appeal.

• Emotive terminology and connotations are used to ‘tempt’ the reader to

indulge or experience something that is desirable.

• Superlatives such as ‘the most exciting’, ‘exotic’ or ‘gorgeous’ are used to

boost appeal.

• Varied rhetorical methods such as rhetorical questions, alliteration or

assonance are used to gain attention or to create pleasing rhymes.

• A sense of urgency is created to pressure the reader into responding by the

use of truncated phrases or sentences.

• Personal pronouns are used to involve the reader.

• Figurative methods such as similes, metaphors and hyperbole are used to

describe places and experiences by appealing to the senses or using

exaggeration, symbolism or imagery.

• Imperative words and phrases such as ‘stop’,‘act now!, ‘Start today!’ are

attention grabbing techniques that create a demand for immediate action.

• Punctuation devices such as colons, dashes, exclamations are eye catching

and can add a sense of drama.

• Information is often given a pseudo scientific feel or recommended via

personal endorsement.

• Appeals to authority are often made with uniformed images of airline pilots

or ship captains.

• Psychology is used to appeal to basic human needs and desires such as

acceptability or status.

Letters to the Editor

Typical Features

• This is a brief letter that is written to a newspaper or magazine by a reader.

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• It contains the writer’s personal opinion on a current issue and is usually

short and succinct in style.

• Typically, the writer feels strongly about a topic or issue that is currently

being aired in the press or other media. This offers an opportunity for

average people to voice their opinions publicly.

• Aims to persuade and influence the views of other readers.

• Sometimes a letter will try to challenge or refute ideas that are presented in

editorials or elsewhere in the paper. At other times they may support and

endorse a particular idea.

Language Style

• Letters are commonly only two to three short paragraphs.

• Present tense is often used which emphasises the current issues being

discussed.

• The letter presents a line of argument that is usually opened by a forceful

statement. This establishes the central viewpoint and often makes reference

to another letter or source.

• The writer’s feelings are often forcefully presented.

• Short sentences and paragraphs are commonly used to present arguments

• Supporting information is used as evidence.

• Cohesive ties are used to link points in the argument.

• Emotive, personal language is used to convey the author’s attitude.

• Rhetorical questions are often used to emphasise a point.

• Language is often subjective and opinionative

• Tone can be abrasive, angry, sarcastic or ironic. Often it is pitched towards a

specific audience relating to the topic in terms of age or culture.

• Key words and phrases are often repeated

• ‘I” statements predominate but occasionally, second-person (you) narrative

is also used to speak directly to readers

• A strong concluding statement is often given to reaffirm the point being

made.

• The writer’s name and address is given at the end to authenticate the letter.

Editorials

Common Features

• Sometimes written by the editor, especially in smaller papers, but more

commonly it is written by a senior journalist on behalf of the editor.

• A formal style and a serious tone is commonly used.

• Often the editorial is placed on the same page as the letters to the editor and

the satirical cartoon.

• It is normally located below the paper’s masthead and a headline

• An important, current issue or event is usually the topic. The editorial

presents an explanatory opinion that represents the newspapers stance.

• A lead paragraphs with a short summary of the ‘news’ under discussion is

normally given.

• The editorial aims to give the newspaper’s official view and comments on

current events and issues in the news

• It offers an informed opinion which is presented in the form of an argument

rather than a ‘news’ format.

• It aims to persuade the reader and encourage them to reflect on a topic.

Social issues are often the topic and forceful language is not unusual.

Style

• A higher reading level than that used in reports elsewhere in the paper is

used. This is meant to reflect the knowledge and education of the writer. It is

marked by a more complex sentence structure and a broader vocabulary.

• Manipulative language techniques are used such as persuasive and emotive

language as well as the inclusion of quotes, statistics, analogies,

comparisons or expert comment.

• Inclusive language includes the readers as sharing the expressed opinion

• Qualifying terms such as ‘possibly’, ‘likely’ or ‘normally’ are often used to

give a philosophic or discursive tone.

