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Southeast Asian Religions: A Perspective on. Historical Buddhism within

the Developing States of Southeast Asia

Paul Rutledge*

The study and examination of religion or relgions requires a multiplicity of tools. Since man's religions invariably reflect human experience and understand­ing, the study of religion encompasses history, ethnology, linguistics, literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, political science, and anthropology.

Among the "Great Religions" of the world may be discovered repetition and similarity, as well as, variations and significant differences. This similarity becomes clear when it is understood that of the five great religions-Judaism, Christiani­ty, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism-a reduction to two may be made historically. Hinduism and Judaism may be considered the genesis of the other three: Hin­duism as the seed ground for Buddhism; Judaism, for Christianity and Islam.

The differences between the two major traditions may be viewed from a philosophical perspective as a springboard to theological developments. For in­stance, there is a fundamental difference in the way time is perceived. The Western orientation of linear time is countered by the Eastern orientation of cyclical time. In addition there is a vast gulf between the East and West in the perception of life. For the Western mind, generally speaking, life is good. To extend life is a positive course and a course to be desired leading to the conceptualization of an after life. To the Eastern mind, generally speaking, life is bad and the naturitl course is for one to seek escape from life. Subsequently, there is no highly developed eschatology for Eastern religions. Instead, one is offered an escape from perpetual or eternal existence, and Nirvana becomes a mystical union with the universe, not an extension of life.

The Beginning of Buddhism

In the general development of Buddhism one can clearly see the effects of the Eastern mind. Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (560-480 B. C.), a prince of the Kahatriya caste of Hinduism, Buddhism reflects the conceptualization of life as a burden to be discarded or overcome.

At twenty-nine years of age, Gautama identified the burden of life in the twofold problem of sin and suffering. Seeking an answer to this dilemma he attempted philosophical speculation without successfully reaching a conclusion. He, therefore, decided to undertake the path of bodily asceticism (Gaer, 1967:167). After five years of searching he decided to decrease the intensity of this asceticism and still contiriue along this general path. At thirty-five, while seated under the bo tree (bodhi) in meditation, he experienced enlightenment and became the Bud­dha, the enlightened one (Latorette, 1956:91). During the remainder of his life he taught and discipled others on the Middle Path to Enlightenment. This

*Paul Rutledge is Chairperson of Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work, Oklahama Baptist University, Shawnee, Oklahama, USA

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enlightenment would lead to Nirvana, the place of freedom from rebirth. Sid­dhartha Gautama died at the age of eighty.

Following his death, the Buddha's disciples organized into a sangha (religious order) with definite rules and schedules. These rules necessitated a yellow robe, a shaven head, daily meditations, · and affirmation of the Three Refuges. It was agreed that Refuges was to be found in the Buddha, the dharma (law/doctrine), and in the sangha. In addition, ten negative precepts had to be followed. These precepts taught abstinence from destroying life, stealing, lying, committing adultery, drinking intoxicants, eating at forbidden times, dancing and attending theatricals, adorning oneself, having large beds, and possessing gold or silver (Parrinder, 1964:144). .

Essential Features of Buddhism

One of the primary features of the Middle Path to salvation from rebirth involves true knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. These truths: (1) existence (life) is suffering, (2) .suffering is caused by inherently insatiable desires; (3) desire must be suppressed in order to end suffering and existence, (4) the way to achieve this is to follow the Eightfold Path (Ashby, 1955:37ff). The Eightfold Path entails right views, right aims or intentions, right speech, right action, right livelihood, self­discipline, self-mastery, and contemplation. These eight mandates form the core of the Buddha's teachings, and may be found in his early sermons, as well as in the Tripitaka. The Tripitaka ("Three Baskets") is the basic scripture for Bud­dhists transmitted orally from the Buddha's time in the Pali language. The Three Baskets are the Vinaya, containing monastic rules; the Sutra, teachings of the Bud­dha; and Adhidharma, metaphysical commentaries on the Sutra (Gard, 1961:127ff).

The Two Main Schools of Buddhism

The two main schools of Buddhism are the Hinayana (Theravada) and Mahayana schools. The Hinayana or "lesser vehicle" (tradition) is the older of the two schools and closer to the teachings of the Buddha. The Mahayana or "greater vehicle" (tradition) is the newer of the two schools and is distinguished by its adaptability and departure from the original tenets.

There are other distinctions worth noting. For instance, the Hinayana or Theravada school is to be found predominantly in Southeast Asia: Ceylon, Bur­ma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and to some small degree in Vietnam; hence, the name, the Southern school. The Mahayana school is denoted the Northern school as it is predominant in Japan, Korea, China, Nepal, Tibet, and Vietnam (Starkes, 1978:48).

