Stage 6 English Reference Booklet This booklet incorporates the content

of English in Stages 4 & 5 to assist your study of the Stage 6 Course.

Make it your first point of reference when deconstructing and analysing texts.

Email: jlans@parra.catholic.edu.au

A GLOSSARY OF KEY WORDS

Syllabus outcomes, objectives, performance bands and examination questions have key words that state what students are expected to be able to do. A glossary of key words has been developed to help provide a common language and consistent meaning in the Higher School Certificate documents. Using the glossary will help teachers and students understand what is expected in responses to examinations and assessment tasks.

Account Account for: state reasons for, report on. Give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions

Analyse Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate implications

Apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation

Appreciate Make a judgement about the value of

Assess Make a judgment of value, quality, outcomes, results or size

Calculate Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information

Clarify Make clear or plain

Classify Arrange or include in classes/categories

Compare Show how things are similar or different

Construct Make; build; put together items or arguments

Contrast Show how things are different or opposite

Critically (analysis/evaluate)

Add a degree or level of accuracy depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to (analyse/evaluation)

Deduce Draw conclusions

Define State meaning and identify essential qualities

Demonstrate Show by example

Describe Provide characteristics and features

Discuss Identify issues and provide points for and/or against

Distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences between

Evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of

Examine Inquire into

Explain Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how

Extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details

Extrapolate Infer from what is known

Identify Recognise and name

Interpret Draw meaning from

Investigate Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about

Justify Support an argument or conclusion

Outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of

Predict Suggest what may happen based on available information

Propose Put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action

Recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences

Recommend Provide reasons in favour

Recount Retell a series of events

Summarise Express, concisely, the relevant details

Synthesise Putting together various elements to make a whole

Nominalisation

The process of changing verbs (processes), adjectives

(describers) and adverbs (circumstances) into nouns

(participants) to make writing objective and formal.

It was so silent it was frightening. The silence gave rise to fear. He was punished because he refused to participate. His refusal to participate led to his punishment. Many people move to the cities to find work. A reason for population movement is employment. Hitler invaded Poland in 1939 which marked the start of WWII in Europe. Hitler’s 1939 invasion of Poland marked the start of WWII in Europe.

NOMINALISATION WORKSHEET

-ment convert

disagree analyse

involve fail

inflate

-al safe

refuse save

survive praise

approve sleep

propose ban

arrive prove

remove add your own nominalisation examples

deny

-ance

perform

resist

appear

disappear

assist

miscellaneous

weigh

complain

apologise

forgive

lose

area of Study & CLOSE STUDY OF TEXTS In examining a text, consider the following:

1. Structures of texts:

What form (text type) has the composer chosen?

How has the composer decided to begin their text?

How has the composer developed their ideas from this point?

How has the composer brought their text to a conclusion?

narrative voice: first, second or third person; single/multiple narrators

time frame; multiple time frames; pace

cyclical, episodic, flashback

etc.

2. Language forms and stylistic features

sentence construction and variety; paragraphing, and punctuation that is striking or unusual and effective

figurative language (imagery, similes, metaphors, personification)

tone and mood

repetition; symbolism; allusion

sound devices (alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, sibilance)

word choices

rhetorical devices

visual or filmic techniques

etc.

3. Meaning

Perspective communicated by the composer and how effectively it has been created (or shaped) by choices about structures and language forms and features so as to develop a conceptual thesis/narrative elements/textual integrity.

IN SIMPLE TERMS YOU NEED TO CONSIDER:

What is being said?

What does it mean?

How is it being said?

How effectively has it been said?

What lessons/conclusions can we draw from the text?

Area of Study – Belonging/journeys PAPER 1 SECTION 1 STYLE QUESTIONS

Sample questions: What? ‘What’ type questions require you to identify one or more of the following:

the type of belonging/journeys represented (group, community, society, place, time etc)

the purpose of the text the audience of the text the concept of

belonging/journeys being represented (motherhood/thesis statement)

1-2 marks

1. What is the purpose of this text? 2. Identify the emotions/feelings about belonging/journeys

represented in this text. 3. Provide one reason for [a particular aspect of the text related

to belonging/journeys]. 4. Explore the concept of belonging/journeys represented in

this text. 5. Comment on the significance of one aspect of

belonging/journeys represented in the text. 6. Identify what sort of belonging/journeys is being represented

in the text. 7. In your own words, describe the composer’s response to the

notion of belonging/journeys as described in the text. 8. Explain the composer’s opinion about belonging/journeys

represented in this text. 9. Describe ONE aspect of belonging/journeys represented in

this text. 10. Discuss the problems/ideas conveyed by the composer about

belonging/journeys in the text.

Sample questions: How? ‘How’ type questions require you to show how meaning is created by analysing, explaining, commenting on and identifying techniques used by the composer. You should:

identify the technique/s give examples of the

technique/s show how the composer

uses the technique/s to represent their ideas about belonging/journeys

2-4 marks

1. How is belonging/journeys represented in this text? 2. Explain the techniques used to convey a particular emotion or

create a particular affect about belonging/journeys. 3. How does the composer communicate a particular attitude

about belonging/journeys in this text? 4. Choose two techniques in the text and explain how they

support an idea about belonging/journeys. 5. How does the [particular part of the text] shape your

understanding of belonging/journeys? 6. Explain how the composer’s feelings about

belonging/journeys are represented in the text. 7. Evaluate the effectiveness of [particular techniques used by

the composer] to represent an aspect of belonging/journeys. 8. analyse how the composer uses visual and/or language

techniques to convey a perspective on belonging/journeys. 9. How has the composer used visual and/or language

techniques to express an attitude to belonging/journeys? 10. Compare/contrast the representation of belonging/journeys

in [any two aspects] of the text.

Sample questions: Synthesis

‘Synthesis’ type questions requires you to analyse different perspectives on belonging/journeys from different texts so you can put together a theory/thesis about belonging/journeys. This last question could require you to write in a particular text type, like a speech or a debate, or it could ask you to simply form an argument of some kind. Often you are required to compare and contrast how belonging/journeys is represented in selected texts and analyse the effectiveness of the composer in creating meaning. 4-6 marks

1. You are to take part in a debate to argue a case about belonging/journeys. The topic is ‘Belonging/journeys is essential for wellbeing’. Choose ONE or TWO texts and use the text/s to argue for or against the topic.

2. Analyse how any TWO of the texts emphasis the difficulties/benefits of belonging/journeys to a group.

3. Select and evaluate what you consider to be the TWO most effective texts in conveying ideas about belonging/journeys. Support your response with close reference to both texts.

4. Which TWO of these texts do you find the most effective in exploring the concept of belonging/journeys? Justify your answer making detailed reference to the two texts you have chosen.

5. Each text deals with a different perspective on belonging/journeys. Choose TWO texts. Who is the intended audience for each text? How does each composer target that audience?

6. Compare and contrast the ways the concept of belong is explored in TWO texts. In your discussion, comment on the form and features of both texts.

7. Explore the ways TWO texts give a perspective on the concept of belonging/journeys.

8. All three texts convey a particular attitude towards belonging/journeys. Which text most effectively communicates this attitude? Refer to the visual and language features of all three texts in your answer.

9. Evaluate the suitability of each of the THREE texts for inclusion in a new Board of Studies Stimulus Booklet entitled Belonging/journeys.

Sample Section I (15 marks)

Text One Marks (a) Identify ONE impression of belonging/journeys that is located in this text. 1 (b) Explain ONE technique that has been used to convey this impression. 2

Text Two

(c) Identify TWO key ideas that express the composer’s feelings about belonging/journeys. 2

(d) Explain how the composer communicates his feelings about belonging/journeys. 2

Text Three

(e) Analyse how language has been used by the composer to express their attitudes

about belonging/journeys? 3 Texts One, Two and Three

(f) Which TWO of these texts do you find the most effective in exploring the complexity of belonging/journeys? Justify your response by making detailed reference to the TWO texts

you have selected.

WHAT KINDS OF CRITICAL QUESTIONS CAN WE ASK OF TEXTS?

These questions can be asked of most spoken, written, visual, multimedia and performance texts. They encourage students to question beliefs that are often taken for granted.

Critical Literacy Questions

Textual purpose(s)

1) What is this text about? How do we know? 2) Who would be most likely to read and/or view this text and why? 3) Why are we reading and/or viewing this text? 4) What does the composer of the text want us to know?

Textual structures and features 5) What are the structures and features of the text? 6) What sort of genre does the text belong to? 7) What do the images suggest? 8) What do the words suggest? 9) What kind of language is used in the text?

Construction of characters 10) How are children, teenagers or adults constructed in this text?

11) How have stereotypes or archetypes been constructed in this text? 12) Why has the composer of the text represented the characters in a particular way?

Gaps and silences 13) Are there ‘gaps’ and ‘silences’ in the text? 14) Who is missing from the text? 15) What has been left out of the text? 16) What questions about itself does the text not raise?

Power and interest 17) In whose interest is the text? 18) Who benefits from the text?

19) Is the text fair?

20) What knowledge does the reader/viewer need to bring to this text in order to understand it? 21) Which positions, voices and interests are at play in the text? 22) How is the reader or viewer positioned in relation to the composer of the text? 23) How does the text depict age, gender and/or cultural groups? 24) Whose views are excluded or privileged in the text? 25) Who is allowed to speak? Who is quoted? 26) Why is the text written the way it is?

Whose view: whose reality? 27) What view of the world is the text presenting?

28) What kinds of social realities does the text portray? 29) How does the text construct a version of reality? 30) What is real in the text? 31) How would the text be different if it were told in another time, place or culture?

Interrogating the composer 32) What kind of person, and with what interests and values, composed the text? 33) What view of the world and values does the composer of the text assume that the reader/viewer holds? How do we know?

Multiple meanings 34) What different interpretations of the text are possible? 35) How do contextual factors influence how the text is interpreted?

36) How does the text mean? 37) How else could the text have been written? 38) How does the text rely on intertextuality to create its meaning?