• Opening paragraph states the topic which is then later developed

• Editorial is set out as a single vertical column, often in larger font size.

• Connectives such as ‘then’, ‘firstly’ and so one are used to establish

sequence,

• Sections of the editorial are often bolded or underlined to emphasise points.

Diaries

• Diaries can often reveal the writer’s deepest fears, secrets or aspirations.

• Unlike letters, diary entries are normally written for personal consumption;

designed for no eyes other than those of the writer.

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• This personal quality often gives a diary entry a raw and brutal honesty often

lacking in other types of communication lack.

• Whatever the character of the diarist, they will reveal themselves more

openly within this type of format.

• Readers are given access to thoughts, feelings, recollections and attiutudes.

Memoirs

• Memoirs differ in several ways from letters and diary entries because they

are meant for a public audience.

• This audience factor impacts on the register as well as the content of what is

written.

• There is a tendency for bias, selectivity and editing.

• The purpose of memoirs is normally to set the record straight about an

important event or period but they can become a forum for altering

perspectives and perceptions of people and events.

• The writer tends to be someone of high status or authority whose

interpretations can be respected.

• Sometimes they are written by someone who is a controversial figure such

as a politician or a military figure who might be offering a different version

of history.

• The fact that a memoir is written often long after the events have ocurred

also has impact on what is said.

• Hindsight and the benefit of reflection and reassessment often alters

attitudes held at the time.

Interviews

Interviews are a popular form of entertainment and forums can be live or pre-corded

or written. They can be found in all forms of the mass media, in print, television,

radio and online. The particular medium used dictates slight differences to the

format and/or style of the interview but in essence the typical features remain the

same. The subject matter and interview style used in print media is very similar to

those found on radio and television. Dialogue techniques are merely replaced by

journalistic features. The online interviews tend to combine the best of both media

worlds, often having links to audio or video material as well as the textual

information of question and answer.

Common Features

• Whatever the context, the information that is presented within an interview

format gives the responder insight into another person’s life, situation or

area of expertise.

• Information is presented via a series of questions and answers which explore

the topic being covered.

• Discussion is free-flowing and the pace is manipulated so that ‘dull’ patches

are avoided where possible.

• The host guides, encourages and challenges the interviewee to be open up to

the audience.

• The main purpose is to obtain information. The host will often begin by

summarising some main points of interest or details about the guest and

introduce them to the audience.

• Questioning styles vary and a degree of interviewing skill is required to

make the guest reveal interesting information about themselves and to keep

the conversation flowing well.

• Questions tend to relate to the same areas of interest that are used in

newspaper reports and feature articles, namely: Who, What, When, Why,

Where and How.

• ‘Open’ questions are used to encourage the interviewee to answer at length

but require only a minimal input from the interviewer.

• ‘Closed’ Question are used by the interviewer to obtain specific information

on specific topics

• ‘Probing’ questions are used to gain further information about a particular

point of interest that the interviewer wants expanded.

• ‘Hypothetical’ Questions are sometimes used, especially in spoken

interviews and typically in the concluding section of the interview.

• A friendly, conversational and realistic tone is often created by the use of

informal or semi-formal language.

• This personal tone is emphasised by the use of second person narrative,

‘you’

• Anecdotal snippets and human interest details are often used.

• Audiences enjoy the directness of an interview. The perception is that the

interviewee is speaking personally and honestly, directly to the audience.

• There is often a sense of an interview being uncensored although in reality

the questions are normally vetted by the interviewee before the interview. In

the vast majority of cases, they have knowledge of what they will be asked.

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• Humour is often used to encourage the interviewee to relax and answer more

freely.

• The focus remains on the interviewee. The host’s role is to facilitate

disclosures.

Television and Radio Interviews

Subject Matter

• The main purpose is to obtain information. The host will often begin the

interview by summarising the main points of interest or details about the

guest and introducing them to the audience. This sets the situation and

establishes the interview context.