Their separation, however, is not solely geographical. The Theravada Bud­dhists adhere to the teachings prescribed by the original Buddha and his immediate followers. In Theravada Buddhism, the historical Buddha is the only Buddha. Mahayanists recognize the historical Buddha as only one Buddha in a long chain of Buddha manifestations. The various Buddhas, according to Mahayanists, have had different teachings and the whole of th~se teachings are accepted as scrip­ture. This leads to a variety of Mahayana "denominations" depending on the particular scriptural teachings which are emphasized (Swearer, 1970:196).

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Other distinction include:

THERAVADA 1. A reverent attitude toward relics

and images of the Buddha.

2. Monasteries are frequented by monks and laypeople who periodically enter to live.

3. Includes many lesser deities depending on the country in which it resides.

4. The worship of the Buddha is merely an act of commemoration.

1 MONGOLIA 2 CHINA

9 BURMA 10 LAOS

MAHAYANA 1. Buddha is considered the supreme

Reality, or an incarnate savior (emphasis found in late Sanskrit scriptures). Buddha is the essence of existence

2. There are innumerable bodhisattvas; men who have attained nirvana but postpone entrance in order to aid others.

3. Heaven and hell are often vividly portrayed.

4. The Buddha himself is a personification of the law.

(Radhakrishnan, 1957:272fO

17 PHILIPPINES 18 FORMOSA

3 TIBET 11 THAILAND 19 KOREA 4 NEPAL '

5 BHUTAN 6 INDIA

12 CAMBODIA (KAMPUCHEA) 13 VIETNAM 14 MALAYSIA

20 JAPAN 21 SOVIET UNION

7 AFGHANISTAN 8 PAKISTAN

15 INDONESIA 16 NEW GUINEA

Genesis of Ancient Buddhism Stronghold of Theravada, Buddhism Stronghold of Mahayana' Buddhism

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Area of Animistic Prominence Stronghold of Islamic Influcence Stronghold of Christian Influence Hinduism -

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The Diffusion of Theravada Buddhism into Southeast" Asia

Buddhism is the oldest of the world's three missionary religions and as such has had an extensive influence on Asia and much of Africa. The spread of Bud­dhism initially began from India and Sri Lanka with a break from the Hindu teaching of class and duty. The message of Buddhism was not restricted to caste or class and did not limit its community according to status or rank (Parrinder, 1964:84).

The earliest history of Buddhism's diffusion is obscured by conflicting legends and "histories". It is commonly believed that the first council was convened shortly aftet the historical Buddha's death. Following the first council by approximately one hundred years was the Council of Vesali, with the third council appearing during the reign of Emperor Asoka (r. 269-232 B. C.). By this point in history, the Theravada school was well developed and its missionary endeavors well defined (Sangharakshita:1980).

BUDDHISM (INITIAL AND GENERAL DEVEWPMENT)

/ ~ HINAYANA

/ ~ THERAVADA Sautrantika

Sarrastivda

Jodo -­

(Chinese: Ching-tu)

/

MAHAYANA

1 __ - Madhyamika

~ Yogacara

(Idealism)

Zen (Syncretistic)

(Chinese and Vietnamese Ch'an)

Pure Land School "gradual enlightenment' ,

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"sudden illumination"

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The Second Council and Schism

The second great Buddhist council took place approximately one hundred to one hundred ten years following the Buddha's death. It is difficult to accurate­ly access the Buddhist community at this point, but it is clear that by this council the two major schools of Buddhism were conceptually formed, if not already. separately organized.

In the one hundred years since the Buddha, Buddhism had gradually gained leverage among the "common" people in India. Concurrent with increase was a notable visibility of Buddhist influence on rulers and nobles of the cities (Ikeda, 1977:28). As the movement grew, inevitable differences in the interpretation of the principal doctrines became apparent. As a result of these conflicting inter­pretations the second council was convened.

The council, however, discovered a wide variance of interpretation. The monks of Vaishali, for example, wanted to reform the ten precepts including the forbid­ding of acceptance of silver and gold by monks. So radical were the proposals of the Vajji group that conservative monks overwhelmingly voted against the "new" religion. As a further measure, a call was issued for monks to "rigidly observe" (ibid, 1977:19ff) the rules of discipline, and freedom of interpretation was strongly discouraged. Adherence to the original doctrines was considered man­datory (Sangharakshita:1980).

There was, however, difficulty in enforcing strict discipline among the orders. The various orders throughout India functioned autonomously, and there was no one central authority. It appears that Gautama did not envision the develop­ment of a large religious organization, and therefore, the Sutra did not contain specific directions for the orders on unification. In addition, conflict had arisen between the more monastic elements of Buddhism versus the "anti-isolationalists" factions (Vaishali).

