Splash Screen Contents Chapter Focus Section 1Section 1Development of Foreign Policy Section...

Chapter Focus

Section 1 Development of Foreign Policy

Section 2 Shared Foreign Policy Powers

Section 3 State and Defense Departments

Section 4 Foreign Policy in Action

Chapter Assessment

http://www.gov.glencoe.com/

• Development of Foreign Policy Describe the goals and development of United States foreign policy.

Chapter Objectives

• Shared Foreign Policy Powers Explain how the executive and legislative branches share foreign policy powers.

• State and Defense Departments Summarize the roles of the Departments of State and Defense in foreign policy making.

• Foreign Policy in Action Describe the tools of foreign policy.


Development of Foreign Policy

Key Terms

foreign policy, national security, isolationism, internationalism, containment

Find Out

• Why has a reevaluation of foreign policy been necessary since the end of the Cold War?

• What are the major objectives of United States foreign policy?


Development of Foreign Policy

Understanding Concepts

Public Policy How did United States foreign policy contribute to winning the Cold War?

Section Objective

Describe the goals and development of United States foreign policy.


The president of the United States exercises great powers, especially in the area of foreign policy. Even with the best advice of military and diplomatic experts, the U.S. president must make final, sometimes agonizing, decisions about the lives and safety of Americans. President Johnson confessed his deep worries about the growing conflict in Vietnam in these words: “I stayed awake last night thinking of this thing [the conflict] ...It looks to me like we are getting into another Korea ...I don’t think we can fight them more than 10,000 miles away from home ...And I don’t think that we can get out.”


A. Foreign policy guides the nation’s relations with other countries.

I. Goals of Foreign Policy (pages 607–609)

B. Principal goals of American foreign policy:1) preserve the security of the United States;

2) maintain trade and preserve access to natural resources;

3) work for world peace;

4) aid democratic nations and help create democracies;

5) provide help for victims of natural disasters.


With which major foreign policy goals do you think the United States is having the most success?

Answers will vary. Students should assess current international conditions.

I. Goals of Foreign Policy (pages 607–609)


A. In the early years the nation’s leaders followed a path of isolationism.

II. Development of Foreign Policy (pages 609–613)

B. In 1823 the Monroe Doctrine ended the isolationism.

C. By the 1890s the United States had become a world power.

D. The United States became involved in foreign wars in 1898, 1917, and 1941.

E. After World War II the United States struggled with the Soviet Union in the Cold War, leading to a costly arms race between the two superpowers.


F. The United States adopted a policy known as containment to keep Soviet communism from expanding its power.

G. The Truman Doctrine in 1947 outlined the Marshall Plan, providing economic aid to nations threatened by totalitarian regimes.

H. The United States fought two wars that were the consequence of containment: the Korean War (1950–1953) and the Vietnam War (1964–1973).

I. In 1989 the Soviet Union collapsed, splitting into Russia and 14 other separate nations; this ended the Cold War and changed the political environment of the world.



J. In the years after the Cold War, the United States sent troops to Iraq, Somalia, Haiti, and the former Yugoslavia in order to protect American trade interests, encourage democracy, and advance human rights.

K. In the Persian Gulf War, the United States defended Kuwait against Iraq, protected American oil interests in the Middle East, and began programs aimed at preventing Iraq from developing weapons of mass destruction.



L. The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States led to President George W. Bush’s war on terrorism and the preemptive invasion of Iraq.

M. After the initial military deployment, the United States kept a large number of troops in Iraq and pledged long-term aid toward the development of a stable democratic government there.




Explain how the United States changed from a nation following a policy of isolation to a nation with interests in all parts of the world.

For discussion of changes from isolation through the end of the Cold War see text pages 609–613.


1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one below to show two foreign policy issues that are part of the nation’s new global agenda.

Checking for Understanding

finding ways to open world markets to U.S. business, dealing with the increased threat of terrorism


___ foreign policy

___ national security

___ isolationism

___ internationalism

___ containment

A. the avoidance of involvement in world affairs

B. involvement in world affairs

C. the policy designed to keep the Soviet Union from expanding its power

D. protection of a nation’s borders and territories against invasion or control by foreign powers

E. the strategies and goals that guide a nation’s relations with other countries


E

D

A

B

C

Match the term with the correct definition.


3. Identify Cold War, preemption.


The Cold War was a war of words and ideologies rather than a shooting war between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Preemption means that the United States will strike first with military force against any terrorist groups or rogue states that might threaten the nation with weapons of mass destruction.


