SOL ReviewSOL Review

Ms. Bogdan

Biology…. The study of life.Biology…. The study of life.

The Scientific Method

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Scientific Method Terms

• Independent Variable: The variable which

“I” the experimenter changes.

• Example: Time, Color of Light, amount of fertilizer

• Dependent Variable: The variable which is estimated or predicted.

• Measurable• Example: Rate of

Growth,

• Control: Standard for comparison for testing the results of an experiment. The group that is not exposed to the variable.

• Variable: The condition that is being tested.

*Only one variable can be tested in an experiment.

Independent Variable: X axisDependent Variable Y axis

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

8

7

6

5

4

3

Growth

in cm.

Plant GrowthPlant Growth

A biology class wanted to develop aresearch project to predict the effectsof a new highway on wildflowerspecies found in the Piedmont regionof Virginia. The class could bestconduct such a study by samplingflowers found in the highwayconstruction area —F one year before highway construction beginsG both before and after highway construction is completed _H immediately after highway construction is finishedJ during the time highway construction is taking place

Question #1

Two plant species found in a dryregion of the western United Statesexhibit vastly different abilities tosurvive. Species A has very slow stemgrowth and few leaves but is veryabundant. Species B has rapid stemgrowth and many leaves but is veryrare. Which hypothesis is most likelysupported by this information?F Leaf shape may give species B an advantage over species A.G Flower size and color may give species B an advantage over species A.H Reduced root growth may give species A an advantage over species B.J Reduced stem growth may give species A an advantage over species B. _

Question #2

Question #3

What is the first step of a scientific investigation?

F. formulate a hypothesisG. gather and analyze dataH. identify a questionJ. Design an experiment

Microscopes

Light Microscope

Advantages: • View live organisms• Inexpensive• Can be taken into field

Disadvantages:• Low magnification• Low resolution

Electron MicroscopeAdvantages:• High Magnification• High ResolutionDisadvantages:• Expensive• Can not be taken into field• Organisms are killed in

preparation process

Question #4

A microscope with a 4x objective lens and a 10x ocular lens produces a total magnification of

A. 14x

B. 40x

C. 400x

D. 4000x

Question #5

The clarity of an image produced by a microscope is called:A. magnificationB. resolutionC. micrographD. amplification

THE CELL THEORY

• ALL LIVING THINGS ARE MADE FROM CELLS (Schleiden/Schwann)

• ALL CELLS COME FROM PRE-EXISTING CELLS. (Virchow)

• CELLS ARE THE BASIC UNIT OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN LIVING THINGS. (Schleiden/Schwann)

*Robert Hooke coined the term “cell”

Question #6

Which scientist determined that new cells arise from preexisting cells?

F. DarwinG. VirchowH. MendelJ. Schleiden

Abiotic Factors: non-livingAbiotic Factors: non-living

Water,Wind,Rocks, pH,salinity

Biotic Factors : LivingBiotic Factors : Living

Plants,Plants,Animals,Animals,BacteriaBacteria

DNA• Double helix

• Contains the nitrogenous bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine

• Consist of a sugar/phosphate backbone with nitrogen bases pairing up to form the “rungs” of the ladder. A=T G=C

DNA .. The Race for the DNA .. The Race for the Double HelixDouble Helix

The Blue Print for life.The Blue Print for life.

• Franklin and Wilkins: Worked together in determining that DNA was a double helix.• Linus Pauling: Worked on DNA model

prior to Watson and Crick’s model.• Watson and Crick: Made a model of the

structure of DNA that worked.

DNA and RNA

DNADNA• Double stranded• Found in the nucleus• Contains T,A,G,C• Contains the sugar

Deoxyribose

RNARNA• Single stranded• Found in and out of

the nucleus• Contains U,A,G,C• Contains the sugar

ribose

Nucleotides

• The monomer of nucleic acids.

• Consists of a sugar, phosphate, and a base.

ReplicationReplication

• The process of making a copy of DNA.

• Occurs in the nucleus.

• Is semi-conservative.

• Required so a cell can divide and each new cell will have a copy of the DNA.

REPLICATIONREPLICATION

Original Strand

TranscriptionTranscription

• Copying “transcribe” the code for a gene from DNA.