Due to these disciplinary differences, the Vaishali monks convened a con­ference of their own referred to as the "Great Group Recitation" (Swearer, 1955:8ff). The gathering included a group of ten thousand who opted to separate themselves from the membership of . the second council. Initially they were designated Mahasanghika or "Members of the Great Order". Over time they became known as Mahayanists thereby distinguishing themselves from the Theravadists or "Teaching of the Elders" group. Following these two primary orders, eighteen supplementary interpretations would give rise to various Bud­dhist schools over the next one hundred years.

King Asoka 274-236 B. C.

The prime mover for Buddhism's first massive missionary endeavor was King Asoka, an Indian monarch of the Maurya dynasty who ruled from 274-236 B. C. A convert to Buddhism, Asoka radically changed both his kingdom and his per­sonal life style following its conversion.

Prior to his acceptance of Buddhism, King Asoka ruled in tyrannical fashion. Legend states that he assassinated his brothers in order to secure the throne, and promoted "excessive feasting and drinking" throughout his kingdom (Ling, 1972:30-31). In 266 B. C. he commissioned an expedition to conquer Kalinga, a small independent enclave on the eastern coast of India. During, and following, the battle Asoka's army slaughtered more than one hundred thousand people,

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and Indian legends from this period speak at length about the battle (Ch'en, 1968:108ff).

As a result of this expedition, King Asoka was overcome with grief. In his regret, he turned to Buddhism and pledged to devote the remainder of his life to the propagation of the Buddha's teaching. Paramount among these teachings is reverence for life, and Asoka devoted himself to peace and the abolition of war­fare (ibid, 1968:113).

Drastic changes were placed in motion upon Asoka's conversion. Reinter­preting his purpose in life, Asoka declared that his new mission was to bring hap­piness to his subjects. To implement this pledge, he provided medical care for all living beings, issued prohibitions on the slaughter of animals for food, provided well and water services for travellers along primary road ways, and substituted meditation for public feasting and drinking. These provisions were administered by Asoka's staff of Chief Commissioners who also were responsible for promoting Buddhist beliefs throughout the kingdom (Latourette, 1956:38ff).

Important as King Asoka's social and moral programs may have been, his role in extending Buddhism's influence is his most significant contribution. Asoka dispatched missionaries throughout his own kingdom and other parts of India, as well as to Syria, Cyrene, and Egypt (Ch'en 1968:116). Most significantly, he commissioned the evangelization of the regions adjacent to India. It was during Asoka' reign that Buddhism was carried into northwestern India,south India, and Ceylon. From northwest India the religion diffused through central Asia, and from Ceylon it diffused into Southeast Asia. .

Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

According to tradition, Buddhism was introduced to Ceylon by King Asoka's son Mahinda, and his daughter, Sanghamitta. Travelling as a part of a trade en­voy, Mahinda · and Sanghamitta were successful in converting King Tiss, and a large portion of his court. Following the King's conversion in the third century B. c., Buddhism flourished in Ceylon until the fifth century A. D. During this period extravagant temples were erected and elaborate festivals were conducted nationwide. The Chinese traveller, Fa-hsien, who visited Ceylon in the fifth cen­tury wrote of sixty thousand monks in hundreds of monasteries all of whom were provided for by the King who always prepared a food supply sufficient to feed five thousand monks simultaneously (Lester, 1973:23ff). Early in this period (first century A. D.) the canon of Theravada Buddhism was written in Pali, and the most famous commentaries on the canon were written in Ceylon. Most probably . the author of these commentaries is Buddhaghasa, a monk who lived in the early sixth century (Swearer, 1955:16).

From the sixth to the eleventh centuries, Buddhism suffered a decline in Ceylon. The invasions of the Muslim Tamils in south India had completely destroyed Buddhism in that region and threatened to reach into Ceylon. However, a renaissance developed between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries during which Ceylon retrenched followed by another period of decline between the fourteenth and nineteenth centuries. This decline was precipitated by Tamil invasions followed by the intervention of European powers in Ceylonese life. From 1540 to 1660 the Portugese attempted to convert the Ceylonese to Catholicism. Their efforts in­cluded the destruction of monasteries and temples, as well as, the pillage of temples and the confiscation of sacred artifacts (Landon, 1949:81). The Dutch (1658-1795) and the British (1795-1956) avoided the blatant ransacking of temples, but did-

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through policies of indifference to Buddhists and . favoritism to Christians~ manage to further deteriorate the strength of Buddhist Ceylon (Cody, 1964:217-218).