Glossary of Terms

Term Definition Example/s

allegory a story or situation which stands for another situation, and the whole story is symbolic.

fable such as the Hare and the Tortoise

alliteration repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words slippery snake slithered

allusion use of a reference to another story or text, either directly or by implication Achilles heel means a weak spot. This is a reference to the story of Achilles, the Greek warrior

analogy a comparison demonstrating the similarities between to things, people, situations. It can be an extended metaphor or simile that continues to provide all the reasons why.

allegories, fables, parables are examples of analogies used in narratives

antagonist traditionally defined as an opponent the bad guy or anti-hero

anthropomorphism The representation of animal characters with human characteristics Mickey Mouse, Toad (Wind in the Willows)

antithesis the opposite or contrast. Involves the balancing of one point of view against its opposite.

my soul soars; my body is grounded

assonance repetition of vowel sounds within words go home Joe

appropriation the process of taking a text from one context and using it in another context, allowing new insights into the original text

Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice – Gurinda Chadra’s Bride and Prejudice

caesura a pause within a line of verse to what was being said ... He was all hooks, my dad, and we were just the things he caught ... I can hear him now (extract from ‘The Tackle Box’ by Bruce Dawe)

characterisation the way in which a character is created and developed during a text includes explanation as to background, physical appearance, personality, strengths/weaknesses, speech and thought

chronology refers to the sequence of events related to time linear, flashbacks

cliches a phrase or expression which was once novel, but has been used so often that it lacks real meaning

love at first sight, deep and meaningful, more than meets the eye, believe it or not

colloquial words and phrases that belong to everyday speech and conversation How’s things?

composer the person who has created a text Artist – painting, cartoonist Author - literature

composition the way that a whole visual text has been put together and the arrangement of elements within the text

consideration of what has been included and what has been left out

connotations the feelings, emotions, subleties suggested by a word or phrase, as opposed to the word itself. The extra meanings that we (readers/receivers) of texts apply to words.

Father – formal relationship Dad – casual, close relationship Daddy – close, affectionate relationship with a young child Home – (a building) warmth, love, belonging, security Loser – an insulting term implying the person is hopeless

context that which is happening in the world in which a text is composed, as well as in the world of the responder.

social context = employment & intellectual status historical context = time period cultural context = nationality/ethnicity

couplet a two-line section of verse, often rhymed to make a rhyming couplet But if the while I think on thee, dear friend, All losses are restored and sorrows end. (Sonnet 30, Shakespeare)

deconstruction the breaking down and analysis of a text study of the parts of a text eg humour, music, setting

demand Used in visual texts when a figure gazes directly out of the image at the reader demanding a response

denotation The basic or dictionary definition of a word (see connotation) Loser: person or thing that loses (see connotation)

dramatic irony a situation where readers or viewers (and possibly some of the characters) have knowledge that is hidden from a character

Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare. When Romeo finds Juliet in a drugged sleep, he assumes her to be dead and kills himself. Upon awakening to find her dead lover beside her, Juliet then kills herself.

emotive language language specifically chosen to evoke and emotional response from the reader/listener. Commonly used in news media, advertising and persuasive texts.

positive – gorgeous, delicate, lovely negative – vain, fastidious, easily damaged

empathy to identify with the feelings/emotions of another person

enjambment Enjambment is the continuation of a sentence or clause over a line-break. It is derived from the French word meaning “to straddle”.

Perchance shall dry your pities; but I have That honourable grief lodged here which burns Worse than tears drown. (Shakespeare – ‘A Winter’s Tale’)

euphemism an expression to avoid directly saying something distasteful, unpleasant or confronting

dying – kicked the bucket, croaked it redundancies – down sizing, genocide – ethnic cleansing

features details of the language used in a text prose – paragraph structure, sentence construction, punctuation, imagery, word choice poetry – stanza, imagery, rhyme, rhythm

figurative language language that goes beyond the basic, factual meaning of a word and makes a comparison that cannot be understood as really true – See similes, metaphors, personification

See simile, metaphor, personification

form the medium of production. Form can also describe the text type. spoken, written or visual. News report, drama script …

framing the way that the subject is placed within a visual text

genre categories of literature and films. Each genre has certain conventions that influence the composer’s choice of subject matter, structure and language. The responder’s understanding of the text is enhanced through knowledge/expectations of genre conventions.

science-fiction, westerns, drama, comedy, action, romance, crime …

hyperbole the deliberate use of exaggeration for effect Hot of the press! I’ve told you a thousand times!

Term Definition Example/s

icons someone or something that is widely recognised in society as encompassing valued ideals or attributes

Don Bradman, Vegemite

idiom an expression or way of speaking which is peculiar to a language (local people understand it to mean something other than its literal translation)

He hit the sack. (He went to bed)

imagery when words create a picture in the responder’s mind crisp dry paddocks (gives reader a sense of the drought conditions)

intertextuality the relationship between other texts similar format or allusion to another text

irony o a tone that indicates that the responder is not intended to read the text as it appears

o dramatic irony o other types include contradictions

o sarcasm o when the audience knows more that some or all of the characters o a vegetarian who worked at McDonalds, or a flight attendant who

was afraid of enclosed spaces

jargon technical language or words associated with a particular topic megs, gigs, bits (computer jargon) scoop, stop-press, by-line (journalese)

juxtaposition when two things are placed side-by-side in order to contrast them or draw attention to their differences or similarities

if one needs to consider the concept of darkness one needs to first consider light (to deduce the absence of light)

metaphor a type of image where something is said to be something else The moon was a ghostly galleon

mise-en-scene how a film/stage scene is physically constructed includes use of lighting, props, costumes, placement of characters, choice of lenses, placement of cameras

mood the ‘feeling’ or atmosphere of a setting or the text itself. A canoe ride down rapids could be described very positively and convey an exhilarated mood. Alternatively the speed, and power of the water could be described in such a manner as to create a mood of fear and panic.

motif a recurring subject or theme in a work of art, music or literature the ‘splashes’ of colour that appear periodically in the dark setting of Gotham City in ‘Batman’

narrator the person or voice who tells the story 1st person – the story is told by a character IN the story 3rd person limited – the story is told by an anonymous voice that reveals some aspects of the story 3rd person omniscient – the story is told by an anonymous voice that sees, hears and knows everything about all the characters and their emotions

offer Visual texts in which the figure possesses an indirect gaze that does not address the reader directly.

onomatopoeia where the sound of the word itself imitates the sound being described bang, thump, screech, clank, pop

paradox a seemingly contradictory statement that contains a truth or opinion you have got to be cruel to be kind

parody an imitation or mimicking of a text, especially using exaggeration to create humour

The Chook from Snowy River (The Man from Snowy River)

personification giving human qualities/characteristics to non-human objects the icy fingers of the wind

perspective the angle from which you view a text looking over the shoulder of one character to see the face of another

protagonist central or main character the hero or subject of the text

pun a play on words, often where the words have two meanings Lifesavers advertisement – “Get a hole lot more out of life”

reading path the movement/path of a viewer’s gaze around a visual text

register the type of language chosen for a particular purpose, audience and context. difference in language used by a young person when speaking with their friends compared to speaking with their parents

rhetorical questions

a question asked for which no answer is expected. It is expected that everyone will agree with the only one possible answer and point being made by the speaker

“Do we want our children using drugs?” “If Steven jumped off a bridge, would you?”

rhyme the repetition of sound at the ends of words fast and last, behind and kind

rhythm the combination of stressed and unstressed syllables in the way words are presented or said

I had written/ him a letter/ which I had for / want of better

salience the prominence given to particular elements within the composition of an image. Typically it is certain visual techniques that create salience.

satire where the text pokes fun at something for the purpose of criticising or ridiculing it. Cartoons are often satirical

Frontline satirises current affairs programs and their ethics, Strictly Ballroom satirises ballroom dancing

sibilance The presence of strongly emphasized s, sh, ch, z, j sounds in speech to create a hissing sound. Effect of slowing the reader.

"And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain" Edgar Allen Poe

simile comparison of two objects/things using the words ‘like’ or ‘as’ Tom was as quick as a fox The diamond dazzled like the sun

slang language that is not really correct but created by particular groups in particular times

bikers, chicks

structure the organisation of a text (layout or sequence) narrative – orientation, complication, resolution linear or non-linear arrangements

symbol/symbolism symbolism occurs when something in the text stands for something abstract, such as an emotion or idea

rose – beauty snake - evil

tenses refer to the time things occur past – John walked to school. present – John is walking to school future – John will walk to school

theme central idea or argument death, money, love

tone the overall mood or attitude of the text. It is often a good indicator of the author’s purpose in composing the text

sarcastic, persuasive, serious, jovial

vector lines the thing in a visual text that directs the eye of the responder around the text a pointing finger directs the responder to the object, a line of people in a queue will direct the responder to the beginning/end of the queue.

word choice the deliberate selection of words used by a composer to produce a particular effect on the responder

The horrific attack has left the residents in a fury.

appropriated text A text which has been taken from one context and translated into another. The process of translation allows new insights into the original text and emphasises contextual differences between the two

context The range of personal, social, historical, cultural and workplace conditions in which a text is responded to and composed.

conventions Accepted practices or features which help define textual forms and meaning.

genre A category of text that can be recognised by specific aspects of its subject matter, form and language.

meaning in and through texts This expression implies that meaning variously: resides in texts, is a dynamic process through which responders engage with texts, and · involves the incorporation of understanding gained through texts into a wider context.

textual integrity The unity of a text; its coherent use of form and language to produce an integrated whole in terms of meaning and value.

ELEMENTS OF ‘GOOD’ SPEECH MAKING

ethos Proof deriving from the character of the speaker himself/herself. The tone of the speech should establish the speaker’s virtue and moral worth.

pathos The emotions induced in the audience. The audience begins to feel that the speaker must be right and is won over to his side.

logos Demonstration of the speaker’s position by means of argument such as syllogisms, examples and maxims.

Features of Speech Manner of Speech

repetition of words and phrases pause utterances straight pauses cliches jargon slang individualised choice of words truncated sentences immediacy of expression peculiarity of expression grammatical flexibility

tone pitch intonation pace volume stress rhythm length body language word choice sequencing of ideas

Persuasive Techniques

Technique Definition/Description Example

allusion reference to some text, person or event outside the present situation. The effect is to enrich the text by inviting the responder to consider more information than can be dealt with in detail

Biblical, political, philosophical, scientific and literary allusions are common, and in texts such as magazine and newspaper columns, allusions to popular culture are frequent.

amplification (see repetition)

repeating a word or expression while adding more detail to it, in order to emphasize what might otherwise be passed over

He showed a rather simple taste, a taste for good art, good food, and good friends.

anadiplosis repeats the last word of one phrase, clause, or sentence at or very near the beginning of the next

I crave reward/ Reward me not unkindly; think on kindness/ Kindness becommeth those on high regard/ Regard with clemency a poor man’s blindness.

analogy any figure of speech based on comparison between two, unlike, objects or actions or processes

comparison of the workings of the heart to a mechanical pump

anaphora repetition of a word at the beginning of consecutive phrases, clauses, or sentences

I have a dream ...

anastrophe arrangement by reversal of ordinary word order, usually confined to the transposition of two words only

She looked at the sky dark and menacing. (Normally: She looked at the dark and menacing sky.)

anecdote a short tale narrating an interesting or amusing biographical incident.

anti-climax abrupt decline (either deliberate or Die and endow a college… or a

unintended) on the part of a speaker or writer from the dignity of idea which he appeared to be aiming at

cat.

antithesis establishes a clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by joining them together or juxtaposing them, often in parallel structure.

