ST ANTONY'S SERIES General Editor: Alex Pmvda, Fellow of SI AIIIOIIY'S College, Oxjord

Recellllities illclude:

Mark D. Alleyne INTERNATIONAL POWER AND INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Daniei A. Bell, David Brown, Kanishka Jayasuriya and David Martin Jones TOWARDS ILLIBERAL DEMOCRACY IN PACIFIC ASIA

Judith M. Brown and Rosemary Foot (editors) MIGRATION: The Asian Experience

Sir Alec Cairncross MANAGING THE BRITISH ECONOMY IN THE 1960s: A Treasury Perspeetive

Alex Danchev and Thomas Halverson (edilor) INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE YUGOSLAV CONFLICT

Anne Deighlon (editor) BUILDING POSTWAR EUROPE: National Decision-Makers and European Institutions, 1948-63

Richard Drifte JAPAN'S FOREIGN POLICY IN THE 1990s: From Economic Superpower to What Power?

Simon Duke THE NEW EUROPEAN SECURITY DISORDER

Jane Ellis THE RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH, 1985-94

Yhakan Erdem SLA VERY IN THE OTIOMAN EMPIRE AND ITS DEMISE, 1800-1909

Joäo Carlo Espada SOCIAL CITIZENSHIP RIGHTS: A Critique ofF. A. Hayck and Raymond Plant

Christoph GassenschmidI JEWISH LIBERAL POLlTlCS IN TSARIST RUSSIA, 1900-14: The Modernizalion of Russian Jewry

Amitzur lIan THE ORIGIN OF THE ARAB-ISRAELI ARMS RACE: Arms, Embargo, Military Power and Decision in the 1948 Palestine War

Hiroshi Ishida SOCIAL MOBILITY IN CONTEMPORARY JAPAN

Austen Ivereigh CATHOLICISM AND POLITICS IN ARGENTINA, 1910-60

Leroy Jin MONETARY POLICY AND THE DESIGN OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN CHINA,1978-90

Mallhew JOlles BRITAIN, THE UNITED STA TES AND THE MEDITERRANEAN WAR, 1942-44

Anthony Kirk-Grcene and Daniei Bach (editors) STATE AND SOCIETY IN FRANCOPHONE AFRICA SINCE INDEPENDENCE

Jon Lunn CAPITAL AND LABOUR ON THE RHODESIAN RAILW A Y SYSTEM, 1888-1947

Iftikhar H. Malik STATE AND CIVIL SOCIETY IN PAKISTAN: Politics of Authority, Ideology und Ethnicity

Javier Martfnez Lara BUILDING DEMOCRACY IN BRAZIL: The Politics ofConstitutional Change, 1985-95

Leslie McLoughlin IBN SAUD: Founder of a Kingdom

Rosalind Marsh HISTORY AND LITERATURE IN CONTEMPORARY RUSSIA

David Nicholls THE PLURALIST STATE: Thc Politicalldeas of J. N. Figgis and his Contemporaries

J. L. Porket UNEMPLOYMENT IN CAPITALlST, COMMUNIST AND POST-COMMUNIST ECONOMIES

Charles Powell JUAN CARLOS OF SPAIN: Self-Made Monarch

Neil Renwick JAPAN'S ALLIANCE POLITICS AND DEFENCE PRODUCTION

Aran Shai THE FA TE OF BRITISH AND FRENCH FIRMS IN CHINA, 1949-54: Imperialism hnprisoned

H. Gordon Skilling T. G. MASARYK: Against the Cuerent. 1882-1914

William J. Tompson KHRUSHCHEV: A Political Life

Christopher Trcmewan THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SOCIAL CONTROL IN SINGAPORE

Stephen Welch THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL CUL TURE

Jennifer M. Welsh EDMUND BURKE AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: The Commonwealth of Europe and the Crusade against the Frcnch Revolution

Czechoslovakia, 1918-92

A Laboratory for Social Change

Jaroslav Krejcf Professor Emeritus, Lonsdale College Lancaster University

and

Pavel Machonin Research-Team Leader Institute of Sociology Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic

in association with Palgrave Macmillan

© Jaroslav Krejci and Pavel Machonin 1996

Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1996978-0-333-60475-5

All rights reservcd. No rcproduction, copy or transmission of ihis publicalion may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or Iransmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence pemlitting Iimited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agcncy, 90 Tottenham Courl Road, London W I P 9HE.