The latter part of the nineteenth century, however, proved to be the watersh­ed for Buddhism's "return." The Buddhist monks set in motion a counter­offensive against the Christian missionaries through a series of debates and public meetings. So rejuvenated was the spirit of Buddhists by these public exchanges that orders began to experience phenomenal membership growth. The increased strehgth of the religion, coupled with a new sense of national pride, combined to undergird a growing nationalistic movement resulting in independence in 1956.

Significantly, . Ceylon had· proved . to be: (1) the stronghold of Buddhist mis­sionary activity following the Tarnil invasion in south India; (2) the dominant Bud­dhist influence on Southeast Asia; (3) and a powerful element in Ceylon's spirit of nationalism. Today, Buddhism is the dominant force in Ceylon's religious, cultural, and political traditions (Cady, 1974: tester, 1973).

Burma

Tradition varies as to the origin of Buddhism in Burma. Originally conceiv­ed in legend as a convert land of Asoka's zeal, it is not until the fifth century A. D. that a flourishing Theravadacommunity can be documented. Prior to the eleventh century, Buddhists were divided between Mahayana and Tantric Budd­hism in Upper Burma, and Theravada Buddhism in lower Burma. The Tantric forms of Buddhism did not follow the original teachings, but instead added the practice of magic, The followers of Tantric Buddhism were called Aris and believed one could escape the effects of karma by reciting magic formulae. They further defiled the Buddha's teachings by sending virgins to priests before marriage and by creating numerous deities depicted irisexual consort with their followers (Ray, 1946:12ff; Sangharakshita, 1980).

Theravada became dominant over the Tantric form when Anawrahta, a ruler of nothern Burma, was converted to Theravada by Shin Arahan, a Theravada monk (Ch'en, 1968:125). Following his conversion, Anawrahta invaded the South in order to secure copies of the Buddhist scriptures. Once having united the country geographically, he united it also under . the TlIeravada school. Anawrahta then closely bonded the state and religion together. The extensive ruins of Buddhist temples from Pagan provide massive and luxurious evidence of this bond (Cady, 1964:284ff).

During the British dominance of Burma, Buddhismreinairied strong inspite of the British attempt to disestablish it.· Christian schools and churches were opened and Buddhism officially removed as the state religion. Resurgence, however, came in the early twentieth century with the growth of nationalism. Although Bud­dhism was not reinstated as the state religion following independence, most Burmese today practice Theravada BuddhisfI1(Nash, 1971).

Historically, then Buddhism functioned in Burma to: (1) provide a common ground for the merging Of different ethnic groups into one nation and (2) serve as one of the cohesive factors for the drive to nationalism while under British rule.

Thailand

Theravada Buddhism in Thailand, unlike the Burmese experience, was never . interrupted by coloniaUnfluence. As early as the early centuries A. D., Buddhist

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influence from lower Burma had permeated Thailand. In the eleventhcentllry, King Awawrahta invaded and conquered the northern region of Thailand and brought the religion with him. By the time the Thais from southern China migrated into Thailand, the belief in Theravada Buddhism was firmly established and readily accepted by .the new arrivals (Swearer, 1970).

As early as 1238, with the establishment of the Thai kingdom, Buddhism was considered the state religion. As such it has flourished, and since the unifica­tion of modern Thailand in the late eighteenth century (Burmese control over the northern portions was relinguished) Thailand has seen the Thai monastic order unified under one leader (Blanchard, 1958). This unification, secured in the early nineteenth century, continues as a uniqueness of Thai Buddhism. Although there are two Theravada sects, their differences are relatively minor, and monastic educa­tion is essentially the same throughout the country.

There has always been, and continues to be today, a very close tie between the Buddhist leadership and the political leaders (monarchy). Presently, Theravada Buddhism remains the state religion. The king is required by law to be a Bud­dhist, and as the monarch is considered the highest authority in the sangha (order). Historically, it has been customary for the king during his youth to spend several years in a monastery which further identifies his leadership with the Theravada beliefs.

Traditionally, Buddhisrn has been the foundation for the Thai kingdom and the Thai nation. Politically, culturally, and idealistically it has permeated every institution of the Thai people. It is not an elaboration to understand Buddhism as virtually synonymous with · the nation of Thailand.

Kampuchea (Cambodia)

Cambodia became a Theravada Buddhist nation in the · fourteenth century. Prior to this, the major religious influences had been Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism (Steinberg, 1959). Many of the monuments and temples inAngkor Wat, dating 800 to 1400 AD, were dedicated to Hindu and Mahayana deities.