That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. --Neil Armstrong

aphorism a brief saying embodying a moral, a concise statement of a principle given in pointed words

Lost time in never found again. - Franklin

aporia expresses doubt about an idea or conclusion

I have never been able to decide whether I really approve of dress codes, because extremism seems to reign both with them and without and without them.

asyndeton omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses

They spent the day wondering, searching, thinking, understanding.

authorities Reference to institutions, experts, accepted bearers of power or thought

For I have sworn before you and Almighty God the same solemn oath our forebears prescribed nearly a century and three-quarters ago.

cliché a phrase or expression which was once novel, but has been used so often that it lacks real meaning

love at first sight, deep and meaningful, more than meets the eye, believe it or not

climax consists of arranging words, clauses, or sentences in the order of increasing importance, weight, or emphasis

At 6:20 a.m. the ground began to heave. Windows rattled; then they broke. Objects started falling from shelves. Water heaters fell from their pedestals, tearing out plumbing. Outside, the road began to break up. Water mains and gas lines were wrenched apart, causing flooding and the danger of explosion. Office buildings began cracking; soon twenty, thirty, forty stories of concrete were diving at the helpless pedestrians panicking below.

circumlocution use of many words to say something that can be said in a few words.

“The driveway was not unlike that military training device known as an obstacle course” is a circumlocution for “The driveway resembled an obstacle course.”

contrast/ juxtaposition

When two opposite viewpoints, ideas or concepts are placed close to each other for effect.

Let us break the chains, shackles and nightmare of slavery and embrace each other in the dream of freedom.

emotive language choice of words packed with emotion can influence an audience for or against your ideas, to be with you or against you.

Imagine the perfect scene, not a care in the world, walking down the street hand in hand ... OR Their top lips quiver and sneer in unison like Elvis with a toothache. They see you and appear to scowl and grunt at each other and point at you accusingly.

enumeration A speaker can connect and, at the same time, separate the points in the message by using connective words

Firstly, secondly, thirdly ... To begin with; Additionally; To sum up; Finally; In conclusion

euphemism an expression to avoid directly saying something distasteful, unpleasant or confronting

dying – kicked the bucket, croaked it redundancies – down sizing,

genocide – ethnic cleansing

figurative language similes, metaphors, personification

humour amusing phrases, ideas

hyperbole/ exaggeration

trying to impress or influence by overstating a viewpoint, statement or idea

Millions of students all over the world go home and rush eagerly into their homework in order to secure their future.

imagery when words create a picture in the responder’s mind crisp dry paddocks (gives reader a sense of the drought conditions)

inversion the syntactic reversal of the normal order of the words and phrases in a sentence

Came the dawn ...

irony o a tone that indicates that the responder is not intended to read the text as it appears

o other types include contradictions

o sarcasm o a vegetarian who worked at

McDonalds, or a flight attendant who was afraid of enclosed spaces

isocolon repetition of phrases or clauses of equal length and corresponding grammatical structure

I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse. –Charles V

listing In order to emphasise important points lists are often used

This law change will impact on town people and country people; rich people and poor people, maori, pacific islander, Asian and European; employed and unemployed alike

oxymoron is a paradox reduced to two words, usually in an adjective-noun or adverb-adjective relationship, and is used for effect, complexity, emphasis, or wit

I do here make humbly bold to present them with a short account of themselves and their art.....--Jonathan Swift

qu

esti

on

s

quaesitio string of questions in rapid succession for sake of emotional emphasis

rogatio rhetorical question and answer Why is there so much opposition to women remain in industry? The secret isn’t far to seek. It’s simply that they got paid less.

percontatio enquiry in atone of bewilderment and allowing no satisfactory or easy reply

Must they be made to return home? Are they going to take them out of the factory, the office, off the land?

interrotatio employing a question as a way of confirming or reinforcing the argument one has just made.

Then we must change many of our conventions. Why should a woman do all the work in the home?

paradox a seemingly contradictory statement that contains a truth or opinion

you have got to be cruel to be kind

parallelism Several parts of a sentence or several sentences are expressed similarly to show that the ideas are equal in importance. Parallelism adds balance, rhythm and clarity to the sentence.

Quickly and happily he walked around the corner to buy the book.

polysyndeton the use of a conjunction between each word, phrase, or clause, the rhetorical effect is multiplicity, energetic enumeration.

They read and studied and wrote and drilled. I laughed and played and talked and flunked.

pro

no

un

s

pronouns to address the audience

Basically to address an audience as a group, but not necessarily to persuade them at this stage.

You are here tonight to witness the finals of the speech contest, where your sons and daughters face up to a great challenge.

pronouns to include (inclusive language)

Speakers want the audience to be on their side and agree with their statements/ideas

We came here tonight to choose our town symbol. We don't want a clock - Alexandra has a clock. We don't want a humungus trout as our symbol - Rakaia and Turangi have megatrouts. Let us choose our White Horse - it's ours and always will be.

pronouns to exclude or to distance the audience

Sometimes we want to distance the audience from those who have differing arguments.

So our elders want a curfew in Waimate. They think it is a good idea to have a curfew of 8 o'clock on a school night for people of our age. Let them have a curfew of 8 o'clock so that they can be out of the pubs and clubs and home with their families as well. They cause more harm in society than teenagers do.

punctuation the use of punctuation to create an effect or shape a meaning

Apostrophe: shows possession and missing letters. Colon: causal connection, presaging lists and strong contrast. Comma: creating separation and pauses in sentences. Dash: significantly separated aside. Ellipsis...: for tension-building pause. Hyphen: connecting words together. Parentheses: conspiratorial aside. Period: ending sentences and in abbreviations. Quotation marks: showing speech and 'different' words. Semicolon: separation of related text and lists.

repetition involves repeating a word or expression while adding more detail and emphasis

Trust is an important concept in society. If you can't trust friends not to blab your secrets all over school; if you can't trust teachers not to blast you for something that he or she let someone away with yesterday; if parents can't trust you enough to let you borrow the car - how can you survive in the modern world.

research/ statistics/ quotations

Reference to statistical information or references to well-known sources, such as the Bible, television, movies, proverbs and clichés: to link with our audience and our common, shared experiences.

Turn the other cheek; An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. It's moments like these..... Make my day; I'll be back!; Straight from the horse's mouth

rhetorical question a question asked for effect, but not necessarily needing to be answered

How do you stay healthy on a diet of chips and chocolate?

sound devices alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, sibilance, rhyme

syllogism a logical argument in three parts - two premises and a conclusion which follows necessarily from them

Firstly ... Secondly ... In conclusion

understatement understating a viewpoint for effect. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake interrupted business somewhat in the downtown area.

reading visual texts

Angle Where has the photographer/artist placed the objects in the photo/frame? o A low angle (where we look up to the object) shows the subject as strong

and powerful. o A high angle (where we look down to the object) shows submission and

weakness.

Body Language Posture, gesture and facial expression all tell about the way we are feeling and thinking.

o What does the posture and gestures of people suggest? o What do the expressions reveal? o Is this meant to be seen as a happy moment? Serious moment?

Camera shot The distance from which a photograph is taken (close up, mid shot, long shot etc) o What has the distance of the shot allowed the viewer to comprehend?

Caption The descriptive, printed line of text that appears in a visual text

Clothing Reflects our personality and can also be a symbol of the period, culture and status.

Collage Random gathering of visual images that have some relationship to a theme, issue or concept

Colour Colour can be used as symbols o white = innocence o black = death o soft pastel colours = female o dark primary or metallic colours = male

Composer The person who has created a text (Artist – painting, cartoonist; Author – literature; Film – director)

Composition The way that a whole visual text has been put together; the arrangement of elements within the text

Direction/Eyeline In what direction are the objects, figures, people etc facing? o Is it at the camera, past the camera or at a person or object in the

photograph? o Where are the people looking? At the viewer? At each other? At

something out of frame? o What do the eyelines suggest about what is considered important?

Focus The degree of sharpness or distinctiveness of an image (deep focus, shallow focus, soft focus etc)

Font The design of the text that accompanies a visual text. o What is it about the design of the text that adds meaning to the visual text? o What mood/tone/emotion is suggested by the font? o How has colour been used in the font to add meaning?

Framing The way that the subject is placed within a visual text o How has the borders of the image defined the image? o What might appear outside the frame?

Light Different lighting effects or colours can provide meaning: o Soft yellow light creates a halo effect and can suggest innocence. o The time of day can be established through lighting.

Objects Shapes or figures (people, animals, places or objects).

Position Of the objects, shapes and figures in the frame can give meaning. o Who or what holds the centre of attention in the frame? o How does the position help make this the centre of attention? o How does the background contribute to the ideas you get from the

photograph/frame? o How are people/objects placed in relationship to each other? o What is suggested by the placements? (Respect? Affection? Conflict?

Unity?)

Settings Have symbolic significance and influence our response to a visual text. o Dry, country settings suggest ruggedness and hardship. o Soft, green, rural settings suggest tranquillity.

Shading The dark areas of an image that result from lack of lighting o What use has been made of shading? o What effect is gained from this shading?

Size Of the object of interest. o Important objects are usually large and located in the foreground o Small objects that are in the background are considered less important.

Symbol/symbolism When something in the text sands for something abstract, such as an emotion or idea

o rose = beauty, snake = evil

Vector lines The thing in a visual text that directs the eye of the viewer o A pointing finger directs the responder to the object o A line of people in a queue will direct the responder to the beginning/end of

the queue.

Reading Path The reading path is the order that the responder makes their way through a visual text. The path begins with the most salient element and moves to other less salient elements.

Offer/Demand The mood of a visual image can be read from the offers and demands present in an image.

o Demand: when direct connection is made with the responder (subject looking directly at responder) o Offer: when the responder is an invisible and detached onlooker not invited

to participate with the subject directly.

Social Distance Positioning of objects within a visual text that indicate a ‘distance’ or connection by the subject/ object to the viewer/responder (key words: intimate, personal, long-shots, close-ups, medium shots, far /close personal distance)

Modality The degree of ‘credibility’ found in a visual text o High modality: a high degree of truthfulness or reality (eg photograph) o Low modality: a low degree of truthfulness or reality (eg comic, cartoon)

Salience The ‘visual weight’ or importance allocated to elements within a visual text. Factors that CREATE salience include size, focus, colour, distance, placement (heavier salience if placed towards the top or left of an image).

Dutch Angle An image using a camera shot made with the camera leaned to one side and filming at a diagonal angle. The shot is used to either represent a sense of confusion or disorientation in a character on the screen, or to create that same sense for the viewer.

REGISTER = purpose + audience + context

Techniques to consider in different texts: generally text structure or layout

imagery (language & visual language)

word choice

perspective

narrative/dramatic/poetic/visual techniques

film camera angles

sound

editing

acting, casting

music

special effects

short story narration

language techniques

structure

characterisation

themes

feature articles language techniques

layout of article

headline

structure

graphics

photos

painting, photos visual images

colour

texture

composition

vectors

size

poem poetic techniques such as rhyme, rhythm, word, choice, sound devices,

imagery, similes, metaphors

symbolism

song language and poetic techniques

musical setting

tone

website language techniques

visual images

sound

links

interactive options

PURPOSE

To: entertain, inform, advertise, persuade, educate, convince, etc….