• A series of questions and answers gives a snapshot perspective of the

interviewee’s life, experiences or interests.

• Normally the rich, famous or controversial are the subjects of interviews.

Audiences are interested in people whose lives seem more interesting than

their own. The revelation of details from a personal perspective accounts in

part for the popularity of the form.

• Questioning styles vary and a degree of interviewing skill is required to

make the guest reveal interesting information about themselves and to keep

the conversation flowing well.

• Questions tend to relate to the same areas of interest that are used in

newspaper reports and feature articles, namely: Who, What, When, Why,

Where and How.

• ‘Open’ questions encourage the interviewee to answer at length but require

only a minimal input from the interviewer.

• ‘Closed’ Question-Used by the interviewer to obtain specific information on

specific topics

• ‘Probing’ questions seek out further information about a particular point of

interest that the interviewer wants expanded. They are often used by the host

to fill in any gaps in the conversation.

• ‘Hypothetical’ Questions are sometimes used, especially in spoken

interviews and typically in the concluding section of the interview.

Style

• A friendly, conversational and realistic tone is often created by the use of

informal or semi-formal language.

• This personal tone is emphasised by the use of second person narrative,

‘you’

• Anecdotal snippets are used to fill in background, human interest details.

These are often supplied by the host as part of his research into the

background of the interviewee. They can be used to tease out an answer or

clarify a point being made.

• Audiences enjoy the directness of an interview. The perception is

deliberately generated that the interviewee is speaking personally and

honestly, directly to the audience.

• Relevant jargon and a colloquial tone adds credibility. It makes the process

more personable and creates a closer link with readers

• A fast moving interview is marked by a high level of interaction between

host and guest where conversation flows easily and ideas bounce off each

other.

• Conversation is responsive, impacted on by what rises out of the interview

process itself. It is also affected by other variables such as pace, pitch and

volume, especially if an argument or heated exchange occurs.

• There is often a sense of an interview being uncensored although in reality

the questions are normally vetted by the interviewee before the interview. In

the vast majority of cases, they have knowledge of what they will be asked.

• Humour is often used to encourage the interviewee to relax and answer more

freely.

• The use of a second person (you) establishes a conversational tone

• Details are selected to support a particular image of the subject

Print / Online interviews

Common Features

• The subject matter and interview style is very similar to those found on radio

and television. However, dialogue techniques are replaced by journalistic

features.

• The online interviews tend to combine the best of both media worlds, often

having links to audio or video material as well as the textual information of

question and answer.

• The special focus area relating to the person being interviewed is shown by

the use of names, titles, locations, dates and so on.

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• Background information is often summarised at the beginning. Readers can

scan this material quickly. The context is therefore created much more

quickly than in a spoken interview.

• Most questions are kept short although there can be wide variations in the

length of sentences or answers.

• The focus remains on the interviewee. The host’s role is to facilitate

disclosures.

• Many casual and colloquial words are used to create the impression of a

‘spoken’ rather than reported interview. A written interview often lacks the

immediacy of a spoken one and this is an attempt to overcome this

limitation.

• Cohesive ties between the questions and responses are created by the use of

link words or phrases such as ‘so’ and ‘looking back’.

• Contracted words are used such as; ‘you’ve’ and ‘doesn’t’ to create a

conversational tone.

• Verb tenses are mixed to create a sense of immediacy.

• Wide range of punctuation marks used including ellipsis, colons and so on.

• Colons are used after the reporter’s name or the name of the magazine at

start of each question which is indicated by a question mark. This clarifies

the questions and answers for the reader.

• Inverted commas are not used around questions and answers. It is not

presented as direct speech.

• No formal conclusion is given. The interview ends with a final answer that

is followed by asterisk, symbol, or the interviewer’s name.