However, . in the fourteenth century .. a change took place. The Thais .. began to send missionaries into Cambodia as early as the late thirteenth century, . and conquering armies soon followed. After the Thai capture of Angkor Wat, the Cam­bodians abandoned it, and even when the Thais later retreated the Cambodians left the City desolate. By this time, many Cambodians had be.en converted to the Theravada school by the Thai missionaries and occupation . forces (ibid, ·1959).

In botp. past and recent history, Cambodia has remained Buddhist. In 1972, the nation listed 99OJoof their populace as Theravada Buddhist (Swearer, 1977). Since the invasion and subsequent occupation of Kampuchea in the late 1970's by the Vietnamese, it is difficult to assess the present situation. However, it may be assumed that Buddhist .beliefs strongly persist even if operational activities of the monasteries and Buddhist schools have been discontinued.

Vietnam

Geographically, Vietnam is in southeast Asia, but religiously, it has been more closely linked with China in East Asia. Accordingly, the Buddhist influence has been. Mahayana as opposed to · Theravada .. Prior to the communist unification of the northern and southern regions of Vietnam in 1975, the Pure Land School was beginning to influence the Vietnamese Buddhists. At that time, up to seventy percent 'of the Vietnamese population was considered Buddhist.

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Summary

The missionization of Southeast Asia by Theravada Buddhism was a result of the conversion of an Indian King. Following Asoka's lead, many people ac­cepted the Theravada beliefs through the persuasion of his monks or through the insistence of his position as King. In most countries-Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia-the existence and diffusion of the religion depended on political (royal) support. As Buddhism was greeted openly by the ruling classes, the masses of people soon converted. In addition, as a result of royal support, the teachings of Theravada Buddhism became a strong social force as well.

Theravada's Permeation of Southeast Asia

To fully understand the impact of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia, one has to examine the socio-cuItural and political systems of the various coun­tries. Although time and space do not allow a full examination, examples of various types will be used to show the depth of penetration into the region by the Theravada school.

The Politico-Religious Influence of TheravadaBuddhism

Religion plays a primary role in the development of nations in Southeast Asia. As the various autonomous states strive to create modern nations they also seek to maintain their rich heritage. Both the platform for the future and the sym­bolism from the past are intricately interwoven with Buddhism (Ferguson, 1975:645ff).

The predominance of religion in revitalization or nationalistic movements is not a new phenomenon. In 1699, a Lao named Bun Kwang consorted to gain political power and restore his traditional culture through the use of his Buddhist "magic powers" (Ishii, 1975:121). The concept. of phu mi bun (merit man), as claimed by Bun Kwang, is basically a Buddhist tenet. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, merit men have appeared in the Korat Plateau among the Thai-Lao peasants claiming a mira.culous path to a utopian society via Budd­hist allegiance (ibid, 1975:124ff).

One historical instance of response to colonialism, in addition to several noted in the historical overview, involves a Buddhist priest who stirred the populace to patriotism via religion. Saya San, a Burmese monk in 1930 organized his followers in opposition to the British rule. Believing that magical powers would give -hiin victory over the English, Saya San declared himself the new monarch. Convinced that the British would be destroyed when he struck a particular magical gong, Saya San encouraged the people to refuse to pay the British tax on rice and other crops while looking to him for protection. When the British arrived to take Saya San into custody, the gong proved to be without effect. Saya San subsequently was arrested, tried, and executed. The intimacy, however, between the religion and the people's sense of nationalism was only heightened by this incident (Cady, 1964:512).

Following the 1940's renewed nationalism fueled by Buddhist leadership grew in Burma. As nationalism grew, Buddhism grew and the relationship was clearly "both-and," not "either-or." In the mid-1950's Theravada monks gathered to reissue an authorized version of the Tripitaka. Concurrently, the national unity of the people was more cohesive than ever. Both the state and the religion proved necessary to the other and the resurgent strength of both was dependent on their interrelationship (Spencer, 1971:109). Clearly evident is the thesis expounded by

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Clifford Geertz in Islam Observed: "a religious system is not a thing in itself, but a facet of the total culture in which it occurs; it permeates other institutions and is in turn permeated by them" (Geertz, 1968:24).

The Primacy of Buddhism

The primacy of Buddhism is also perceived in the belief systems which have incorporated an aspect of Buddhism into their own particular practice. In the Burmese situation, animism syncretistically included aspects of Buddhism until the Buddhist doctrine ultimately became predominant (Spiro, 1967:3-5). Even though Buddhism retained elements of the nats ("supernatural" spirits), it clear­ly became the greatest influence on both the Burmese culture as a whole and the personal value system of the typical Burmese (ibid, 1967:242). In every case, the religious beliefs directly affect the peoples' behavior and hence, their culture.