REGISTER = purpose + audience + context

formal, informal, colloquial, slang, personal, expressive, transactional, poetic, etc …

THEMES

o family

o love

o hate

o relationships

o trust

o journeys

o childhood

o adulthood

o survival

o identity

o change

o work

o betrayal

o parents

o revenge

o peace

o age

o birth

o personal-growth

o loneliness

o challenges

o gender

o good vs evil

o friendship

o pressure

o greed/desire

o power

o honesty

o war

o education

o despair

o race

o enemies

o abuse

o hope

o ????

MOOD (look up those you are not familiar with) o sadness

o indifference

o anger

o humour

o politeness

o sarcasm

o enthusiasm

o geniality

o friendliness

o frustration

o arrogance

o tenderness

o excitement

o fun

o emphatic

o joy

o sincerity

o hostility

o affection

o passion

o modesty

o simplicity

o serious

o dignity

o precision o warmth

TONE (look up those you are not familiar with) o friendly

o frustrated

o jubilant

o serious

o adult

o condescending

o meek

o arrogant

o tender

o simple

o dignified

o sad

o indifferent

o angry

o humorous

o informal

o polite

o modest

o sarcastic

o formal

o enthusiastic

o warm

o amiable

o jovial

o emphatic

o precise

o excited

o pleasant

o genial

o vague

o scientific

o considered

o sarcastic

o cynical

o joyful

o conversational

o childish

o sincere

o hostile

o blunt

o affectionate

o passionate

Language Features of Texts Effect of Text Features

Verbal Features Visual Features Text features can have many effects including:

Attracting attention

Making the text more appealing and interesting

Highlighting one point or opinion in the text

Making the text seem urgent

Creating a sense of sympathy or empathy

Getting the attention of a particular audience

Starting something specific

Persuading the audience about something.

A single feature can also have more than one effect. It

is important that you can explain how features help

create the meaning in a text. To do this, you need to:

1. Identify the feature

2. Identify the purpose (or effect required)

3. Explain how the feature helps achieve the

purpose

Helpful phrases:

The meaning of this text is …

The composer has used [verbal/visual feature]

to …

Using the feature of [verbal/visual feature] helps

the composer to …

The features support the purpose of the text by

…

The [verbal/visual feature] draws the

responder’s attention to …

The effect of this language feature is to …

We are made to … when the composer uses

[verbal/visual feature] because …

Figurative language eg.

similes, metaphors,

personification

Imagery

Alliteration/assonance/

onomatopoeia

Verbs, nouns, adjectives,

adverbs (word choice)

Sentence structure

Emotive language

Punctuation

Use of pronouns

Repetition

Idioms

Hyperbole

Imperative

Pun

Quotation

Statement

Rhetorical Question

Rhyme

Rhythm

Motif/Symbols

Allusion/association

Dialogue

Script

Headings

Voice-over

Sound effects

Tone of voice

Music

Silence

Captions

Point of View

Syntax (sentence structure)

Connotation

Dominant Image

Symbol

Composition

Contrast/juxtaposition

Balance

Graphics/pictures

Font style

Font size

Spacing

White space

Shape

Frames & borders

Depth – background &

foreground

Proportion

Camera shots/angles

Colour

Light & shadows

Lines

Vectors

Allusion

Sequence

Structure

Shot

Camera movement

Transitions

Texture

Mood

Scenery

Logos & graphics

Facial expressions

Body language

Caption

Layout

Logos/icons

Symbols

text analysis prompts REGISTER = purpose + audience + context

formal, informal, colloquial, slang, personal, expressive, transactional, poetic, etc …

Level of Language Explanation Examples

Formal This is language that is correct and proper. It does not contain contractions. It is carefully composed. This is how we speak in formal situations when we are watching what we say. It is also the level we use in essays. It is more elevated than colloquial language.

The care was dilapidated and needing repair. Mum was very upset because she was extremely worried about us. “Can you not come?”

Informal or Colloquial This is everyday language. It is the level of language we use with our friends and family. It may include contractions and colloquialisms (every day expressions like, driving me crazy, over the moon…). It generally sounds far more chatty than formal language.

The car was an old bomb. Mum was having a fit because she was worried sick about us. “Can’t you come?”

Slang This is language that belongs to a set group in society. It is somewhat exclusive since, if you do not belong to the group, you are unlikely to understand it. Slang tends to be words and phrases rather than complete sentences. Some slang is that of young people and some belongs to interest groups like surfers, skaters etc. Slang tends to date quickly. It can actually move into everyday language if it becomes widespread and stays in our vocabulary.

In the 1960s and 1970s there was a lot of slang that is no longer common eg fuzz for police, bread for money or cat for a hip young man. One word that has moved into our colloquial vocabulary is cool. Its use is so widespread that it is no longer exclusive. More recently young people have used sick to mean ‘great’ and this is a form of slang.

The language of the text is [FORMAL, INFORMAL, COLLOQUIAL, SLANG] that is ….

o understated o impartial o assertive o biased o propagandistic o cynical o ironic o polite o sarcastic o enthusiastic o jovial o hostile o affectionate o personal

o transactional o sophisticated o simplistic o superficial o antagonistic o distorted o euphemistic o rational o emphatic o precise o genial o vague o blunt o passionate o expressive

o ambiguous o persuasive o serious o condescending o arrogant o dignified o indifferent o angry o humorous o scientific o considered o sincere o childish o poetic

This language/visual feature/technique ….

o attracts/draws attention to … o shows that … o suggests that … o contrasts with … o implies … o adds appeal by … o reinforces … o enhances … o involves … o describes …

o emphasises … o promotes … o illustrates … o encourages … o creates empathy for … o encourages … o enriches … o involves readers in … o describes … o enriches …

o tells the audience … o discusses … o highlights … o features … o creates a sense of … o suggests a sense of … o makes it more … o maximizes … o appeals to …

PURPOSE LANGUAGE FEATURE PURPOSE LANGUAGE FEATURE

INFORM

o factual statements o technical language o ‘who, what, when, where, and how’ statements

PERSUADE

o slogans o facts and figures o subjective comments o emotive terms

EXPLAIN

o factual statements o technical language o ‘why and how’ statements

INSTRUCT

o action words beginning statements o ‘how’ statements o sequences / steps o technical language

ENTERTAIN

o poetic language o adjectives o subjective comments o humour o emotive terms

….EDUCATE, CONVINCE, AMUSE, ADVERTISE ….

This text’s purpose and intention:

o This language is designed to provoke … o The clearest illustration of the writer’s purpose is … o The writer has concentrated his/her effort on … o This text pinpoints … o This text provides a map of … o The writer probes … so that … o The writer’s purpose emerges as … o The writer is attempting to sway the reader by … o This text constructs a picture of … o The writer tends to … o Media attention is clearly focused on … o The argument advanced in the text is designed to.. o The text gives prominence to … o The intensity of the focus on … o The [feature] supports the purpose of the text to …

o The writer means to fuel the debate on … o The position we are asked to share is that … o The article attempts to enlist the support of … o This text provides a view that contradicts … o The writer opts for … o The writer stresses … o The appealing imagery of the text is aimed at … o This text describes interesting developments in … o The writer questions … o This text clearly reveals the writer’s view on … o The writer enters the arena of discussion by … o The writer’s attitude is exemplified by … o The article endorses … o The text attempts to mobilize support for … o The meaning of this text is …

Analysis and impact of text:

o The composer has used [feature] to … o Using the feature of [ ] helps the composer to … o It reads rather like … o This text is a significant contribution to discussion because … o The [feature] draws the responder’s attention to … o The effect of this language feature is to … o We are made to … when the composer uses [feature] because …. o The power of this text stems from … o The coverage of the issue is extensive: …. o The content of this article is dominated by … o For the reader, this text produces …

o Perhaps the most surprising/interest aspect of the text is … o The general pattern of language evokes … o A mood of … prevails in this text due to … o A reader’s response may well be to … o Visual interest in the text is created by … o The influence of this text lies in … o The text generates … o The perceptions of the reader are sharpened by … o This text increases the level of debate over … by … o This text accentuates … o The language features used attract … o This text sharply focuses attention on … o The text magnifies

THESAURUS / WORD BANK to use when writing about texts:

THEMES/IDEAS concerns, issues, messages, concepts, notions, principles, motivations

MAIN/ IMPORTANT

major, primary, central, pivotal, frontal, most intense, paramount, above all, key

LESS OBVIOUS underlying, hinted at, implied, more subtle, underneath, secondary, minor

CERTAINLY clearly, definitely, absolutely, indeed, obviously, in fact, importantly, undoubtedly, without doubt, surely, distinctly

SHOWS displays, emphasises, informs, presents, highlights, mirrors, acknowledges, reflects, reinformces, delineates, expounds, elucidates, outlines, exposes, relates

THEREFORE consequently, hence, thus, since

BUT yet, however, although, alternatively, whereas, nevertheless, nonetheless, while, admittedly,

EXPECIALLY in particular, moreover, more specifically

SIMILARLY likewise, again, once more, additionally

OTHER ‘GOOD’ EXPRESSIONS

not surprisingly …, neither … nor, either … or, rather …, in summary …, not only … but also, both …, in conclusion …, firstly …secondly … finally

An Analytical Framework for the Study of Texts (Based on the Analytical Frameworks for Artworks)

Texts have layers of meaning and can be understood in different ways. The Analytical Frameworks are applied to explore the range of ideas and meanings of a text.

STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK

SUBJECTIVE FRAMEWORK

CULTURAL FRAMEWORK CRITICAL FRAMEWORK

Used to analyse how a text’s formal elements and principles contribute to its meanings and messages.

Used to interpret how a composer’s experiences, feelings, thinking and/or personal philosophy can be reflected in a text. It can also be used to gain awareness of the effect of the responder’s cultural background and experience on the interpretation of the text.

Used to identify the influences on a text of the time, place, purpose, cultural and political settings in which it was made. These influences may include historical, political, social, socio-economic, religious contexts as well as aspects of ethnicity and gender.

Used to interpret how contemporary ideas and issues influence the making, interpretation and analysis of texts from both the past and present.

Students should consider the following questions: • form and structural analysis: How have the form and structural elements been applied by the composer and to what effect? How do these features contribute to the meanings and messages of the work? • technique: What techniques have been used? How do these techniques shape or affect interpretation? Is this due to inherent qualities of the subject matter or to the use of specific techniques by the composer? • style: What are the distinctive stylistic qualities of the text and how do they contribute to meaning? How does the text relate to other texts in a similar style or from the same historical period or cultural background? • symbols and metaphors: What aspects of the text contain symbolic meaning and use of metaphor?