Any person who docs any unauthoriscd act in relation 10 this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims fOT damages.

First published 1996 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companics and representatives throughout the world

ISBN 978-1-349-39183-7 ISBN 978-0-230-37721-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230377219

A catalogue Tecord for this book is available from the British Library.

10 9 8 7 6 05 04 03 02 01

5 4 3 00 99 98

2

Published in the United States 01' America 1996 by ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division 175 Fiflh Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010

Contents

List ofTables Preface Ackllowledgemems List of Abbreviations Maps ofCzechoslovakia: 1918-38 and 1945-92

PART I ETUNOPOLITICS Jaroslav Krejc{

1 The Wider Context

2 Composite Nation, Multiethnic State and Parliamentary Democracy The Czech-Slovak partnership Coping with the (argest minority

3 Dismemberment and Restitution: Various Kinds of Authoritarian Rule The Czech-German issue Thc Czech-Slovak issue

viii xii xv

xvi xvii

3

8 8

(2

19 19 25

4 The Balance Sheet of Ethnic Changes 31 Germans. Magyars. Jews and Poles 31 The casc of Ruthenia 37

5 Nationalism and Communism in Interplay 41 A three cornered contest 41 Thc fuH circlc of Czech-Slovak haggling over power-sharing 45

Appendix to Part I

PART 11 TUE ECONOMIC CONTEXT Jaroslav Krejc

V

{

6 The First Republic Preliminary rcmark

v

54

57 57

vi Contents

Recovery and growlh 58 Triumph and crisis 62 Appendix: Some structural aspects 69

7 Time of Disruption 71

8 The Rise and Fall of a Socialist Experiment 78 Immediate post-war measures 78 The start of economic planning 81 Economic policy under state socialism 85 Economic performance of state socialism 90 The role of economy in Slovakia's nation-building 100

9 A New Start as Two Nations lOS

PART 111 SOCIAL METAMORPHOSES Pavel MacllOnin

10 An Overview of the Basic Social Changes 113 The subject and method of study 113 Changes in c1ass structure 115 Changes in the branch structure of the economically

active population 118 Changes in levels of education 122 Social aspects of urbanisation 125 Shifts in earnings distribution 126 Preliminary conc1usions 130

11 Tbe First Attempt at a Common Social Emancipation 132 The birth of the Czech-Slovak social and political system 132 The 1920s: a social success 134 The 1930s: the road to collapse 136

12 Social Developments during the Second World War 140 Social devastation in the Czech Lands 140 Social shifts in the 'sovereign' Siovak state 146

13 The Second Attempt at a Democratic Common Life 150 The post-war social situation ISO The decisive conftict 156

Contents vii

14 The Installation of a Totalitarian and Egalitarian Social System 159 The Communist offensive and the first signs of a

crisis (1948-52) 159 The crisis, retreat and first attempts to renew social

balance (1953-6) 165

15 Reform Attempts 168 The main events of the period 1956-69 168 The sociological survey on social stratilkation in

1967: the main social changes, in 1955-67 170 Czech-Slovak comparison 184 The Praguc Spring 1968 as an attcmpt at social

transformation of the state socialist society 185

16 The 'Normalisation': AReturn to Abnormality 192 Socially significant events of the period 1969-89 and

a general characteristic of the ruling system 192 The sociological survey of c1ass and social structure

in 1984 199 Czech-Slovak comparison 206 Reasons for the collapse of the state socialist system 209