4. What are the basic aims of American foreign policy?


The basic aims of American foreign policy are national security, free and open trade, world peace, democratic governments, and humanitarian concerns.


5. How did the United States carry out its policy of containment?


The United States carried out its policy of containment through economic and military aid to nations threatened by communism.


6. Drawing Conclusions Do you believe the United States could follow a policy of isolationism at this time? Support your answer.

Critical Thinking

Answers should show an understanding of the global interdependence in today’s world and of the abundance of long-range weapons that make isolationism nearly impossible.


Public Policy In recent years, the development of an interdependent global economy has led to an ongoing debate about the degree to which free trade helps or hurts the United States. Create a political cartoon about this topic illustrating either the benefits of free trade or the potential problems that may result from global interdependence.


Shared Foreign Policy Powers

Key Terms

ambassador, treaty, executive agreement, bipartisan

Find Out

• What are the constitutional foreign policy powers of the president and Congress?

• How is the executive branch structured to carry out United States foreign policy?


Shared Foreign Policy Powers


Checks and Balances What powers of Congress act as a check upon the president’s power to conduct foreign policy?

Section Objective

Explain how the executive and legislative branches share foreign policy powers.


In October 1983 President Ronald Reagan sent U.S. marines and paratroopers to the island of Grenada in the Caribbean. He took this action to oust an anti-American Marxist regime that was friendly to the Soviet Union. As commander in chief, President Reagan was empowered to order this military action; however, he did so without asking Congress to declare war.


A. The Constitution makes the president commander in chief, and it gives the president diplomatic powers.

I. Presidential Powers andResponsibilities (pages 614–615)

B. As head of state the president symbolizes the leadership and the policies of the United States.


How does the president’s role as head of state increase his power in formulating U.S. foreign policy?

Americans look to the head of state for leadership in formulating policy.

I. Presidential Powers andResponsibilities (pages 614–615)


A. Presidents have final responsibility for foreign policy decisions.

II. Foreign Policy Advisors (pages 615–617)

B. Important advisers include the secretaries of state and defense and the national security adviser.

C. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) gathers and coordinates information about other nations and advises the president.

D. Presidents also consult government foreign policy experts, trusted political friends, and cabinet members.


II. Foreign Policy Advisors (pages 615–617)

Explain the role of secretary of state in helping the president shape foreign policy.

The secretary of state supervises diplomatic activity and provides advice on policy.


A. The president directs United States foreign policy; Congress plays an important role based on Constitutional powers.

III. Powers of Congress (pages 617–619)

B. Only Congress has the power to declare war.

C. In 1973 lawmakers passed the War Powers Act, which forbids the president from sending armed forces into combat for more than 60 days without the consent of Congress.

D. Congress can refuse to provide funds for military action.


E. The Senate must approve all treaties negotiated by the president.

F. The Senate can overturn the president’s granting of most favored nation status.




What was the effect of the War Powers Act passed by Congress in 1973?

It gave Congress some control over the use of troops, but Congress is reluctant to use it.


A. Congress passes most foreign policy bills and treaties the president proposes although it could block presidential foreign policy proposals and even initiate policies of its own.

IV.The President and Congress (pages 619–620)

B. Presidents’ policies have enjoyed bipartisan support in Congress.


C. The president has advantages over Congress in conducting foreign policy.

1) As head of state, the president is the leader of the entire nation, and only the president can speak for the United States.

2) The president receives advice daily from the Department of State and the National Security Council, in order to respond rapidly to events.




What advantage does the president have over Congress in conducting foreign policy?

As leader, the president is a single voice for the nation, can take quick action, and has access to vital secret information.


A. Both the president and Congress are influenced by public opinion.

V. Influence of Public Opinion (page 620)

B. Organized interest groups may affect foreign policy bills.


V. Influence of Public Opinion (page 620)

How did the Vietnam protests demonstrate the influence of public opinion in foreign affairs?

It influenced Johnson’s decision not to run for reelection and Nixon’s to withdraw troops.


1. Main Idea Use a Venn diagram like the one below to compare executive agreements and treaties.


executive agreements—do not require Senate approval; treaties—require Senate approval; both—the president uses them to execute foreign policy


___ ambassador

___ treaty

___ executive agreement

___ bipartisan

A. an official of the government who represents the nation in diplomatic matters

B. an agreement made between the president and a head of state

C. consisting of members of both major political parties

D. a formal agreement between the governments of two or more countries


A

D

B

C



3. Identify secretary of state, national security adviser, Central Intelligence Agency.


The secretary of state supervises all the diplomatic activities of the American government.

