SPORT PSYCHOLOGYChapter 10

The Athlete’s Career

Lavallee et al. (2004) Sport Psychology: Contemporary Themes (Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke)

Introduction, History and Development

• As the demands associated with competitive sport have increased in recent years, so has the academic interest in the athlete’s career

• In 1980, McPherson reported that an extensive literature search generated 20 references pertaining to the topic of transitions in sport

• In 2000, over 270 references were identified on this topic (Lavallee, Wylleman & Sinclair, 2000)

Introduction, History and Development

• One of the first studies in the area by Bookbinder (1955) found that athletes are confronted with a wide range of psychological, interpersonal and financial issues throughout their career

• Other early research focused almost exclusively on the psychological difficulties experienced by retiring athletes, and concentrated on male professional athletes in specific sports

Introduction, History and Development

• As research on the career of the athlete expanded, several authors challenged the assumption that athletic retirement is stressful for all individuals

• Research by Blinde, Greendorfer and colleagues found in one of the largest studies in the area that approximately 90& of athletes looked forward to their life after sport

• This led to the development of theories and models to explain the athlete’s career

Theories and Models

• Gerontology Theories– The study of the aging process

• Thanatology Theories– The study of death and dying

• Transition Models

Gerontology Models

• Activity Theory

• Subculture Theory

• Disengagement Theory

• Continuity Theory

• Social Breakdown Theory

• Social Exchange Theory

Theories and Models

Thanatology Models

• Social death concept

• Social awareness contexts

– Closed awareness

– Suspected awareness

– Mutual pretence

– Open awareness

• Stage of grief models

Theories and Models

Transition Models

• A transition has been defined as an event which results in a change in assumptions about oneself and the world and requires a corresponding change in behaviour and relationships (Schlossberg, 1981)

• Schlossberg’s Model of Human Adaptation to Transition

• Developmental Models of Transition

Theories and Models

Schlossberg’s Model of Human Adaptation to Transition

• Characteristics of the individual experiencing the transition– Psychosocial competence, sex, age, state of health,

race/ethnicity, socio-economic status, value orientation and previous experience with transitions

• Perceptions of the particular transition– Role change, affect, source, onset, duration and the degree

of stress

• Characteristics of the pre- and post-transition environment– Internal support systems, institutional support and physical

setting

Theories and Models

Developmental Models of Transition

• Normative and non-normative transitions (Stambulova, 2000)– Normative transitions include the transition

from junior to senior level, from regional to national-level competitions, from amateur to professional status, and from active participation to discontinuation from competitive sport.

– Non-normative transitions include season-ending injury, the loss of a personal coach and an unanticipated de-selection from the team

• Wylleman’s (2001) Developmental Model

Theories and Models

Theories and Models

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PrimarPrimaryEducayEduca

-tion-tionProfessional CareerProfessional Career

PeersPeersCoachCoach

ParentsParents

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ParentsParentsSiblingsSiblingsPeersPeers

FamilyFamily(Coach)(Coach)

PerfectionPerfectionMasteryMastery

Develop-Develop-mentmentInitiationInitiation Disconti-Disconti-

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Child-Child-hoodhood (Young) Adulthood(Young) Adulthood

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Individual Level

Psycho-social Level

Academic

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Methods and Measures

• Causes of Career Transition- - Age, injury, de-selection, voluntary decision

• Developmental Factors - Socialisation into sport, athletic identity

• Coping Resources- Social support, pre-transition planning, having a new focus, transferable skills

• Athlete Retirement Questionnaire (Sinclair & Orlick, 1993)• Professional Athletes Career Transition Inventory (Blann &

Zaichkowsky, 1989)• Australian Athletes Career Transition Inventory (Hawkins &

Blann, 1993)

Practical Issues and Interventions

• Olympic Job Opportunities Program • Career Assistance Program for Athletes

(USA) • Olympic Athlete Career Centre (Canada) • Athlete Career and Education Program

(Australia and UK)

Career Assistance Program for Athletes• One-day workshop• Combination of lectures and small group

discussions• Career development• Career myths• Goal setting• Transferable skills• ‘Positioning Yourself for Success’ workbook

Practical Issues and Interventions

Olympic Athlete Career Center

• Individual career counselling• Self-assessment workshops• Career-related workshop (e.g., CV

preparation, Job search techniques, Interviewing techniques)

• Shadow program• Business cards

Practical Issues and Interventions

Athlete Career and Education Program• Program of Australian Institute of Sport• Objective: To enhance the personal

development and performance of Australia’s elite athletes

• Structure: personal development training workshops, case management, educational guidance, career planning development, transition programs

Practical Issues and Interventions

Case Study

Tony is a 21 year-old elite-level middle-distance runner who was informed earlier in the week that he was not selected for the national team going to the world championships. These championships were going to be his final opportunity to qualify for the Olympic Games, and he has made an appointment to see a sport psychologist to discuss his non-selection. At the start of the meeting he tells the sport psychologist that he “does not think it is fair that some people just suddenly decided that he could no longer do what we have trained so long and hard for”. He later expresses concerns about what he is going to do next, and says that his “coach has always said that he shouldn’t concentrate on anything other than athletics if he wanted to retain his place on the squad.”

Case Study

Questions

• With reference to the Theories and Models section in Chapter 10, how would you interpret what is happening in this case study?

• With reference to Methods and Measures, what techniques would you employ to help understand and quantify the issues?

• With reference to Practical Issues and Interventions, how would you deal with this situation?

Study Questions

1. Contrast social gerontology models with thanatology models with regard to the athlete’s career

2. Outline Schlossberg’s (1981) model of human adaptation to transition, and discuss how it has been used to describe the athlete’s career

3. Define athletic identity and explain its importance in the sports career transition process

4. Compare the Olympic Athlete Career Centre with the Athlete Career and Education Program with regard to the services provided to athletes

5. Describe some of the practical considerations in the provision of career interventions for athletes

Further Reading

• Lavallee, D. and Wylleman, P. (2000) (eds) Career Transitions in Sport: International Perspectives. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology

• Meeker, D.J., Stankovich, C.E. and Kays, T.M. (2000) Positive Transitions for Student Athletes. Scottsdale,AZ: Holcomb Hathaway

• Petitpas, A., Champagne, D., Chartand, J., Danish, S., and Murphy, S. (1997) Athlete’s Guie to Career Planning. Champaign, IL:Human Kinetics

• Taylor, J. and Ogilvie, B. C. (2001) ‘Career Termination among Athletes’, in R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, and C. M. Janelle (eds), Handbook of Sport Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 672-691). NY: Wiley

• Wylleman, P., Lavallee, D., & Aflermann, D. (1999) (eds) CareerTransitions in Competitive Sports. Biel, Switzerland: European Federation of Sport Psychology Monograph Series