17 The Post-Communist Social Transformation 212 Thc iegacy 01' communism 212 Democratic changcs and the exchange of political e\ites 215 Major social changes in federal Czechoslovakia during

the first period of social transformation: the Sociological Survey on Social Stratification, 1993 221

The Czcch-Slovak dissociation 232 Social and political prospects 240

Notes 245 Bibliograph)' 249 Index 259

List of Tables

2.1 Ethnic structure of Czechoslovakia in 1930 (census data) 12

3.1 Chronology of the dismembennent of Czechoslovakia 1938-9 21

3.2 Election results for the Constituent Assembly, 26 May 1946 29

4.1 The lack of electoral support for unitary Czechoslovakia in 1935 32

5.1 Czech and Siovak demographie development 51 5.2 The development of ethnie structure: the Czech Lands 51 5.3 The development of ethnie structure: Slovakia 52 A.l Demographie indicators: the Czeeh Lands 54 A.2 Demographie indicators: Slovakia 54 6.1 Population structure by economic sector in the

conslituent parts of Czechoslovakia in 1921 58 6.2 Economic cycle 1929-37: physical indicators 62 6.3 Eeonomie cycle 1929-37: trade volumes 63 6.4 Eeonomic eycle 1929-37: Gross National Produel by

type of expenditure 64 6.5 Eeonomie eycle 1929-37: domestic and national income 65 6.6 Real wages and salaries 66 6.7 Dwelling-house sector: ratio of rent to construetion eosts 67 6.8 Manufaeturing industry: strueture by employment 68 6.9 National income by industrial origin in 1930 69 6.10 Value added per person engaged in 1930 69 6.11 National reproducible wealth in 1930, and its ratio to GNP 70 6.12 Consolidated balance of international payments 70 7.1 Bohemia and Moravia as a whole: employment in

manufaeturing industry in 1944 71 7.2 Performance of industry in 1943 72 7.3 Alternative series for real national income in

Bohemia-Moravia 1939-43 75 7.4 Expendilure of GNP in Bohemia-Moravia 1940-4 75 7.5 Gennany's absorption of GNP generated in

Bohemia-Moravia 1940-4 76 7.6 Purchasing power, consumption and savings in

Bohemia-Mora via 77

VIII

List 0/ Tables ix

8.1 Real income indices in 1946 80 8.2 Employment in industry by form of ownership as

percenlage of total industrial employment 84 8.3 Economic growth: annual averages 92 8.4 Consumption and investment: official series 93 8.5 Provision with productive assets and their efficiency 94 8.6 The main shirts in the structure of industrial production 95 8.7 GNP by distributive shares and by final use 96 8.8 GDP by final use, as percentage 98 8.9 Equalisation ratios: Siovakia as percentage of the level

in the Czech Lands 102 8.10 Fixed assets and industrialisation: Siovakia compared

with the Czech Lands 102 8.11 Transfers of net material product from Czech Lands

to SJovakia 103 8.12 Government finance in the final years of federation 104 9.1 Gross Domestic Product by final type of use: annual

changes as percentage 108 9.2 GOP: Czechoslovakia and the Republics 108 10.1 Changes in c\ass structurc in thc Czech Lands,

1921-91, as percentages of economically active 116 10.2 Changes in c\ass structure in Siovakia, 1921-91, as

percentages of economically active 117 10.3 Changes in branch structures in the Czech Lands,

1921-93, as percentages of economically active 119 10.4 Changes in the branch structures in Siovakia, 1921-93,

as percentages of economically active 120 10.5 Attained levels of education in the Czech Lands, 1950-91,

as percentages of the population over 15 years 123 10.6 Attained levels of education in Slovakia, 1950-91,

as percentages of the population over 15 years 124 10.7 Percentages of secondary- and tertiary-educated in

age cohort 30-34, 1991 124 10.8 Inhabitants according to the size of localities in the