Students should consider the following questions: • What relationship does the text have to the composer’s life and experiences? What evidence supports this reading? Has the composer used a specific signature features in creating the text that may reflect their personal philosophy and ideas? • How is the text linked to people, places or experiences of personal significance to the composer such as their personal feelings, thinking, aspirations, beliefs, desires (conscious or subconscious) or preoccupations, or to memories, dreams or personal world of fantasy? • How does the experience and background of the responder affect the interpretation of the text? • What are the symbols or metaphors explored or utilised in the text?

Students should consider the following questions: • How do the social, political, cultural or religious contexts of the text contribute to its meaning? • How have historical or contemporary events shaped the intention of the composer or our understanding of the text’s meaning? • How do gender values reflect the social context of the time the text was created? How do these values compare to the values of today? • How does the physical form of texts affect their interpretation? • How does the cultural background of the responder influence the interpretation of a text?

With a focus on current ideas and issues, students should consider the following questions: • How have contemporary ideas and issues challenged traditional understandings of texts and their significance? • How does the choice or presentation of subject matter or medium, materials and techniques reflect or challenge social traditions? • What is the impact of dynamic media applications and other emerging technologies on the responder? How do these textual forms differ from traditional ideas of consuming texts? • How might texts of the past take on new or different meanings, in the context of contemporary ideas and issues?

24

ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK

• form and structural analysis: How have the form and

structural elements been applied by the composer and to what

effect? How do these features contribute to the meanings and

messages of the work?

• technique: What techniques have been used? How do these

techniques shape or affect interpretation? Is this due to inherent

qualities of the subject matter or to the use of specific techniques

by the composer?

• style: What are the distinctive stylistic qualities of the text and

how do they contribute to meaning? How does the text relate to

other texts in a similar style or from the same historical period or

cultural background?

• symbols and metaphors: What aspects of the text contain

symbolic meaning and use of metaphor?

STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK • form and structural analysis: How have the form and

structural elements been applied by the composer and to what

effect? How do these features contribute to the meanings and

messages of the work?

• technique: What techniques have been used? How do these

techniques shape or affect interpretation? Is this due to inherent

qualities of the subject matter or to the use of specific techniques

by the composer?

• style: What are the distinctive stylistic qualities of the text and

how do they contribute to meaning? How does the text relate to

other texts in a similar style or from the same historical period or

cultural background?

• symbols and metaphors: What aspects of the text contain

symbolic meaning and use of metaphor?

SUBJECTIVE FRAMEWORK •What relationship does the text have to the composer’s life and

experiences? What evidence supports this reading? Has the

composer used a specific signature features in creating the text that

may reflect their personal philosophy and ideas?

• How is the text linked to people, places or experiences of

personal significance to the composer such as their personal

feelings, thinking, aspirations, beliefs, desires (conscious or

subconscious) or preoccupations, or to memories, dreams or

personal world of fantasy?

• How does the experience and background of the responder affect

the interpretation of the text?

• What are the symbols or metaphors explored or utilised in the

text?

SUBJECTIVE FRAMEWORK •What relationship does the text have to the composer’s life and

experiences? What evidence supports this reading? Has the

composer used a specific signature features in creating the text that

may reflect their personal philosophy and ideas?

• How is the text linked to people, places or experiences of

personal significance to the composer such as their personal

feelings, thinking, aspirations, beliefs, desires (conscious or

subconscious) or preoccupations, or to memories, dreams or

personal world of fantasy?

• How does the experience and background of the responder affect

the interpretation of the text?

• What are the symbols or metaphors explored or utilised in the

text?

CULTURAL FRAMEWORK • How do the social, political, cultural or religious contexts of the

text contribute to its meaning?

• How have historical or contemporary events shaped the intention

of the composer or our understanding of the text’s meaning?

• How do gender values reflect the social context of the time the

text was created? How do these values compare to the values of

today?

• How does the physical form of texts affect their interpretation?

• How does the cultural background of the responder influence the

interpretation of a text?

CULTURAL FRAMEWORK • How do the social, political, cultural or religious contexts of the

text contribute to its meaning?

• How have historical or contemporary events shaped the intention

of the composer or our understanding of the text’s meaning?

• How do gender values reflect the social context of the time the

text was created? How do these values compare to the values of

today?

• How does the physical form of texts affect their interpretation?

• How does the cultural background of the responder influence the

interpretation of a text?

CRITICAL FRAMEWORK • How have contemporary ideas and issues challenged traditional

understandings of texts and their significance?

• How does the choice or presentation of subject matter or medium,

materials and techniques reflect or challenge social traditions?

• What is the impact of dynamic media applications and other

emerging technologies on the responder? How do these textual

forms differ from traditional ideas of consuming texts?

• How might texts of the past take on new or different meanings, in

the context of contemporary ideas and issues?

CRITICAL FRAMEWORK • How have contemporary ideas and issues challenged traditional

understandings of texts and their significance?

• How does the choice or presentation of subject matter or medium,

materials and techniques reflect or challenge social traditions?

• What is the impact of dynamic media applications and other

emerging technologies on the responder? How do these textual

forms differ from traditional ideas of consuming texts?

• How might texts of the past take on new or different meanings, in

the context of contemporary ideas and issues?

25

Visual Language Analysis Sheet The following visual language analysis proforma should help you to explore texts to work out what they are about and how they shape meaning. It is useful to develop a systematic approach to each text you study, focus on the language forms and features and write detailed notes. This sheet offers a fairly comprehensive list of visual language techniques, so remember that some will be relevant to one text but not another.

TEXT:

Visual Language forms and features Notes and examples

Form: cartoon, comic strip, photo, computer image, advertisement …

Purpose: to satirise, amuse, illustrate, demonstrate, advertise, persuade …

Audience

Structure (the way in which ideas/content are organised): What is emphasised? What is the eye drawn to first, second, third? Are there vectors to guide the reading of the text? Is there a logical sequencing of images if it is a photo series or cartoon strip? If a computer screen, are the visual images layered or hyperlinked? Why? How?

Framing Is there an image in the centre of the frame? If so, why? If not, why not? What is at the top of the frame? What is at the bottom of the frame? What is on the left/right?

Point of View Are we looking up to, straight at or down at the subject? What is the effect? Is the subject looking at the viewer or somewhere else? What is the mood? What is the effect? How close are we to the subjects of the image?

Icons, motifs or symbols Are there recurring or dominant icons, motifs or symbols? What effect do these have?

Colour and light Is colour used, or black and white? Why? What would be the effect if it were the opposite? Is there a dominant colour? Has the composer deliberately manipulated colour eg. used sepia tones, altered normal ideas of colours eg. a green person? What sort of lighting has been chosen for the image? What is the effect?

Written text Is it used to support or subvert the visual text?

26

Written Language Analysis Sheet: The following written language analysis proforma should help you to explore texts to work out what

they are about and how they shape meaning. It is useful to develop a systematic approach to each text you study, focus on the language forms and features and write detailed notes. This sheet offers a fairly comprehensive list of language techniques, so remember that some will be relevant to one text but not another.

TEXT: Chapter/Pages/Scene

Written language forms & features Notes and examples Form

Purpose

Audience

Structure (the way in which ideas/content are organised). Check against the usual organisation of content in a particular text type/form eg. feature article.

Sentence structure and punctuation, grammatical structure

simple

compound

complex Effect of the structure:

short: generally create a sense of abruptness, immediacy, movement

loose: a number of linked clauses, often resembling spoken language, which create a flowing mood or sense of rambling

periodic: main idea at the end of a series of linked clauses, has the effect of emphasising a particular point or idea, building to a climax or anticlimax

complex: generally more formal, often found in a stylised, sophisticated piece of writing; possibly giving the writing more authority

Word choice and language devices strong verbs, descriptive words (adjectives and adverbs), emotive language, personification, similes/metaphors, connotations, clichés, puns, alliteration, assonance, rhyme, rhythm, onomatopoeia … (some of these my be more relevant to poetry than prose)

Rhetorical features (to compare, contrast, emphasis)

rhetorical questions

juxtaposition

analogy

antithesis

irony

Point of view 1st, 2nd or 3rd person narration? How do you know this? Is there only one point of view? If there is, how does the author represent this?

Voice/tone/mood How is language used to convey this? Are there any changes? Is the tone ironic, satiric, serious, light hearted or ?

27

Film Language Analysis Sheet: The following written language analysis proforma should help you to explore texts to work out what they

are about and how they shape meaning. It is useful to develop a systematic approach to each text you study, focus on the language forms and features and write detailed notes. This sheet offers a fairly comprehensive list of language techniques, so remember that some will be relevant to one text but not another.

TEXT:

Film Language forms/features Notes and examples

Form: feature film, short film, documentary, animation, TV program, advertisment …

Purpose: to satirise, amuse, illustrate, demonstrate, advertise, persuade …

Audience

Context

Textual Style factual historical fictional humorous satiric

Structure/Form What does the title mean in relation to

the film as a whole?

How are the opening credits presented? Do they relate to meaning?

Why does the film start in the way that it does?

Filmic techniques?

Are there any motifs (scenes, images) of dialogue which are repeated? What purpose do they serve?

What three or four sequences are most important in the film? Why?

Non-diegetic sound: voice- overs, music?

Is sound used in any vivid ways either to enhance the film? (i.e. enhance drama, heighten tension, disorient the viewer, etc.)

How does the film use color or light/dark to suggest tone and mood in different scenes?

Whose perspective is given? Why?

Are there any striking uses of perspective (seeing through a character's eyes, camera angle, etc.) How does this relate to the meaning of the scene?

How and when are scenes cut? Are there any patterns in the way the cuts function?

What specific scene constitutes the film's climax? How does this scene resolve the central issue of the film?

Does the film leave any disunities (loose ends) at the end? If so, what does it suggest?

THEME What issues and questions are

suggested or evoked by the film?

Does the film present a clear point-of-view on your topic? How?

Are there any aspects of theme which are left ambiguous at the end? Why?

How does this film relate to the other literary texts you are familiar with?

28

Begin with your MOTHERHOOD STATEMENT (conceptual idea/thesis) AMPLIFY by describing the assumptions behind your thesis or provide greater detail about your thesis.

M

A

Identify the composer’s choice of TECHNIQUE (or structure/stylistic feature). Example: Incorporate quote or textual reference. Effect: Explain the effectiveness of this technique/feature on the responder and how it supports your thesis.

T

E

Repeat T & E for several

techniques

(aim for 4 techniques per paragraph)

Conclude paragraph with a SUMMARY statement about what we learn or understand as a result of this text. This should make a link to your topic (first) sentence.

S

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Paragraph Marking Guidelines Mark: ……………….. Well-focused and persuasive analysis of the text/s in terms of the question.

Strongly argues a personal response with significant insight and understanding.

Appropriate and specific text references used to support analysis.