In Laos, the cult of the phi includes . Buddhism, animism, and Confucianism. The phi-spirits of the material and non-material world with power over the destiny of human beings-affects and interacts malevolently with the Buddhist Khouan (resident spirit) which must be protected from the phi. In order to protect the khouan, the eightfold path must be followed, and once again the primacy of Budd­hism is revealed (Lebar, 1960:46-48; Brohm, 1963:27). Furthermore recent Lao­tian history also validates the "purer" Theravada Buddhism as the primacy order of religion. The two Buddhist orders, the Mahanikay and the Thammayut, com­prise a well defined hierarchy and a potent political force.

The fact that Buddhism lends itself to syncretism is also seen in the Viet­namese Cao-Dai and Hoa-Hao belief systems. Although the influence is primari­ly Mahayanist, the ability to combine Buddhist, Thoist; Roman Catholic, and various political "theologies" and/or "ideologies" highlights Buddhism's adap­tability (Fall, 1955:237; Oliver, 1976:23ff).

Modern Buddhist Missionary Efforts

Another aspect of the strength of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia is its desire and ability to send out missionaries. Since the 1920's, Buddhists have sent missionaries to the hill tribes along the Burmese borders and to tribesmen in the Laotian highlands (V os, 1959:177). As recent as 1976, Theravadist monks have been sent to the United States in order to both serve existing Buddhist com­munities and also to evangelize the general populace (Schecter, 1967:93; Swearer, 1977).

In Southeast Asia the organization of the Burma Buddhist World Mission has resulted In the production of numerous books and articles. Freely distributed throughout Southeast Asia and Western nations, these books and pamphlets seek converts to the Theravada position. Currently, distribution centers are being established in India for the missionization of Buddhism's birthplace.

Buddhism and Communism

According to the Marxist theory of economic determinism, aspects of human society such as laws, ethics, arts, education, and social stratification are deter­mined by methods of production. Marxist communism Wlderstands human history to be a class struggle between the elite (wealthy) class and the laboring class. In a capitalistic economy, the worker creates the wealth through his labor but is then exploited by the capitalist who exploits the worker's production by manipulating

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the profits away from the worker (Ling, 1979). To rectify this problem, the socialist society would eliminate the private ownership of production means.

The Buddhist, however, contends that inequalities are basic to human societies. Fundamentally, Buddhism explains aspects of the human personality unexplain­ed by communism (i. e., how can siblings differ dramatically in personality). To the Buddhist, human nature and human situations are not controlled by external circumstances but by the manisfestations of one's karma. Individuals have free will and the power to exercise that will (ibid, 1979; Takakusu, 1959).

Between these two systems, common ground is difficult to locate. Communism seeks to suppress the individual to the needs of the state; Buddhism sees individuals as individuals, free to follow personal choice. Communism adheres to the idea of materialism. It assumes that sufficient material reward brings happiness. Bud­dhism sees only futilism in trying to satisfy the cravings of man materialistically. In addition, man's cravings are viewed as the origin of his suffering. Communism stresses the fulfillment of material desires; Buddhism the abandonment of material attachments.

The struggle between the classes also presents conflicting views. Communism insists on the struggle between the landed and the landless (the bourgeois and the proletariat). Buddhism seeks universal brotherhood, and the harmony of mind and matter. Communism opposes religion as the instrument of bourgeois exploita­tion; Buddhism opposses the materialistic and atheistic philosophy of communism.

Can the two survive compatib Iy? The question is most important, as much of southeast Asia appears to be coming under communistic dominance or in­fluence and as Vietnam seeks to feed her territorial appetite on the nations basically in the Theravada Buddhist's sphere. Since the two are inherently opposed, all the conclusions appear negative. Although the Communist Chinese have retained some Buddhist influences, the experiment in China is not yet complete, and Chinese communism and Vietnamese communism may prove to be methodologically different.

Summary

It is evident that Theravada Buddhism has conditioned the pattern of every­day life in Southeast Asia. The religious heritage of the region is rich including elements of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism. All of these beliefs, however, are mutually receptive, rather than exclusive, to one another.

From the early invasion of the Theravada school into Burma, Laos, Cam­bodia, and Thailand, the social, political, and cultural influence has been enor­mous. This history of each of these nations is saturated with and by Buddhist teachings.

It has also been noted that Theravada Buddhism has been significant in en­couraging both cultural change and resistence to change. Entire cultures have been shaped by this religion which influences the way of thinking of millions of people.