• This process occurs in the NUCLEUS.

• The code is delivered to the ribosome by RNA.

After transcription occurs, DNA rewinds to its pre-transcribed state.

The 3 RNA’sThe 3 RNA’s

• tRNA: Transfer RNA: Brings the amino acid to the ribsome. Matches up its anti-codon to the codon on mRNA.

• mRNA: Messenger RNA: Brings the codon to the ribosome. (Brings the message from DNA to the ribosome)

• rRNA: ribosomal RNA: Along with protein, it is a component of ribosomes. (made in the nucleolus)

rRNA + protein = Ribosome

Question #7

If the codon A-A-A is found on mRNA, what anti-codon on tRNA that will match up to it?

A. T-T-T

B. U-U-U

C. G-G-G

D. C-C-C

Question #8

Which base sequence of a DNA molecule produces a codon on an mRNA molecule that will allow the amino acid valine to be incorporated into a protein?

A. G-G-T B. G-A-T

C. C-G-A D. C-A-A

Amino AcidAmino Acid mRNA CodemRNA Code

Leucine C-C-A

Arginine C-G-A

Phenylalanine U-U-U

Valine G-U-U

Lysine A-A-A

DNA mRNA Protein

In eukaryotic cells, the process indicated by arrow A occurs in the —F cytoplasmG ribosomeH nucleusJ cell membrane

A B

9.

DNA Technology

• Gel electrophoresis: -Forensics• PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction• Recombinant DNA: Insulin, growth

hormone : Pest resistance in plants• Human Genome: A complete map of the

human DNA sequence.– Detect, treat, and prevent many genetic diseases

PCRPCR

GelGel electrophoresiselectrophoresis

Human GenomeHuman Genome

Question #10Question #10

Recombinant DNA is presently used in the Recombinant DNA is presently used in the biotechnology industry to :biotechnology industry to :

A. increase fertilizationA. increase fertilizationB. treat infectious diseasesB. treat infectious diseasesC. treat genetic disordersC. treat genetic disordersD. decrease agricultural yieldsD. decrease agricultural yields

CloningCloning

The production of genetically identical cells and/or organisms.

Mendel and Genetics

• Mendel is considered to be the father of genetics.

• Mendel’s laws of heredity are based on his mathematical analysis of observations of patterns of inheritance.

• Simple genetic recombinations are governed by the laws of probability.

Genotype: The alleles present in an organism.Genotype: The alleles present in an organism.

Phenotype: The physical characteristics present. (This isPhenotype: The physical characteristics present. (This is due to the alleles present)due to the alleles present)

Punnett Squares

• Dominant alleles: Capital letter

• Recessive alleles: Lower case letter

• Example : Red is dominant to white.

R = red r = white

G = greenG = greeng = whiteg = white

Question #11

The gene for tallness (T) is dominant over the gene for shortness (t)In pea plants. A homozygous dominant pea plant is crossed with a Heterozygous pea plant, and 200 seeds are produced. Approximately How many of these seeds can be expected to produce plants that are homozygous dominant?

A. 0B. 50C. 100D. 200

AL Al aL al

AL AALL AALl AaLL AaLl

Al AALl Aall AaLl Aall

aL AaLL AaLl aaLL aaLl

Al AaLl Aall aaLl aall

Question #12

In holly trees, red fruit (A) are dominant to white fruit (a), and spiny leaves (L) are dominant to smooth leaves (l). According tothis Punnett square, how many of the new holly trees from this crosscould have white fruit and smooth leaves?

A. None B. 1 out of 16C. 9 out of 16 D. all

Characteristics of Water• Water has a high specific heat. It takes a lot

of energy to change the temperature of water.

• Water absorbs heat when it evaporates.• In the solid form, ice floats, preventing

lakes and oceans from freezing solid.• Water is the universal solvent. It can carry

nutrients into and around cells, and carry wastes away.

• Cohesion/Adhesion

Diffusion

• The movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration.

• Diffusion occurs in cells when substances which are dissolved in water move from an area of higher to lower concentration.

• No energy is needed for diffusion to occur.