Highly effective control of mechanics

13-15

Sound analysis of the text/s in terms of the question

Argues a personal response with some insight and understanding

Suitable text references used to support analysis

Sound control of mechanics

10-12

Minimal analysis of the text/s in terms of the question. Reverts to retelling the text rather than analysing it, OR response does not meet the terms of the question.

Argument/s are plausible, however need greater development

Minimal text references used, OR those used do not support the response

Adequate control of mechanics. Meaning is still clear, however errors are present.

7-9

Inadequate analysis (partial, unconvincing or irrelevant) of the text/s in terms of the question.

Response lacks a plausible argument, often characterised by an unfocused, oversimplified or repetitive presentation of ideas.

Absence of textual references, OR those used are incorrect

Limited control of mechanics. Errors affect the meaning of the response.

4-6

Unacceptably brief response

Incoherent in presentation of ideas

No supporting evidence of any kind.

Control of mechanics flawed. Meaning is affected.

1-3

Non- attempt OR virtual non-attempt 0

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PARAGRAPH EXEMPLAR (MATES) – colour code each elements of ‘MATES’ in the paragraph below. How has the concept of journeys been represented in your text?

Journeys can be negative and or life-changing. They can involve hardship and loss, creating negative attitudes and emotions for the participants. Bruce Dawe’s poem, Drifters, explores the negative impact of a pending journey on the wife of an itinerant farm worker. Dawe has written his poem in free verse that details the reaction of the woman through an anonymous, detached narrator. We feel as though we are observing the woman and are made to understand the resignation with which she accepts this journey. A fruit motif is used throughout to indicate the short period in which the family has been at the latest location. Berries were ‘bright’ when they first arrived and now on the eve of their departure the vines contain their ‘last shriveled fruit’. This motif allows us to understand that only months have elapsed before they will leave on their latest journey. Before leaving the woman will ‘pick all the green tomatoes from the vine’ in an attempt to salvage something of her investment in this latest place. There is a pathos in her action as we see her try to derive some benefit from her stay here through the symbol of the green tomatoes. The final line uses repetition, ‘Make a wish, Tom, make a wish’, as the wife hopes that her husband would share the wish to settle down in one location and leave the hardship of an itinerant life behind. We find ourselves wishing it for her as she is powerless to achieve stability for her family. Dawe effectively reveals that not all journeys are welcome and we understand that they can in fact be a burden to be endured.

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Media Text Types

o Newspaper reports

o Newspaper/Magazine Feature

Articles

o Brochures and Advertisements

o Letters to the Editor

o Editorial

o Diaries / Memoirs

o Reviews

o Interviews

o Speeches

o Songs

o Visual texts eg cartoons, posters,

promotional material

o Information Reports

o Documentaries

o Multi- Media – Radio, Television,

Film

Newspaper Reports

Common features

Tabloids target a mass audience

They present ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ news and package

it in entertaining, sensationalised ways

Column layout is used to make the report easier

to read.

Graphics add visual information are used to add

interest and variety

Sub-headings are sometimes used if the report is

lengthy.

Newspapers aim to present the news in the form

of clear, unbiased factual reports

The most important details are usually given

first. This is often described in textbooks as an

inverted pyramid structure. This approach

ensures that the bulk of the information is found

in the heading or opening paragraph of the news

report.

Six basic questions of who, when, where, what,

why and how are quickly addressed. Sometimes

in a very short news report this can be done in

the first few sentences.

The headline is short, direct and eye-catching. It

aims to summarise the main focus of the report.

The introductory paragraph or ‘lead’ enables the

reader to scan the main facts quickly.

Topics are ‘high-interest’ and can relate to

regional, national or international events

depending on the geographical circulation.

If the topic is considered significant such as a

war battle or a political scandal, often some

background details are also given within the

report. Such details are seen as appropriate in

clarifying the issues that are concerned.

Some eyewitness accounts can also be given for

further detail.

No conclusion is normally given

The overall tone should therefore be impersonal,

objective and unbiased

The writer’s opinion is not called for and should

not be given.

It is inappropriate for journalists to use emotive

terms or frequent adjectives. Their role is to

report the news rather than pass comment or

judgement on it.

Dramatic words are often used however to make

a story seem more sensational even though

vocabulary should remain fairly neutral rather

than chatty or colloquial in tone.

Style

Headlines do not use normal sentence structure.

Words are often left out to make the tone more

attention getting and dramatic.

Sentences tend to be declarative statements

rather than questions, commands or

exclamations. Compound or complex sentences

are used only sparingly.

Paragraphs are short and usually present only

one main idea. They are typically about 25-30

words in length and often only contain one

sentence. They often begin with sequencing

words such as ‘then’, or ‘after’.

Numbers from 1-10 are written as words but for

numbers more than ten numerals are used.

People’s names are written in full at first but

thereafter only as Christian names or by their

title.

Key words or names are used as cohesive ties

that are repeated from one paragraph to the next.

Time references are also used to link

paragraphs.

Pronouns are used such as ‘he said’ or ‘she said’

to replace nouns in order to avoid monotonous

repetition.

Individual quotes may use emotive or colloquial

language

Third person narrative is used throughout except

for direct speech quotations which are written in

first person narrative. Journalist do not use “I”

statements,

Hyphenation at the end of the line is common

direct speech is put in quotation marks

38

indirect, reported speech is also used-no

quotation marks Mrs brown said…………

Tense

Use of the active voice in the past tense, in the

body of the article

headlines are written in the present tense

Main body of report will be written in the past

tense

Present tense occurs when the report is

describing current situation

Graphics

Accompanying photograph supports the story

and the headline. It often contains pictures of

key figures mentioned in the article or an

important setting that is referred to. It is also a

dramatic shot or an unusual or unflattering angle

to catch the eye of the reader. Usually only one

graphic is used and then only if the report is

long enough to warrant visual clarification or

added interest.

Captions are used below the graphic to briefly

clarify the picture and identify the focus of the

report.

Feature Articles

Common features

Feature Articles are commonly found in newspapers but are especially popular in

magazines and online.

They vary in style according to context and audience.

They differ from newspapers in that they are less ‘news’ focused.

They are more topical in their approach to subject matter and they offer

far more information than the factual framework found in newspaper reports.

They often target a particular audience, and so the language and style is often

suited to a particular market interest.

They are often informative and deal with high interest topics which can be current,

controversial or human interest in subject matter.

Feature articles aim to inform, entertain,

persuade or convince their readers to agree with

the writer’s point of view.

Being more detailed than news reports, they

often explore an issue quite extensively in terms

of timeframe or the amount of background

information.

Information is presented in fairly simple terms

by means of short paragraphs and introductory

and concluding sections.

The writer’s personal impressions, attitudes and

opinions are often included. Presentation is is

often eye-catching in terms of layout and the use

of colour.

The language is often quite informal and

colloquial in tone.

Personal anecdotes and details as well as direct

quotes is commonly found. Drop quotes, sub-

headings and graphics add visual interest and

maintain reader focus.

A persuasive tone is used which is marked by

emotive vocabulary.

Key personalities that are associated with the

topic are often presented in depth, presenting

details about their personalities, actions and

experiences.

The introduction or lead section still needs to

grab the reader’s attention but unlike that of a

news report, it tends to be more imaginative in

nature in feature articles. It can include for

example extra features such as a statistic,

rhetorical question or a quote.

A circular structure is often found within the

article with the conclusion returning to an

earlier, significant statement or idea.

Issues tend to relate to contemporary, social

concerns or events.

Graphics, graphs, lists, etc are frequently used to

add factual detail as well as variety.

Style

Linking words and sentences are often used

between the paragraphs to maintain the flow and

development of ideas.

Direct and indirect speech is used to report

people’s ideas and beliefs.

Jargon can add authenticity to information and

opinions that are presented.

Factual evidence is often used to validate the

writer’s viewpoint about the topic.

Language is often far more descriptive in style

than that found in news reports. Often use is

made of figurative techniques such as

symbolism and imagery.

Wit, irony and other forms of humour are also

frequently used, especially in headlines where

the journalist often wants to give an emotional

punch-line.

A concluding observation about the issue is

often presented.

Drop quotes are used to summarise and

emphasise a key concern that is raised. These

also add visual variety to the layout format.

Colour imagery is often incorporated to enhance

the article’s visual appearance.

First person narrative and an informal,

colloquial style of language is used.

A more personal, opinionated, subjective tone is

used compared to news reports.

Humour, exaggeration and anecdotes are often

used to engage the reader

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Brochures and Advertisements

All forms of advertising are characterised by the

following four AIDA principles:

Attention-the consumer’s attention must be

caught. This is done through the use of things such

as striking graphics, catchy headings and

innovative use of layout and colour.

Interest-the potential buyer’s interest must

be aroused and this is achieved by making a range

of emotive appeals.

Desire- Interest must be heightened by a

strong desire to possess the product. The language

used to promote the virtues of what is being sold,

often makes more subtle appeals to the emotional

psyche of the target audience. This can be done at

the conscious or sub-conscious level by appealing

to desires such as health, fitness, beauty and status.

Action-Desire is made urgent by

implications that immediate action is required.

Language which implies discounts, special or

limited offers or similar benefits is often sufficient

to make the would-be buyer follow instructions

and promply fill in the coupon or phone a certain

number.

Common Features:

Advertisements can be are highly exaggerated

and biased.

sensory appeals that are made to readers

Persuasive language techniques are used

Tone can be conversational and personable

Beautiful and visually striking images are often

used to evoke strong emotions in the would be

client.

Eye-catching illustrations provide emotional

stimulus by communicating perceptions of

pleasure, relaxation, freedom or anticipation.

Broad generalisations and repetition of key

words add appeal.

Emotive terminology and connotations are used

to ‘tempt’ the reader to indulge or experience

something that is desirable.

Superlatives such as ‘the most exciting’, ‘exotic’

or ‘gorgeous’ are used to boost appeal.

Varied rhetorical methods such as rhetorical

questions, alliteration or assonance are used to

gain attention or to create pleasing rhymes.

A sense of urgency is created to pressure the

reader into responding by the use of truncated

phrases or sentences.

Personal pronouns are used to involve the

reader.

Figurative methods such as similes, metaphors

and hyperbole are used to describe places and

experiences by appealing to the senses or using

exaggeration, symbolism or imagery.

Imperative words and phrases such as ‘stop’,‘act

now!, ‘Start today!’ are attention grabbing

techniques that create a demand for immediate

action.

Punctuation devices such as colons, dashes,

exclamations are eye catching and can add a

sense of drama.

Information is often given a pseudo scientific

feel or recommended via personal endorsement.

Appeals to authority are often made with

uniformed images of airline pilots or ship

captains.

Psychology is used to appeal to basic human

needs and desires such as acceptability or status.

Letters to the Editor

Typical Features

This is a brief letter that is written to a

newspaper or magazine by a reader.