Czech Lands and Siovakia, 1910-91, as percentages of population 126

10.9 Earnings distribution in Czech and Siovak industry, 1937-91 128

10.10 Average monthly wages of population occupied in the socialist sector of the national economy in the Czech Lands and Siovakia, 1948-92, in CSK 129

x List ofTables

11.1 Results of the 1920 parliamentary elections for the House of Representatives in the Czech Lands and Siovakia, as percentages of valid votes 133

11.2 Results of the 1925 and 1929 parliamentary elections for the House of Representatives in the Czech Lands and Siovakia. as percentages of valid votes 135

11.3 Results of the 1935 parliamentary elections for the House of Representatives in the Czech Lands and Siovakia, as percentages of valid votes 139

13.1 Results of the 1946 parliamentary elections for the National Assembly in thc Czech Lands and Slovakia as percentages of valid votes 154

15.1 Fulfilment of educational requiremcnts in the socialist sector of the national economy in the Czech Lands, 1970-83, as percentages of attaincd required minimum level or above 175

15.2 Fulfilment of educational requirements in the socialist sec tor of the national economy in Siovakia, 1970-83, as percentages of allained required minimum level or ahove 175

15.3 Monthly earnings in selected occupations in Czechoslovakia in 1965 182

16.1 Basic social status characteristics of the economically active in the Czech and Siovak Republics, 1984 and 1993, as percentages 201

16.2 Class differentiation of the economically active in thc Czech and Slovak Republics. 1984, as percentages 203

16.3 Class differentiation of the economically active in thc Czech and Slovak Republics, 1993, as percentages 203

16.4 Spearman's rank correlations' matrices for status-forming variables in thc Czech and Siovak Republics, 1983 204

16.5 Spearman's rank correlations' matrices for status-forming variables in the Czech and Slovak Republics, 1993 204

16.6 Multiple regressions of individual earnings in the Czech and Siovak Republics in 1984 (values ofbeta coefficients) 206

16.7 Multiple regressions of individual earnings in the Czech and Siovak Republics in 1993 (values of beta coefficients) 206

List ofTables XI

16.8 Evaluation of the development in the past five years of thc Czcch and Slovak populations, as perccntages 208

17.1 Results of the 1990 parliamentary elections for the Housc of Peoplc in the Czech and Slovak Republics, as percentages of valid votes 216

17.2 Results of the 1992 elections for the parliaments of the Czcch and Slovak Republies, as percentages of valid votes 218

17.3 Results of the 1994 parliamentary elections in the Slovak Republic, as percentages of valid votes 220

17.4 Preference for political parties in the Czech Republic in December 1994, as percentages of adult population (exc\uding the undecided) 220

17.5 Participation of former and present Communist Party members in the social status categories of economically activc in the Czech and Siovak Republics, 1993 231

17.6 Indicators of the development of self-employed in the Czech and Slovak Republics in Autumn 1993, as perccntages of economically active 235

17.7 Positive answers to the question 'Did (do) you have enough money in thc family budget for ... ?' in the Czech and Siovak Republics 1988 (retrospectively) and 1993, as percentagcs of population 237

17.8 Positive evaluations of the transformation and of its future prospects in the Czech and Siovak Republics in 1991 and 1993, as percentages of economically active 237

Preface

ABOUT THE BOOK

The aim of lhis book is 10 provide the Anglophone reader with a succinct account of a unique experiment in nalion-building: an attempl 10 huild up a composite ethnic (Czechoslovak) nation and provide il with an adequatc political framework.

The book is divided into three parts. The tirst, written hy Jaroslav KrejCf, is calledElhnopolitics; it explains the rationale of the experiment, and reviews ils obstaeles, successes and failures, due hoth to internal and extern al causes.

The second part, written hy the same author, contains an outline of the economic contcxt of ethnic as weil as social aspects of the deyelopment. As far as possihle, the economic structure and performance of lhe Czech and Siovak parts of the state are given separate attention.