• The Headline is followed by a paragraph introduction

• Questions are presented in short blocks without paragraphs being used

• Answers are often presented in a different font from the questions

• A variety of font sizes, styles and colours are used. Often the width of

columns is also varied to show the difference between questions and

answers.

• Questions often begin with ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘why’, ‘where’ and ‘how’

questions. They also both second (you) and third person narrative (she/he)

Speeches or Lectures

The key features of dialogue texts can be shown as:

Purpose + Audience = Register

Purpose – What is the motivation behind the speech? Is it political, spiritual,

educational, propagandist or whatever?

Audience - Who exactly is the targeted audience? Is it an on site audience or is the

speech meant to be broadcast on radio or television?

Register – What stylistic features are evident in the language of the speech? What

tone, level of language, word choice, emphasis and so on?

Effective speeches are usually highly polished and carefully constructed forms of

communication. The contextual features of speaker, audience, purpose, impact

strongly on what is said and how it is delivered to listeners. Because a speech is a

spoken text, the actual theatrical qualities of its delivery are also very important.

This includes features such as pauses, tone, flow and volume.

Speech makers often try to tap into the imagination of their listeners. A number of

rhetorical or propagandist devices such as repetition can be used to hook the

listener’s attention. Audiences can be asked to speculate or imagine places, people or

events which are colourfully described or evoked to make them more vivid. Specific

language techniques such as the use of trigger words or ideas that appeal to the

audience’s emotions or values help hold attention and interest. Delivery must be

clear and assured to be effective. What is said must be made memorable to the

audience through the use of dramatic pauses or the build up of tension or emotion.

Common Features

• Can be both long and short. Longer speeches run the risk of losing their

audience unless the material is packaged in ways that remain interesting.

• Are often emotionally engaging. They can easilywhip up enthusiasm in a

crowd and rally support for a cause.

• Speech or oratory has the ability to manipulate the listener by appealing to

the emotions and en masse this has the power to shape public opinion and

beliefs.

• Speeches are a public medium, different in nature to private conversation.

• Context tends to determine the level of language that is used to present a

speech. A highly structured environment, public or solemn occasion such as

the funeral of a famous explorer would necessitate a formal level of

language. A speech however given to farewell a traveller heading off on the

adventure of a lifetime would probably be presented colloquially.

• Famous speakers throughout history have used and abused this power to

sway the masses

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• Politicians and philosophers have used speeches to inform, criticise,

encourage, inspire or to brainwash.

• Effective orators have been able to tap into people’s emotions and beliefs.

• Speeches are an effective way to communicate information to a large

gathering of people. As a spoken text it caters to a broad cross-section of the

population

• The best speeches are not impromptu but well prepared and rehearsed.

• Subject matter can be extremely broad but to be effectively understood, it

needs to be appropriate to the assembled audience and immediate context

• Speeches need to be correctly pitched in terms of topic, register and

delivery.

• A sense of presence and purpose must be generated by the speaker if what is

said is to have impact. The speaker needs to seem an imposing figure.

• The key topic of the speech must be clearly conveyed.

• The base argument must be repeated so that the message is well supported

and remembered by the listener.

• The opening of a speech aims to ‘hook’ the audience’s attention.

• The audience are usually directly addressed at key points in the speech to

jog attention and maintain interest.

• A clear structure is required to help clarify points raised.

• Information should be presented in short, well constructed segments that are

logically linked.

• The conclusion usually reinforces the central point of the speech and

encourage a specific action or belief in the listener.

Style

• Language features such as the use of rhetorical questions, evocative images,

anecdotes or the use of wit, irony or sarcasm can help reinforce ideas in an

entertaining way.

• Points can be effectively supported by facts, figures, jokes and quotations

• Interesting and appropriate examples should be incorporated throughout.

• A strong sense of confidence and sincerity within the speaker should be

generated to make them seem more personal and influential to listeners.

• Words need to be carefully chosen so that concentration can be maintained

• Core ideas need to be kept clear without being made monotonous by too

much repetition.