It is also clear that as the world experiences increased social change arid as southeast Asian nations seek further moderni~ation, forces negative to the Bud­dhist tradition are becoming more powerful in the Theravada region. Change is being implemented politically, educationally, and socially, and to remain strong, Buddhism must change also. For instance, the Buddhist orientation is primarily a village tradition; it must also adapt to the urban situation (Pfanner, 1962). The villager's lif~ has traditionally been centered on the monastery, both socially and

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educationally. The increase of urban centers and the availability of non-Buddhist centers of instruction for the teaching of the humanities and sciences will increase the strain on the traditional patterns (Lester, 1973:154). Technology has provided movies, transistor radios, and other amusements decreasing the amount of leisure time spent in the monasteries by the laypeople. Efforts to cope with these changes are seen in the fact that Buddhism has more fully organized in order to adjust and, hopefully, affect to some degree the rapidly changing circumstances.

Final Note

It is difficult to imagine Southeast Asia without the rich tradition of Bud­dhism continuing to play a major role. Historically, the role has been both fun­damental and far-reaching. For the immediate future, it appears that Theravada Buddhism with its heritage and its basic precepts, has as great a potential for continued influence and penetration in Southeast Asia as any other institution. Over the longer scope of the historical future, the horizon appear both tenuous and exciting. As to the outcome, only time will tell with certainty.

GWSSARY

Abhidhamma (PaH) - The third division of the Canon of the Theravada School. It is largely a commentary on the Sutta Pitaka, the Sermons, and subjects them to analysis. Philosophical and psychological, it contains an entire system of mind training.

Amitabka - The Buddha of Infinite Light (as Amitayus). The personification of Compassion. In China and Japan, Amitabka is the intermediary between Supreme Reality and mankind, and faith in him ensures rebirth in his Paradise. In Japan, known as Amida Buddhism.

Amata -:- Immortal, deathless, a name for Nirvana.

Annatta - The Buddhist doctrine of non-ego. The doctrine of the non­separateness of all forms of life.

Angkor Wat ~ Most famous of a complex of religious buildings in Kampuchean jungle (at Angkor Thorn) dating from the zenith of Khmer rule in the twelfth century A. D.

Asoka - Emperor of India (270-230 B. C.). A Buddhist ruler converted from Hinduism who abolished war in his empire and engraved on rocks and pillars his Buddhist edicts. Played a major role in the initial movement and spread of Buddhism.

Atta - The supreme self. The divine element in man dwelling in each human being. The part of man which perseveres following death in either bliss or misery. (Buddhism does not recognize an absolute personal deity, but does not deny Ultimate Reality).

Authority .:- There is no doctrinally authoritarian figure in Buddhism(i. e., papal concept). Each Buddhistis his own authority and must learn Truth for himself through study, self-discipline, and right practice. No one written teaching or scripture is authoritative in absolute terms.

Bhagavad Gita -:- The "Lord's Song." A treatise on spiritual development along the lines of Karma Yoga, the way of Right Action.

Bhikkhu - A Bhikkhu (monk, priest) is one who has devoted himself to the task of following the Path by renunciation of the distractions of worldly matters.

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Bodhi - Enlightenment. The spiritual condition of a Buddha.

Bodhi Tree - Also Bo-tree. The tree under which the Buddha attained enlighten­ment. A fig tree.

Brahma - In Buddhist scriptures Brahma is used as an adjective meaning holy or god-like. In Hinduism, one aspect of the triune god-head with Vishnu and Shiva.

Buddha - A title, not a personal name. Derivation of budh meaning' 'to wake." Gotoma (b. 563 B. C.) was the first to achieve this"wake" and thus is the historical founder of Buddhism.

Buddha-Dhamma - The teaching of the Buddha. The term is most often used in Theravada countries.

Buddhisni - A way of life, a discipline; not a system of dogmas to be accepted by the mind. It is a way to live Reality, and is not ideas concerning the nature of Reality.

Buddhist - One who studies, and endeavors to live the fundamental principles of the Buddhadhamma.

Dhamma - Any teaching by the Buddha which acts as a gu~ding principle for the follower; doctrine.

Dhammapada - The Path or Way of the Buddha's Dhamma or Teaching. The most famous Scripture in the Pali Canon.

Enlightenment - Awakened; freedom from the limitations of the minds and unity with the non-dualistic universe.

Ethics - Every quality encouraging altruism is a virtue; . every opposite quality is a vice. The Buddhist moral code is set forth in the Noble Eightfold Path and the Precepts.

Evil - Buddhism is not dualistic; no division of absolute good and! or evil. Evil is considered as limitation,and therefore, relative; eliminates the "problem" of evil as posed in Western thought. All evil is traced to desire for self (the desire for separateness).

Faith - In Buddhism faith is not the acceptance of doctrinal beliefs, but rather confidence in the Teacher and his Teachings as a Way to a Goal desired.