The third part, wrilten by Pavel Machonin, and called Social Meta­ll1orphoses, covers structural changes in lhe Czech and Siovak societies. Changes in c\ass structures, stratification, mobility and living slandanJs constitute the main items for consideration. Wherevcr there is relevant material available, popular opinion on particular issucs and elcctoral results are scrutinised.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Jaroslav Krejci, born in 1916, studied law and economics at Charles University in Prague. During the German occupation he took part in the resistanee movement, and after the war held a responsihle joh in the State Planning Office. He also laught national accounting at the Graduate School of Social and Political Studies in Prague. Step by step banned from these engagements for political reasons, he became involved. in coopera­tion with others, in independent research sponsored hy the Hluvka Economic Institute in Prague. In 1954, this institute was e10sed down and its main co-workers, including Krejcf, were sentenced to imprisonment for high treason (KrejCf for ten years). Released on amnesty in 1960. he was allowed to return to his profession only in 1968. Employed in mcnial johs in the interim, he turned his interest to a wider field of social scicnce and

xii

Preface xiii

history. As the Soviet anned intervention put an abrupt end to the Praguc Spring, he, together with his wife (at that time lecturer in Psychology at Charles Univcrsity) left lor exile. After a short sojourn in Vienna. they seltled in England where they could both resume their academie careers. As Lecturer and then Professor at Lancaster University he taught mainly in lhe departments of European Studies and Religious Studies. His ex­pertise in various mcthods of national accounting was utilised for research work at St Antony's College in Oxford. His writings cover a widc runge (Ir subjeets such as national income and social structurc in Central European countries, ethnic problems in Europe, comparative study 01' revolutions with the outline of a theory, and comparative study of civilisations. inclUlt·· ing the quest for the underlying pallern or their transtormations. Krejc('s present position:

• in England, Emeritus Professor at Lancaster University • in Prague, Director (honorary) of the Ccntrc tor Rcsearch into Sucio­

Cultural Pluralism at thc Philosophical Institute of the AcadclllY uf Sciences. Honorary Chairman of the restored Hhivka Economic Institute, and mcmbcr uf thc Czcch Lcarncd Socicty.

}lavel Machonin. born in 1927, was 18 when the war ended and he WllS

ahle to relurn from a yc.lr's mandatory work as a lahourer and completc his grammar school studies. Likc many young pcoplc at that time hc was fascinated by the prospects of the specifically Czechoslovak road to social­ism advoeated then by the Communists and joined their party. He linished his sludies at Ihe Graduate ScllOOI of Social and Political Studies in Prague in 1949. Disappointed wilh thc course 01' cvcnts wh ich actually followed in socia/ and po/i/ical lire of the country in the I 950s. hc idcntitied himse/f with the reformist current already emerging in the mid-1950s within thc Parly. In I 960s, he look part in the rcnasccncc of sociology as a /egilimatc diseipline and led u team 01' young soci%gists who had emancipalcd thclllselves from thc officia/ doctrinu/ stalinist stance. On thc eve of the Praguc Spring he completed with thcm a thoroughgoing empirica/ r.:search on social strati/kation and mobility in Czechoslovakia which was the first study of this kind in the state socia/ist countries. In 1967, he was uppointcd to the post 01' Director of the Institute of Social and Political Scienccs <11 CharIes Uni\'ersity. In 1968 Machonin took an active part in the reformists' bid for power und as a rcsult of this and of his research activitics, he was banned from his professional work in which he could eonsequently continue only privatcly und anonymously. For fourtcen years. he workcd in the computer station of the Czech poultry industry. At

xiv Preface

that time, the most important support for him was provided by his wife Olga who worked as lecturer in the field of culturology at Charles University. Only after 1989 was he able to return to research work first at the University and then in the Institute of Sociology of the Academy of Sciences. In recognition of his pioneering research work on stratification in Cenlral and Eastern Europe, he was elected in 199\ Honorary President 01' the Research Committee on Social Stratification and MobiJity at the International Sociological Association. At present, he is leading a research team dealing with the ongoing social transformation in the Czech and Slovak Republics. He has been elected external member of the Academic Assembly of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic.