• An engaging personality, body language and voice can make it easier for the

listener to become emotionally and intellectually linked to the speaker.

• A forceful delivery is required is the audience is to continue ‘listening’

rather than tuning out.

Song Texts

Songs in general can be examined in terms of:

• Subject matter- What is it about?

• Purpose-What does the lyricist hope to communicate to the listener?

• Structure- What structure has been used and why? Are refrains or choruses

used? To what effect?

• Style- What mood, tone or style is evident in the song?

• Language – What diction, tone, figurative techniques etc have been used

and why?

• Themes – What main ideas or concepts are developed within the song?

• Symbolism / Imagery- What key symbols or images are used and why?

Songs are characteristed as being a condensed form of expression where meaning

can be packed into a few words. They tend to be short and ideas are often kept fairly

simple and repetitive. This is because it can often be more difficult for listeners to

concentrate when they do not have the words in front of them to go over. Central

ideas or themes are typically easy to identify.

Visual Texts

There are many types of visual images that are used within media texts. They are

highly effective because visual images can often communicate information more

quickly and easily than words. Techniques can vary depending on the type of visual

that is used and the particular medium in which they are found. The composer’s

intention can include wanting to amuse, inform or persuade the viewer and this

impacts on the visual methods that are used. When analysing any visual text, subject

matter, framing, size and position, bias, message and written text if applicable, are

among the typical criteria that is examined. Cartoon s are one media text that fully

utilise the power of visuals to communicate ideas.

Cartoons

Response Guidelines- Examine the following when studying cartoons

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Subject Matter � Identify what is shown in the cartoon.

� Evaluate what action is being shown and consider what it signifies.

� Examine what sort of figures are shown .

� What is happening in the background, is it simple or complicated?

Framing

� Does the cartoon have a single frame structure or is it a strip cartoon that

tells a visual narrative?

� Does the frame, if there is one, isolate the visual image from the text in

any way or are they integrated within the frame/

� Does the framing help shape the meaning?

Size and Position � How large are the figures within the cartoon? Do they dominate the

frame or are they peripheral to what is being shown?

� How has the visual been cropped? What is focused on and why?

Bias � What perceptions are created by the expressions used? Are there

obvious villains and heroes or are they figures depicted as neutral?

� What emotional context is created, why and how?

Message � What is the cartoonist saying via the visuals and text?

� What is being ridiculed or criticised?

� What impression does the cartoonist want to create on the viewer?

� What visual techniques have been used to emphasise the message? How

effective have they been?

Written text � Have labels, speech balloons or captions been used to reinforce the

visual message being given?

� How does the text add to the meaning?

� How is emotional impact conveyed by the words that are used?

Common Features:

• Cartoons often use lighthearted satire and visual humour as a way of poking

fun or raising awareness of some subject.

• Their message may be politial, economic or social in tone and the

cartoonist’s approach can be subtle or blunt.

• Satiric methods often include:

• Exaggeration

• Distortion

• Caricature

• Paradox

• Wordplay in the form of puns or idiom

• Stereotypes and symbols

• Simple, single frame visuals with just a caption or speech balloon

Information Report

Typical features

• Reports are highly organised bodies of information that relate to a core topic

or issue.

• Data is presented logically, methodically and sequentially under headings

and subheadings.

• Report in content and style is targeted to its audience

• Material is categorised into compartments that are linked and developed

• The central structural framework is often referred to as the outline.

• Reports aim to thoroughly investigate something and reach conclusions

based on the evidence found.

• Conclusions and recommendations in relation to the topic under review are

also given.

• Reports are used especially in business to guide future transactions and

decision making.

Style

• Technical, scientific, medical or even Latin terms can be used to give greater

validity and kudos to the report.

• Language is formal, precise, explicit and objective in tone.