It contains the writer’s personal opinion on a

current issue and is usually short and succinct in

style.

Typically, the writer feels strongly about a topic

or issue that is currently being aired in the press

or other media. This offers an opportunity for

average people to voice their opinions publicly.

Aims to persuade and influence the views of

other readers.

Sometimes a letter will try to challenge or refute

ideas that are presented in editorials or

elsewhere in the paper. At other times they may

support and endorse a particular idea.

Language Style

Letters are commonly only two to three short

paragraphs.

Present tense is often used which emphasises the

current issues being discussed.

The letter presents a line of argument that is

usually opened by a forceful statement. This

establishes the central viewpoint and often

makes reference to another letter or source.

The writer’s feelings are often forcefully

presented.

Short sentences and paragraphs are commonly

used to present arguments

Supporting information is used as evidence.

Cohesive ties are used to link points in the

argument.

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Emotive, personal language is used to convey

the author’s attitude.

Rhetorical questions are often used to emphasise

a point.

Language is often subjective and opinionative

Tone can be abrasive, angry, sarcastic or ironic.

Often it is pitched towards a specific audience

relating to the topic in terms of age or culture.

Key words and phrases are often repeated

‘I” statements predominate but occasionally,

second-person (you) narrative is also used to

speak directly to readers

A strong concluding statement is often given to

reaffirm the point being made.

The writer’s name and address is given at the

end to authenticate the letter.

Editorials

Common Features

Sometimes written by the editor, especially in

smaller papers, but more commonly it is written

by a senior journalist on behalf of the editor.

A formal style and a serious tone is commonly

used.

Often the editorial is placed on the same page as

the letters to the editor and the satirical cartoon.

It is normally located below the paper’s

masthead and a headline

An important, current issue or event is usually

the topic. The editorial presents an explanatory

opinion that represents the newspapers stance.

A lead paragraphs with a short summary of the

‘news’ under discussion is normally given.

The editorial aims to give the newspaper’s

official view and comments on current events

and issues in the news

It offers an informed opinion which is presented

in the form of an argument rather than a ‘news’

format.

It aims to persuade the reader and encourage

them to reflect on a topic. Social issues are often

the topic and forceful language is not unusual.

Style

A higher reading level than that used in reports

elsewhere in the paper is used. This is meant to

reflect the knowledge and education of the

writer. It is marked by a more complex sentence

structure and a broader vocabulary.

Manipulative language techniques are used such

as persuasive and emotive language as well as

the inclusion of quotes, statistics, analogies,

comparisons or expert comment.

Inclusive language includes the readers as

sharing the expressed opinion

Qualifying terms such as ‘possibly’, ‘likely’ or

‘normally’ are often used to give a philosophic

or discursive tone.

Opening paragraph states the topic which is then

later developed

Editorial is set out as a single vertical column,

often in larger font size.

Connectives such as ‘then’, ‘firstly’ and so one

are used to establish sequence,

Sections of the editorial are often bolded or

underlined to emphasise points.

Diaries

Diaries can often reveal the writer’s deepest

fears, secrets or aspirations.

Unlike letters, diary entries are normally written

for personal consumption; designed for no eyes

other than those of the writer.

This personal quality often gives a diary entry a

raw and brutal honesty often lacking in other

types of communication lack.

Whatever the character of the diarist, they will

reveal themselves more openly within this type

of format.

Readers are given access to thoughts, feelings,

recollections and attiutudes.

Memoirs

Memoirs differ in several ways from letters and

diary entries because they are meant for a public

audience.

This audience factor impacts on the register as

well as the content of what is written.

There is a tendency for bias, selectivity and

editing.

The purpose of memoirs is normally to set the

record straight about an important event or

period but they can become a forum for altering

perspectives and perceptions of people and

events.

The writer tends to be someone of high status or

authority whose interpretations can be respected.

Sometimes they are written by someone who is

a controversial figure such as a politician or a

military figure who might be offering a different

version of history.

The fact that a memoir is written often long after

the events have ocurred also has impact on what

is said.

Hindsight and the benefit of reflection and

reassessment often alters attitudes held at the

time.

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Interviews

Interviews are a popular form of entertainment and

forums can be live or pre-corded or written. They can be

found in all forms of the mass media, in print, television,

radio and online. The particular medium used dictates

slight differences to the format and/or style of the

interview but in essence the typical features remain the

same. The subject matter and interview style used in

print media is very similar to those found on radio and

television. Dialogue techniques are merely replaced by

journalistic features. The online interviews tend to

combine the best of both media worlds, often having

links to audio or video material as well as the textual

information of question and answer.

Common Features

Whatever the context, the information that is

presented within an interview format gives the

responder insight into another person’s life,

situation or area of expertise.

Information is presented via a series of questions

and answers which explore the topic being

covered.

Discussion is free-flowing and the pace is

manipulated so that ‘dull’ patches are avoided

where possible.

The host guides, encourages and challenges the

interviewee to be open up to the audience.

The main purpose is to obtain information. The

host will often begin by summarising some main

points of interest or details about the guest and

introduce them to the audience.

Questioning styles vary and a degree of

interviewing skill is required to make the guest

reveal interesting information about themselves

and to keep the conversation flowing well.

Questions tend to relate to the same areas of

interest that are used in newspaper reports and

feature articles, namely: Who, What, When,

Why, Where and How.

‘Open’ questions are used to encourage the

interviewee to answer at length but require only

a minimal input from the interviewer.

‘Closed’ Question are used by the interviewer to

obtain specific information on specific topics

‘Probing’ questions are used to gain further

information about a particular point of interest

that the interviewer wants expanded.

‘Hypothetical’ Questions are sometimes used,

especially in spoken interviews and typically in

the concluding section of the interview.

A friendly, conversational and realistic tone is

often created by the use of informal or semi-

formal language.

This personal tone is emphasised by the use of

second person narrative, ‘you’

Anecdotal snippets and human interest details

are often used.

Audiences enjoy the directness of an interview.

The perception is that the interviewee is

speaking personally and honestly, directly to the

audience.

There is often a sense of an interview being

uncensored although in reality the questions are

normally vetted by the interviewee before the

interview. In the vast majority of cases, they

have knowledge of what they will be asked.

Humour is often used to encourage the

interviewee to relax and answer more freely.

The focus remains on the interviewee. The

host’s role is to facilitate disclosures.

Television and Radio Interviews

Subject Matter

The main purpose is to obtain information. The

host will often begin the interview by

summarising the main points of interest or

details about the guest and introducing them to

the audience. This sets the situation and

establishes the interview context.

A series of questions and answers gives a

snapshot perspective of the interviewee’s life,

experiences or interests.

Normally the rich, famous or controversial are

the subjects of interviews. Audiences are

interested in people whose lives seem more

interesting than their own. The revelation of

details from a personal perspective accounts in

part for the popularity of the form.

Questioning styles vary and a degree of

interviewing skill is required to make the guest

reveal interesting information about themselves

and to keep the conversation flowing well.

Questions tend to relate to the same areas of

interest that are used in newspaper reports and

feature articles, namely: Who, What, When,

Why, Where and How.

‘Open’ questions encourage the interviewee to

answer at length but require only a minimal

input from the interviewer.

‘Closed’ Question-Used by the interviewer to

obtain specific information on specific topics

‘Probing’ questions seek out further

information about a particular point of interest

that the interviewer wants expanded. They are

often used by the host to fill in any gaps in the

conversation.

‘Hypothetical’ Questions are sometimes used,

especially in spoken interviews and typically in

the concluding section of the interview.

Style

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A friendly, conversational and realistic tone is

often created by the use of informal or semi-

formal language.

This personal tone is emphasised by the use of

second person narrative, ‘you’

Anecdotal snippets are used to fill in

background, human interest details. These are

often supplied by the host as part of his research

into the background of the interviewee. They

can be used to tease out an answer or clarify a

point being made.

Audiences enjoy the directness of an interview.

The perception is deliberately generated that the

interviewee is speaking personally and honestly,

directly to the audience.

Relevant jargon and a colloquial tone adds

credibility. It makes the process more

personable and creates a closer link with readers

A fast moving interview is marked by a high

level of interaction between host and guest

where conversation flows easily and ideas

bounce off each other.

Conversation is responsive, impacted on by

what rises out of the interview process itself. It

is also affected by other variables such as pace,

pitch and volume, especially if an argument or

heated exchange occurs.

There is often a sense of an interview being

uncensored although in reality the questions are

normally vetted by the interviewee before the

interview. In the vast majority of cases, they

have knowledge of what they will be asked.

Humour is often used to encourage the

interviewee to relax and answer more freely.

The use of a second person (you) establishes a

conversational tone

Details are selected to support a particular image

of the subject

Print / Online interviews

Common Features

The subject matter and interview style is very

similar to those found on radio and television.

However, dialogue techniques are replaced by

journalistic features.

The online interviews tend to combine the best

of both media worlds, often having links to

audio or video material as well as the textual

information of question and answer.

The special focus area relating to the person

being interviewed is shown by the use of names,

titles, locations, dates and so on.

Background information is often summarised at

the beginning. Readers can scan this material

quickly. The context is therefore created much

more quickly than in a spoken interview.

Most questions are kept short although there can

be wide variations in the length of sentences or

answers.

The focus remains on the interviewee. The

host’s role is to facilitate disclosures.

Many casual and colloquial words are used to

create the impression of a ‘spoken’ rather than

reported interview. A written interview often

lacks the immediacy of a spoken one and this is

an attempt to overcome this limitation.

Cohesive ties between the questions and

responses are created by the use of link words or

phrases such as ‘so’ and ‘looking back’.

Contracted words are used such as; ‘you’ve’ and

‘doesn’t’ to create a conversational tone.

Verb tenses are mixed to create a sense of

immediacy.

Wide range of punctuation marks used including

ellipsis, colons and so on.

Colons are used after the reporter’s name or the

name of the magazine at start of each question

which is indicated by a question mark. This

clarifies the questions and answers for the

reader.

Inverted commas are not used around questions

and answers. It is not presented as direct speech.

No formal conclusion is given. The interview

ends with a final answer that is followed by

asterisk, symbol, or the interviewer’s name.

The Headline is followed by a paragraph

introduction

Questions are presented in short blocks without

paragraphs being used

Answers are often presented in a different font

from the questions

A variety of font sizes, styles and colours are

used. Often the width of columns is also varied

to show the difference between questions and

answers.

Questions often begin with ‘who’, ‘what’,

‘when’, ‘why’, ‘where’ and ‘how’ questions.

They also both second (you) and third person

narrative (she/he)

Speeches or Lectures

The key features of dialogue texts can be shown as:

Purpose + Audience

= Register

Purpose – What is the motivation behind the speech? Is

it political, spiritual, educational, propagandist or

whatever?

Audience - Who exactly is the targeted audience? Is it

an on site audience or is the speech meant to be

broadcast on radio or television?