THE GENESIS OF THE BOOK

In the relaxed atmosphere in Czechoslovakia of 1967, Pavel Machonin was in a position to organise a broadly based piece of research on the state of Czechoslovak society. In 1969 the results were published in SJovakia where repression of the reform movement was less severe than in Prague. Although the book was withdrawn from circulation in Czechoslovakia, shortly afterwards, KrejCf, already in England, obtained a copy and, in his first hook in English (published by Macmillan in 1972) could make ample refcrence 10 the findings of Machonin's team in support of his own con­clusions. After 1989, Machonin as a member of the Governmental Commission for the evaluation of the events in 1968, used Krejc('s data in support of his interpretations. When in 1990 the two authors, for the first time in their life, met in Prague it seemed to both that their earlier work nccded 10 be brought up to date and to become available in English.

It is up to the reader to judge to what extent the authors, each writing from his specific angle his own part of the study, based on his own par­ticular professional background and life experience, contributcd to an understanding of the often dramatic quest of two kindred peoples for full nationhood, democracy and, if possible, an equitable social system.

Acknow ledgements

For Jaroslav Krejcf the most valuable contribution to this work was fhe advice and unstinted editorial work of his wife. Anna. The emerital status at Lancaster University together with the support of the Departmcnt 01' German Studies in the School of Modern Languages provided him with the facilities without which it would not have been possible to continue research after retirement. The typing of the text by the secretary of the Centre for Research in Socio-Cultural Pluralism in Prague. Mrs Dana Schautova, and by Mrs K veta Kasparova, has been much appreciatcd.

Both authors have to express their gratitude to the Institute of Sociology in Prague, particularly to Lumfr Gatnar and Zdena Janii, for the tcchnical work on the completion of the book, and to the British Academy for its contribution towards the indexing or the book.

The third part of the book is based on empirical data. Besides publishcd statisties, sociological and historieal literature, some historiographical working studies not accessible at the book market and unpublished socio­logical data were used. The author, Pavel Machonin, expresses in this way his thanks to the historians L. Kalinova, V. Priicha and K. Kaplan who wrote the mentioned studies and organised the teams who prcpared them: it is due to their work that the author gained access to the historiographical knowledge in a comprehensive form. Thanks also to M. Tucek and L. Gatnar who elaborated data from Czechoslovak sociological surveys or 1984 and 1993 for this study. Both researchers and the author worked on this topic within the framework of the grant No 828105 of the Grant Agency of the Academy or Sciences, Czech Republic, supported further by a grant from the Czech Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. In the last two chapters, the author uses data from the international comparative survey 'Social Stratification and Circulation of Elites in Eastern Europe after 1989' (1993) coordinated by the UCLA and sponsored by the US National Science Foundation and NWO (Netherlands' Science Foundation). The Czech data were collected and prepared by a team led by P. Matejii, the Slovak by a team led by J. Buncak. The author thanks those institutions that gave their support as weil as those researchers who were engaged in the research project in question. Last but not least, the author cordially thanks Stephanie Howard for her assistance in the translation of his 'Czenglish' to English.

xv

List of Abbreviations

Co i. f. CMEA CSK CSSR C:S-Y f.o.h. UDP GDR GFR GNP IISY NMP SM SNA S)' SS)' ueLA UNRRA

cOSl, insurance, freighl Council for Mutual Economic Assistancc Czcchoslovak Koruna Czcchoslovak Socialist Republic Czech Statistical Yearbook free on board gross domcstic product German Dcmocratic Repuhlic (East Germany) German Federal Republic (West Germany) gross national product Historical Statistical Yearbook nct material product Statistical Manual standard national accounting Czechoslovak Statistical Yearbook Slovak Statistical Yearbook The Univcrsity of California. Los Angclcs United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration

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