• Concrete rather than abstract terms are used

• Ideas that are being presented should sound impartial

• Sentences short and to the point rather than long and rambling

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• Simple and concrete explanations are used rather than complex and abstract

comments or observations.

• Clarity is enhanced by using comparative techniques

• The structure makes the information more accessible to readers by breaking

the data into sections.

• A general introduction is often included where important terms are defined

and a summary of the information is given.

• Problem or issue is clearly outlined in the introduction section

• A series of statements follow that succinctly present the facts

• Headings and sub-headings are used to label each section and these are often

numbered.

• Feasible recommendations are given in the conclusion

Documentaries

Documentaries of every style and topic are very popular forms of media

entertainment. The Discovery Channel has them as staple fare and they are found on

all the major television channels. They can be low or high budget, single programs

or serialised, hosted by well known personalities or relative unknowns. What is

common about them however is that they take the viewer on an imaginative journey

retracing the steps of the narrator.

Common features

• Travel documentaries have a particular slant or focus. This can relate to

place, cost, means of transport and so on.

• They provide insight into different parts of the world and offer new

perceptions of places that might otherwise remain unknown to the viewer

• Selected details manipulate the viewer’s perspective and opinions about

what is being represented.

• Bias and impartiality is often difficult to detect because the information has

been sifted and categorised beforehand.

• The medium allows a certain view of the travel topic being presented to be

carefully constructed.

• A persuasive point of view is presented which colours the information

provided

• A travel narrative becomes the main framework for the program

Style

• The format manipulates the subject matter and lends authority and

credibility to the narrator.

• The program provides a snapshot illusion of reality, often couched in an

‘info-television’ style with little real substance or depth of information.

• Maps, graphics and other travel memorabilia act as explanatory devices that

enhance the validity of what is being presented.

• Background music and sound effects help create ambiance and realism to

what in many cases are disjointed odds and ends of information.

• Emotional impact is created by a range of audio-visual techniques

• A conversational tone is sometimes created by the use of clichés and

colloquialisms which also add a sense of intimacy and companionship.

Multi-media Texts

Multi-media is an ever-expanding field of communication and includes radio,

television and websites. The interactive nature of the medium makes them appealing

and popular. Material can be altered quickly and removed when it becomes outdated

or superceded. The ability to remain ‘current’ is favoured by advertisers who make

extensive use of multi-media texts. Mass communication mediums of radio,

television and film are powerful communicators as shown by the hysteria created by

Radio in 1938 when America was led to believe that it was being invaded by

Martians in Orson Welles’ boardcast of “The War of the Worlds”.

Film

“Film, the most powerful medium in the world, is awesome in its ability to change

thinking and behavior. It has no peer in its power to impart concepts, ideas, and

information quickly, interestingly, and, if it is well crafted-indelibly.” (Film

Critic -Marion Blue)

Initial viewing- Take notes on the following

• Opening Scene- how is the viewer’s interest caught?

• Whose point of view is the film presented through?

• What unities of time, place and action are used?

• What central themes or ideas are developed within the film?

• How is the protagonist characterised?

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• How is the antagonists characterised?

• What is the protagonist’s goal/purpose?

• What does the film portray about the film’s world and context? What insight

if any is given?

• What impact is made on the viewer?

• What cinematic techniques are used to appeal to the viewer’s senses and

maintain their interest?

• What conflicts are developed?

• What key scenes and quotes are memorable?

Polishing Stage- Preparing study notes

• Use Film glossary terms to describe cinematic features relating to

camerawork, lighting, sets, intercutting shots and so on.

• Focus on the fact that film narratives tell their stories through images rather

than words. Look carefully at how visuals have been used to set the scene,

build atmosphere and involve the viewer. This means that mis en scene

elements, camera angles and shots need to be analysed, especially in key

scenes to determine the impact of tracking, tilt, zoom, close up shots and so

on.

• Auditory techniques are equally important in creating the film world. These

relate to dialogue, music, sound effects and voiceover/narration.