The national security adviser serves as the director of the National Security Council and plays a major role in foreign affairs.

The Central Intelligence Agency, or CIA, is responsible for gathering and coordinating information about the governments, economies, and armed forces of other nations.


4. Which cabinet members generally work most closely with the president on foreign policy?


The secretaries of state and defense generally work the closest with the president on foreign policy.


5. What are the foreign policy powers of Congress?


The foreign policy powers of Congress are the power to declare war, appropriate money, ratify treaties, and confirm diplomatic appointments.


6. Forming an Opinion Do you think the president has too much power in making foreign policy? Explain your answer.

Critical Thinking

Some students may believe that certain situations need immediate action that Congress cannot provide; other students may believe that the longer time required by Congress would help avoid rash or hasty actions.


Checks and Balances Use library resources to find specific examples of how public opinion changed U.S. policy in Vietnam in the 1960s and 1970s. Prepare a poster that illustrates the public’s reaction to the war and the government’s responses. Be sure to include pictures, captions, and headlines in your poster.


State and Defense Departments

Key Terms

embassy, consulate, consul, passport, visa, conscription

Find Out

• What constitutional powers do Congress and the president have over the military?

• How is the State Department structured to carry out United States foreign policy?


State and Defense Departments


Separation of Powers What constitutional provisions separate the powers of Congress and the president in developing and carrying out foreign policy?

Section Objective

Summarize the roles of the Departments of State and Defense in foreign policy making.


Millions of Americans who travel to foreign countries each year on vacation or on business trips have one thing in common; they need a passport. U.S. citizens can obtain a passport by paying a fee and submitting to the Department of State proof that they were born in the United States. Passports include the place and date of birth and a photograph of its holder.


A. The secretary of state, head of the Department of State, advises the president on foreign policy.

I. The Department of State (pages 621–623)

B. The Department of State has four main duties:1) to keep the president informed about international issues,

2) to maintain diplomatic relations with foreign governments,

3) to negotiate treaties, and

4) to protect the interests of U.S. citizens abroad.


C. The Department of State is organized into six geographic bureaus that analyze information about specific foreign policy topics in those regions.

D. More than half of State Department employees serve in other countries.

E. The United States maintains embassies in the capitals of136 foreign countries where U.S. ambassadors and their staffs reside.



F. Embassy staff members advise the State Department about the politics and policies of the host government.

G. The United States also maintains consulates in major cities of foreign nations to promote U.S. business interests and safeguard travelers.



Why does the United States maintain embassies and consulates in foreign nations?

To facilitate communications with foreign governments and to promote American interests.



A. The Department of Defense (DOD) supervises the armed forces of the United States and ensures that those forces are strong enough to defend its interests.

II. The Department of Defense (pages 623–625)

B. The Founders wanted to ensure that civilians had the ultimate authority in military affairs. Therefore, the president and Congress control the armed forces.

C. The Department of Defense is the largest executive department, with more than 700,000 civilian employees and about 1 million military personnel.


D. The Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force are major divisions within the DOD. The United States Marine Corps, under the jurisdiction of the Navy, maintains its own leadership, identity, and traditions.

E. The president, the National Security Council, and the secretary of defense rely on the Joint Chiefs of Staff or military advice.

F. The military has used two methods to recruit soldiers: conscription, or the draft, and volunteer enlistments.

G. Women as well as men may volunteer to serve in any branch of today’s all volunteer armed services.




How do the president and Congress share authority over the armed forces of the United States?

The president is the civilian head of the military; Congress provides the funding.


1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one below to show the organizational structure of the State Department.


Secretary of State; regions—African, European/Canadian, East Asian/Pacific, Inter-American, Near East/South Asian; topics—intelligence and research, political and military, education and culture


___ embassy

___ consulate

___ consul

___ passport

___ visa

___ conscription

A. compulsory military service

B. a document entitling a traveler to certain protections established by international treaty

C. an ambassador’s official residence and offices in a foreign country

D. a government official who heads a consulate in a foreign nation

E. a special document that is issued by the government of the country that a person wishes to enter

F. office that promotes American business and safeguards its travelers in a foreign country


C

F

D

B

E

A



3. Identify Foreign Service, Joint Chiefs of Staff.


The Foreign Service includes officials who are assigned to serve abroad in foreign countries.

The Joint Chiefs of Staff are the top-ranking officers of the armed forces who advise the president, the National Security Council, and the secretary of defense on military matters.