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Register – What stylistic features are evident in the

language of the speech? What tone, level of language,

word choice, emphasis and so on?

Effective speeches are usually highly polished and

carefully constructed forms of communication. The

contextual features of speaker, audience, purpose,

impact strongly on what is said and how it is delivered to

listeners. Because a speech is a spoken text, the actual

theatrical qualities of its delivery are also very

important. This includes features such as pauses, tone,

flow and volume.

Speech makers often try to tap into the imagination of

their listeners. A number of rhetorical or propagandist

devices such as repetition can be used to hook the

listener’s attention. Audiences can be asked to speculate

or imagine places, people or events which are

colourfully described or evoked to make them more

vivid. Specific language techniques such as the use of

trigger words or ideas that appeal to the audience’s

emotions or values help hold attention and interest.

Delivery must be clear and assured to be effective. What

is said must be made memorable to the audience through

the use of dramatic pauses or the build up of tension or

emotion.

Common Features

Can be both long and short. Longer speeches run

the risk of losing their audience unless the

material is packaged in ways that remain

interesting.

Are often emotionally engaging. They can

easilywhip up enthusiasm in a crowd and rally

support for a cause.

Speech or oratory has the ability to manipulate

the listener by appealing to the emotions and en

masse this has the power to shape public opinion

and beliefs.

Speeches are a public medium, different in

nature to private conversation.

Context tends to determine the level of language

that is used to present a speech. A highly

structured environment, public or solemn

occasion such as the funeral of a famous

explorer would necessitate a formal level of

language. A speech however given to farewell a

traveller heading off on the adventure of a

lifetime would probably be presented

colloquially.

Famous speakers throughout history have used

and abused this power to sway the masses

Politicians and philosophers have used speeches

to inform, criticise, encourage, inspire or to

brainwash.

Effective orators have been able to tap into

people’s emotions and beliefs.

Speeches are an effective way to communicate

information to a large gathering of people. As a

spoken text it caters to a broad cross-section of

the population

The best speeches are not impromptu but well

prepared and rehearsed.

Subject matter can be extremely broad but to be

effectively understood, it needs to be appropriate

to the assembled audience and immediate

context

Speeches need to be correctly pitched in terms

of topic, register and delivery.

A sense of presence and purpose must be

generated by the speaker if what is said is to

have impact. The speaker needs to seem an

imposing figure.

The key topic of the speech must be clearly

conveyed.

The base argument must be repeated so that the

message is well supported and remembered by

the listener.

The opening of a speech aims to ‘hook’ the

audience’s attention.

The audience are usually directly addressed at

key points in the speech to jog attention and

maintain interest.

A clear structure is required to help clarify

points raised.

Information should be presented in short, well

constructed segments that are logically linked.

The conclusion usually reinforces the central

point of the speech and encourage a specific

action or belief in the listener.

Style

Language features such as the use of rhetorical

questions, evocative images, anecdotes or the

use of wit, irony or sarcasm can help reinforce

ideas in an entertaining way.

Points can be effectively supported by facts,

figures, jokes and quotations

Interesting and appropriate examples should be

incorporated throughout.

A strong sense of confidence and sincerity

within the speaker should be generated to make

them seem more personal and influential to

listeners.

Words need to be carefully chosen so that

concentration can be maintained

Core ideas need to be kept clear without being

made monotonous by too much repetition.

An engaging personality, body language and

voice can make it easier for the listener to

become emotionally and intellectually linked to

the speaker.

A forceful delivery is required is the audience is

to continue ‘listening’ rather than tuning out.

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Song Texts

Songs in general can be examined in terms of:

Subject matter- What is it about?

Purpose-What does the lyricist hope to

communicate to the listener?

Structure- What structure has been used and

why? Are refrains or choruses used? To what

effect?

Style- What mood, tone or style is evident in the

song?

Language – What diction, tone, figurative

techniques etc have been used and why?

Themes – What main ideas or concepts are

developed within the song?

Symbolism / Imagery- What key symbols or

images are used and why?

Songs are characteristed as being a condensed form of

expression where meaning can be packed into a few

words. They tend to be short and ideas are often kept

fairly simple and repetitive. This is because it can often

be more difficult for listeners to concentrate when they

do not have the words in front of them to go over.

Central ideas or themes are typically easy to identify.

Visual Texts

There are many types of visual images that are used

within media texts. They are highly effective because

visual images can often communicate information more

quickly and easily than words. Techniques can vary

depending on the type of visual that is used and the

particular medium in which they are found. The

composer’s intention can include wanting to amuse,

inform or persuade the viewer and this impacts on the

visual methods that are used. When analysing any

visual text, subject matter, framing, size and position,

bias, message and written text if applicable, are among

the typical criteria that is examined. Cartoon s are one

media text that fully utilise the power of visuals to

communicate ideas.

Cartoons

Response Guidelines- Examine the following when

studying cartoons

Subject Matter

Identify what is shown in the cartoon.

Evaluate what action is being shown and

consider what it signifies.

Examine what sort of figures are shown .

What is happening in the background, is it

simple or complicated?

Framing

Does the cartoon have a single frame

structure or is it a strip cartoon that tells a

visual narrative?

Does the frame, if there is one, isolate the

visual image from the text in any way or are

they integrated within the frame/

Does the framing help shape the meaning?

Size and Position

How large are the figures within the

cartoon? Do they dominate the frame or are

they peripheral to what is being shown?

How has the visual been cropped? What is

focused on and why?

Bias

What perceptions are created by the

expressions used? Are there obvious villains

and heroes or are they figures depicted as

neutral?

What emotional context is created, why and

how?

Message

What is the cartoonist saying via the visuals

and text?

What is being ridiculed or criticised?

What impression does the cartoonist want to

create on the viewer?

What visual techniques have been used to

emphasise the message? How effective have

they been?

Written text

Have labels, speech balloons or captions

been used to reinforce the visual message

being given?

How does the text add to the meaning?

How is emotional impact conveyed by the

words that are used?

Common Features:

Cartoons often use lighthearted satire and visual

humour as a way of poking fun or raising

awareness of some subject.

Their message may be politial, economic or

social in tone and the cartoonist’s approach can

be subtle or blunt.

Satiric methods often include:

Exaggeration

Distortion

Caricature

Paradox

Wordplay in the form of puns or idiom

Stereotypes and symbols

Simple, single frame visuals with just a caption

or speech balloon

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Information Report

Typical features

Reports are highly organised bodies of

information that relate to a core topic or issue.

Data is presented logically, methodically and

sequentially under headings and subheadings.

Report in content and style is targeted to its

audience

Material is categorised into compartments that

are linked and developed

The central structural framework is often

referred to as the outline.

Reports aim to thoroughly investigate something

and reach conclusions based on the evidence

found.

Conclusions and recommendations in relation to

the topic under review are also given.

Reports are used especially in business to guide

future transactions and decision making.

Style

Technical, scientific, medical or even Latin

terms can be used to give greater validity and

kudos to the report.

Language is formal, precise, explicit and

objective in tone.

Concrete rather than abstract terms are used

Ideas that are being presented should sound

impartial

Sentences short and to the point rather than long

and rambling

Simple and concrete explanations are used

rather than complex and abstract comments or

observations.

Clarity is enhanced by using comparative

techniques

The structure makes the information more

accessible to readers by breaking the data into

sections.

A general introduction is often included where

important terms are defined and a summary of

the information is given.

Problem or issue is clearly outlined in the

introduction section

A series of statements follow that succinctly

present the facts

Headings and sub-headings are used to label

each section and these are often numbered.

Feasible recommendations are given in the

conclusion

Documentaries

Documentaries of every style and topic are very popular

forms of media entertainment. The Discovery Channel

has them as staple fare and they are found on all the

major television channels. They can be low or high

budget, single programs or serialised, hosted by well

known personalities or relative unknowns. What is

common about them however is that they take the

viewer on an imaginative journey retracing the steps of

the narrator.

Common features

Travel documentaries have a particular slant or

focus. This can relate to place, cost, means of

transport and so on.

They provide insight into different parts of the

world and offer new perceptions of places that

might otherwise remain unknown to the viewer

Selected details manipulate the viewer’s

perspective and opinions about what is being

represented.

Bias and impartiality is often difficult to detect

because the information has been sifted and

categorised beforehand.

The medium allows a certain view of the travel

topic being presented to be carefully

constructed.

A persuasive point of view is presented which

colours the information provided

A travel narrative becomes the main framework

for the program

Style

The format manipulates the subject matter and

lends authority and credibility to the narrator.

The program provides a snapshot illusion of

reality, often couched in an ‘info-television’

style with little real substance or depth of

information.

Maps, graphics and other travel memorabilia act

as explanatory devices that enhance the validity

of what is being presented.

Background music and sound effects help create

ambiance and realism to what in many cases are

disjointed odds and ends of information.

Emotional impact is created by a range of audio-

visual techniques

A conversational tone is sometimes created by

the use of clichés and colloquialisms which also

add a sense of intimacy and companionship.

Multi-media Texts

Multi-media is an ever-expanding field of

communication and includes radio, television and

websites. The interactive nature of the medium makes

them appealing and popular. Material can be altered

quickly and removed when it becomes outdated or

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superceded. The ability to remain ‘current’ is favoured

by advertisers who make extensive use of multi-media

texts. Mass communication mediums of radio, television

and film are powerful communicators as shown by the

hysteria created by Radio in 1938 when America was led

to believe that it was being invaded by Martians in

Orson Welles’ boardcast of “The War of the Worlds”.

Film

“Film, the most powerful medium in the world, is

awesome in its ability to change thinking and behavior.

It has no peer in its power to impart concepts, ideas, and

information quickly, interestingly, and, if it is well

crafted-indelibly.” (Film Critic -Marion Blue)

Initial viewing- Take notes on the following

Opening Scene- how is the viewer’s interest

caught?

Whose point of view is the film presented

through?

What unities of time, place and action are used?

What central themes or ideas are developed

within the film?

How is the protagonist characterised?

How is the antagonists characterised?

What is the protagonist’s goal/purpose?

What does the film portray about the film’s

world and context? What insight if any is given?

What impact is made on the viewer?

What cinematic techniques are used to appeal to

the viewer’s senses and maintain their interest?

What conflicts are developed?

What key scenes and quotes are memorable?

Polishing Stage- Preparing study notes

Use Film glossary terms to describe cinematic

features relating to camerawork, lighting, sets,

intercutting shots and so on.

Focus on the fact that film narratives tell their

stories through images rather than words. Look

carefully at how visuals have been used to set

the scene, build atmosphere and involve the

viewer. This means that mis en scene elements,

camera angles and shots need to be analysed,

especially in key scenes to determine the impact

of tracking, tilt, zoom, close up shots and so on.

Auditory techniques are equally important in

creating the film world. These relate to dialogue,

music, sound effects and voiceover/narration.