Four Noble Truths - The basic truths of Buddhism: (I) Dukkha - there can be no existence without suffering: . (2) Samudaya - the cause of suffering is egoistic desire; (3) Nirodha- the elimination of desire eliminates suffer­ing; (4) Magga - the way to elimination of desire is the Noble Eightfold Path.

Hinayana - Small or lesser vehicle (of savlation). Early Hinayana sects numbered eighteen and included Theravada. The Theravada, well established in southern Indian and Ceylon at the time of the Moslem invasion of India, survived the extermination of the other schools of Hinayana, and is the only existing school from the original eighteen Hinayana sects.

Karma (Kamma) - The law of ethical causation; through the operation of Karma a person is "rewarded" according to his deeds, builds his character, determines his destiny, and works out his salvation. Derived meaning, "ac­tion and the appropriate result of action."

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Lumbini (Modern Rummindei) - Birthplace of Siddhartha Gautama, who became the Buddha.

Mahayana - The school of the Great(er) Vehicle (of salvation), also called the Northern School. Mahayana is prevalent in Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea, and Japan. For contrast, the Theravada, so far as it recognizes a transcendental Reality, conceives of it as obscured by the phenomenal; in Mahayana, Reali­ty is being ever revealed by the phenomenal. The goal of the Theravada is self-salvation (Nirvana); the Mahayana's goal is renunciation of Nirvana in order to help others in their attempt to reach Nirvana.

Mysticism - An "awareness" of the essential Oneness of the universe and all in it; achieved by a faculty beyond the intellect. A primary element in Theravada Buddhism.

Nirvana (Nibbana) - The supreme goal of Buddhist endeavor: release from the limitations of existence. The Theravana school views Nirvana as escape from life by overcoming life's attractions. The Mahayana school views Nirvana as the fruition of life, the unfolding of the infinite possibilities of the innate Buddha-nature and seeks to remain more "in touch" with life than relinquish all connection with it.

Noble Eightfold Path - The way to Enlightenment; the way of spiritual self­development. The eight constituent parts are:

1) Samma Ditthi - Right Vision 2) Samma Sankappa - Right Attitude or Motive 3) Samma Vaca - Right Speech 4) Samma Kammanta - Right Action 5) Samma Ajiva - Right Pursuits (including job or livelihood) 6) Samma Vayama - Right Effort 7) Samma Sati - Right Mindfulness 8) Samma Samadhi - Right Contemplation

Pali - One of the basic languages in which the Buddhist tradition is preserved. Pali was adopted by the Theravadins for the preservation of the written Dhamma.

Pali Canon - The Scriptures of the Theravada School. In three divisions or "baskets", a collection of basic writings.

Paramita - Perfection; the six stages (some Buddhists include ten) of spiritual perfection: charity, morality, patience, vigour, meditation, wisdom. The ad­ditional four considered by some as an expansion and/or explication of wisdom are: skillful teachings, power over obstacles, spiritual aspiration, knowledge.

Precepts - There are ten moral precepts which are opposed to: (1) taking life; (2) stealing; (3) indulging in sensuality; (4) lying; (5) becoming ' intoxicated by drink or drugs; (6) eating at unseasonable times; (7) attending worldly amusements; (8) using perfumes or wearing ornaments; (9) sleeping on a lux­urious bed; (10) possessing gold or silver. In Theravada Buddhist nations, the first five precepts (Five Precepts) are considered the outward form of "the" Buddhist.

Sacred - There is no division life into dualistic concepts of sacred and profane, or good and evil. Veneration is shown for holiness of life, and the virtue of altruism~

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Sutta (Sutra) - Literally a thread on which jewels are strung. The Suttas of the Theravada are the sermons of the Buddha.

Theravada - The "Doctrine of the Elders" who formed the first Buddhist Council. The sole survivor of the eighteen original Hinayana sects; Hinayana being essentially a term of reproach coined by Mahayanists, Buddhists of this persuasion prefer Theravada, a more accurate and less discourteous name (Way of the Elders). Sometimes referred to as the Southern School covering Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Kampuchea, and has had some influence in Vietnam.

Three Signs of Being - The fundamental Theravada concept of all persons being inseparable from the trilogy of (1) change; (2) suffering or imperfec­tion, and (3) inseverability of life (no separate or immortal soul or spiritual entity).

Uruvela - The place where the Buddha attained Enlightenment under the Bodhi tree.

Wesak (Vesakha) - The month corresponding to April-May celebrating the Birth, Renunciation, Enlightenment, and Pari~bbana of the Buddha.

Yellow Robe - The Bhikkhus of the Thedvada School wear robes of various shades of orange or yellow. These color~ have identified the Theravada Bhik­khus for 2,500 years.

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