4. What are the powers of Congress in military matters?


Congress controls military spending and how the military will be organized and governed.


5. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Do you think an armed forces of volunteers will perform better or worse than one of draftees?

Critical Thinking

Answers will vary, but may include that some volunteers may join for other than patriotic reasons.


Separation of Powers What foreign policy goals do you think the State Department should carry out today? Review the major foreign policy goals of the United States outlined in Section 1. Choose the two goals that you think are most important today. Present a two-minute speech outlining why you think these goals are the most important.


Foreign Policy in Action

Key Terms

mutual defense alliance, regional security pact, multilateral treaty, bilateral treaty, collective security, sanction

Find Out

• What are some ways the United States can influence the policies of other nations?

• What are the main alliances of the United States today?


Foreign Policy in Action


Growth of Democracy What changes in the role of NATO are consistent with the promotion of democracy in Europe?

Section Objective

Describe the tools of foreign policy.


The United States fought the Korean War from 1950 to 1953 to stop the spread of communism in Asia. More than 54,000 Americans were killed, and more than 4 million people, most of them civilians in North and South Korea, lost their lives. Under the truce agreement that finally ended the war, Korea was divided into two nations separated by a demilitarized zone near the 38th parallel. American troops were stationed along this zone to protect South Korea from future attack. Today, a half century later, troops remain there.


A. The United States has committed itself to defending three regions of the world:

I. Alliances and Pacts (pages 627–629)

1) Western Europe and the North Atlantic,

2) Central and South America, and

3) the island nations of the South Pacific.

B. After World War II, the United States and several Western European nations formed NATO to protect themselves from domination by the Soviet Union.


C. After the Cold War ended, NATO’s role changed: NATO expanded its mission to include global crisis intervention and peacekeeping, opened membership to former Soviet satellite nations, and formed a partnership with Russia.

D. In 1947 the United States and Latin American nations signed the Rio Pact, a mutual defense treaty, and in 1948 formed the Organization of American States (OAS).

E. The United States has a regional security pact with Australia and New Zealand.

F. The United States also has bilateral treaties with Japan, the Philippines, and Korea.



What is NATO’s purpose after the Cold War?

NATO is an instrument for global crisis intervention and international peacekeeping.



A. The United States offers friendly nations military support in the form of grants or loans to buy U.S. armaments.

II. Foreign Aid Programs (page 629)

B. The United States provides loans and technical assistance to help developing nations.



Do you support or oppose foreign aid programs of the United States?

Answers will vary. Students should be aware that foreign aid is a very small part of the budget.


A. The United States sometimes denies benefits to nations that follow policies it dislikes.

III. Economic Sanctions (page 630)

B. It does so by applying sanctions or withholding loans, arms, or economic aid.


III. Economic Sanctions (page 630)

Do you think economic sanctions are an effective diplomatic strategy?

Answers will vary. Students should support their opinions with examples.


A. The United States has, on occasion, had to use military force to settle disputes with other nations.

IV.The Use of Military Force (page 630)

B. Since World War II, the United States has committed troops in Korea, Vietnam, Grenada, Panama, the Persian Gulf, Haiti, and Bosnia.


IV.The Use of Military Force (page 630)

Do you agree or disagree that the United States sometimes needs to use military force to settle disputes with other nations? Explain.

Answers will vary. Students should support their opinions logically.


1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one below to show the results that the United States tries to achieve through foreign aid.


Cause: foreign aid; Effect: establishment of friendly relations, emergence of nations as economic partners


___ mutual defense alliance

___ regional security pact

___ multilateral treaty

___ bilateral treaty

___ collective security

A. agreement between two nations

B. international agreement signed by several nations

C. a mutual defense treaty among nations in a region

D. an agreement between nations to support each other in case of attack

E. a system by which the participating nations agree to take joint action against a nation that attacks any one of them


D

C

B

A

E



3. Identify NATO, OAS.


NATO, or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is an alliance between the United States and other nations that originally evolved from a mutual defense treaty against Soviet Union domination.

The OAS, or Organization of American States, is the result of a treaty that is primarily concerned with promoting economic development between the United States and its Latin American neighbors.


4. Analyze why NATO is important to the United States.


NATO guarantees the security of Western Europe and other nations that support American economic and political interests.


5. List two mutual defense alliances, besides NATO, in which the United States is a partner.


Any two: OAS, Rio Pact, ANZUS Pact


6. Making Inferences Why would the stipulation of “an attack against one shall be considered as an attack against all” create a sense of security?

Critical Thinking

Nations know they will not have to fight alone. Opposing nations may not want to risk a full-scale war with many nations.


Growth of Democracy Research the requirements needed to be Peace Corps volunteers and the kinds of work they perform. Imagine that you are a Peace Corps volunteer who was invited to speak to your class and present the information you have researched.


Reviewing Key Terms

1. In the 1800s the U.S. avoided involvement in world affairs, a policy known as ___________________.

2. Imposing an economic___________________ on another nation restricts trade with that nation.

3. The president’s foreign policies often have enjoyed ___________________congressional support.

4. Located in major cities of foreign nations, a ___________________ promotes American business interests and safeguards American travelers.

5. A nation’s ___________________ guides its relations with other countries and groups in the world.

isolationism

Write the correct term or concept that best completes each sentence.

executive agreement sanctioninternationalism consulateforeign policy isolationismbipartisan multilateral treaty

sanction

bipartisan

consulate

foreign policy


Reviewing Key Terms

6. An international agreement signed by a group of several nations is called a ___________________.

7. The United States now follows a policy of ___________________regarding world affairs.

8. A pact between the president and the head of a foreign government, called an ___________________, does not require the Senate’s approval.

multilateral treaty

Write the correct term or concept that best completes each sentence.

executive agreement sanctioninternationalism consulateforeign policy isolationismbipartisan multilateral treaty

internationalism

executive agreement


1. What have been the major characteristics of American foreign policy since 1945?

Recalling Facts

Since World War II United States foreign policy has been based on active participation in world affairs and resistance to communism. Until recently the United States and communist nations followed a policy of détente. After the Cold War, the United States adjusted its foreign policy to meet the world’s changed political environment.


2. Who, in addition to the cabinet, advises the president on foreign policy?

Recalling Facts

The White House staff, the National Security Council, the CIA, and private individuals with specialized knowledge all advise the president on foreign policy.

3. What four advantages does the president have over Congress in conducting foreign policy?

The president is the leader of the entire nation, controls the agencies that help formulate and carry out foreign policy and thus has access to secret knowledge, can take quick and decisive action, and can use executive agreements to bypass Congress.


4. Describe the organization of the Department of State.

Recalling Facts

It is divided into geographic and topical bureaus. It manages the foreign service and oversees embassies and consulates.

5. What is the responsibility of the Department of Defense in foreign policy?

Its responsibility is to protect national security by overseeing the military and by providing information and advice to the president.


1. Public Policy Many American presidents have achieved more success in foreign policy than in domestic affairs. Explain why this might be so.


Answers will vary but may indicate that presidents have more freedom of action in foreign policy and are not as closely checked by Congress.


2. Separation of Powers Should Congress play a greater role in the formation of American foreign policy? Why or why not?


Those who think Congress should play a greater role probably believe the president needs to be checked and that an open forum in discussing foreign policy would be in the nation’s best interest. Those who disagree may hold that foreign policy decisions often need to be made quickly and in secret.


1. Drawing Conclusions With the changes in world politics after the Cold War, do you believe the role of the CIA will change? Explain.

Critical Thinking

Some students may feel that the job of the CIA will be less secretive and less important, while others may feel it needs to stay the same during a period of great change and considerable uncertainty.


2. Synthesizing Information Use a Venn diagram like the one below to show how the roles of the Departments of State and Defense overlap.

Critical Thinking

State—makes foreign policy; Defense—provides military strength; both—military strength helps make foreign policy effective


1. What do the cacti in this cartoon represent?

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

The cacti represent nations that the United States must consider because of problems or issues within these nations. These “thorny” problems or issues have the potential to affect other nations, including the United States.


2. How does this cartoon characterize United States foreign policy?


Foreign policy is a delicate issue; relations among nations may be easily disrupted or shattered by the participants themselves or outside events.


3. How does this cartoon characterize a president’s role in foreign policy?


A president must carefully plan and conduct his nation’s foreign policy. The cartoonist shows President Clinton walking through cacti with a balloon. The balloon—representing foreign policy—may be easily burst if Clinton does not plan his path and navigate well.


Which nation, though still a member of OAS, has been banned from all OAS activities since 1962?

Cuba


1) Answers will vary.

2) Possible answers include that free trade ensures that vital imports and exports will be easily available.


1) The agreement was set to go into effect on January 1, 1994.


3) No; many Democrats opposed Democrat Bill Clinton and many Republicans supported him

1) between 1950 and 1955

2) yes; the Korean War and the Vietnam War

3) Fewer troops were needed because of the end of the Cold War and the breakup of the Soviet Union

1) 3; Croatia, Albania, & Macedonia2) Answers will vary. 3) the United States

and Canada

Investigating the Hostage Crisis In 1979 a group of young extremists invaded the American embassy in Tehran, Iran, and took 65 hostages, holding 52 of them for more than a year. Investigate this event and the diplomatic negotiations that took place in the effort to free the hostages. How were the hostages eventually freed? What might you have done if you were making the foreign policy decisions in this situation? Prepare a foreign policy proposal to submit to the president outlining a course of action and reasons for that action.

At the time of the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991, more than 80 treaties between the United States and the Soviet Union were in force.

More About Military Benefits The GI Bill of Rights, or Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, offers a wide variety of benefits for veterans. Passed in 1944, the GI Bill made many veterans eligible for vocational training as well as for dental and medical care at veterans’ hospitals. It provided guaranteed loans to buy or build a home. Amendments to the bill have extended benefits to all veterans whether they served in war or in peacetime.

Cold War The term Cold War was coined by Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Herbert Bayard Swope, who first used it in a talk of his own in 1945 and then used it again in a draft of a speech he wrote for Bernard Baruch. Thinking it was too strong a term, Baruch dropped it from that speech, which was given at the UN in 1946. By the following year, however, he had changed his mind, saying, “Let us not be deceived—today we are in the midst of a cold war,” in a speech he gave at the unveiling of his portrait at the state capitol in Columbia, South Carolina. The term was popularized by columnist Walter Lippmann.

Americans who want to travel to most foreign countries—or return to the United States from abroad—need a passport. Travelers can apply for passports at one of 6,000 passport facilities in the U.S. These agencies include many federal and state courts, as well as some post offices, county and city offices, and even some public libraries. People applying for a passport for the first time must show up in person with two photographs of themselves, proof of U.S. citizenship, and a valid photo ID. Currently, passports are good for 10 years and cost $55. Passports can usually be renewed through the mail.

A Pass for Passengers

Foreign Policy and Economics Debate the proposition that the most important factor in determining foreign policy is the state of the nation’s economy. Research to find historical or current examples to support your arguments.

When Should Military Force Be Used? Discuss what you already know about the conflicts listed on page 626 of your text. Then vote on the issue for each of the five conflicts listed. Keep the tally for comparison with the vote to be taken after you have researched and debated.

CONCLUDING THE DEBATE Compare the results of the predebate vote with those of the vote taken afterwards. Did your vote change? If so, why?

Hosting a Foreign Exchange Student Investigate the available programs and discuss them with your families. Perhaps some families might be willing to participate, or there may be a foreign exchange host family in the community that you can interview about their experiences. You might wish to become an exchange student yourself. Discuss your findings and opinions about foreign exchange programs with the rest of the class.

Law Although no world government exists to enforce international law, a body of laws is generally recognized and enforced by such means as intervention by a neutral state, the force of world opinion, sanctions by individual states of the United Nations or another international body, and, in extreme cases, military force. Landmarks in the development of international law include the Congress of Vienna (1815), the Geneva Convention, (1864), and the Hague Conferences (1899, 1907).

Douglas Engelbart finally received a financial reward for his work in April 1997, when he was given the $500,000 Lemelson-MIT Prize—the largest award given exclusively to American inventors. Over the years Engelbart has received 20 patents for his inventions, which paved the way for E-mail, the windows that one can open on a computer screen, and networking. In the 1970s and 1980s he pioneered the primary research network for the United States government—the predecessor of the Internet.

Activity: Brainstorm ideas for improvements for things you use every day—computers or computer programs, TVs, VCRs, refrigerators, dishwashers, automobiles, and so on.

Douglas Engelbart

The first female secretary of state, Albright was appointed by President Bill Clinton in 1997. She was born in Czechoslovakia, but emigrated to the United States with her family in 1949 to escape the Communist regime. She was exposed to many different cultures as a child because her father was in the Czechoslovakian diplomatic service. Albright has an excellent educational background—a B.A. in political science with honors from Wellesley College, an M.A. in public law and government with a certificate in Russian studies from Columbia University, and a doctorate from the same university. She held several government positions, aided Walter Mondale and Michael Dukakis in their presidential campaigns, and was unanimously confirmed by the Senate in 1993 as ambassador to the United Nations. Described by one writer as an intellectual with a heart, she is known for her toughness and her no-nonsense approach to her duties.

Madeleine Albright (1937–)

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