OsmosisOsmosis

• The movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane.

• A special type of diffusion.

• Movement occurs from an area of greater water pressure to an area of lesser water pressure.

HypertonicHypertonic: Water pressure is greater inside the cell. (solute : Water pressure is greater inside the cell. (solute concentration is higher outside the cell)concentration is higher outside the cell)HypotonicHypotonic: Water pressure is greater outside the cell. (solute: Water pressure is greater outside the cell. (solute

concentration is higher inside the cell)concentration is higher inside the cell)IsotonicIsotonic: Water pressure is the same inside and outside of the : Water pressure is the same inside and outside of the cell. (solute concentration is equal inside and outsidecell. (solute concentration is equal inside and outside

of the cell). of the cell).

Question #12

Which property of water allows many land-dwelling organisms to Maintain body temperature by eliminating excess heat?

A. Water’s ability to evaporate.B. Water’s movement by capillary action.C. Water’s capacity to dissolve substances.D. Water’s formation of ions in solution.

Question #13

If lakes were to freeze solid during the winter, the organisms in the lake would die. Which of these characteristics of water helps preventpermanent freezing of lakes?

A. Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius.B. Ice floats when it freezes.C. Water becomes a solid as it freezes.D. Ice loses heat when it melts.

MacromoleculesFormed from the union of many monomers.

• The main components of a living cell are: Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. (CHNOPS)

• Carbon can bond with other carbon atoms and form chains or rings of larger complex molecules.

• There are four basic organic compound groups: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates

• Sugar and starches (energy)

• Cellulose (structural)

• Monosaccharides (Glucose, fructose)

• Disaccharides (Sucrose, Maltose)

• Polysaccharides (Cellulose, Glycogen,starch)

Lipids

• Insoluble in water.

• Fats, waxes, oils, steroids, phospholipids

• 2X the energy of carbohydrates

• Monomer: glycerol + 3 fatty acids

• Energy storage, protection, insulation

Proteins

• Built from the 20 amino acid monomers.

• Enzymes, hormones, transport (hemoglobin), defense (antibodies), structure (hair, nails, muscle)

• Polymers made by linking amino acids with peptide bonds.

• Contain nitrogen

Protein Structure

• Primary : the sequence of amino acids

• Secondary: Pleating and spiraling due to hydrogen bonds

• Tertiary: Folding due to disulfide bridges

Hydrophobic/Hydorphilic regions

* Quaternary: 2 or more polypeptides joined together.

Primary: sequence of amino acids.

Secondary

Tertiary

Quaternary

Denaturation

• The loss of a proteins 3-D structure, causing it to lose its ability to function.

• Can be caused by temperature changes or pH changes.

Building and Breaking apart Molecules

• Dehydration synthesis: The removal of water to join monomers together.

• Hydrolysis: The addition of water to break apart polymers.

Enzymes

• Lower the rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy.

• Serve as catalyst. Speed up reactions:Are not changed in the reaction.

• Attach to the substrate at the active site.

All enzymes havea characteristic3-D shape.

Question #14

Pepsin is found in the human stomach and breaks down proteins to smaller peptides. What is pepsin?

a. A mineral

b. An enzyme

c. A carbohydrate

d. A vitamin

Question #15

The bond that holds two amino acids together is known as

a. A hydrogen bond

b. A covalent bond

c. An ionic bond

d. A peptide bond

Enzyme questions (remember the lab we did with liver!!!!)

16.Overheating an enzyme results in the enzyme’s loss of —

• F net electrical charge

• G ability to catalyze a reaction

• H storage of a large amount of chemical energy

• J storage of inherited information

PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis• Light energy is converted to chemical

energy.• Light is the initial energy source in most

communities.• Photosynthetic cells trap energy from

sunlight with chlorophyll, and use the energy, carbon dioxide and water to produce energy-rich organic molecules and oxygen.

Equations

– Photosynthesis (plants do this)

• _____+_______ _______+_______

– Respiration (you do this)

• ____+_______ _____+_____+ ___

Equations!!

Chloroplast

Plant Tropisms

• Positive and Negative Phototropism-bending or growing toward or away from light

• Phototrophism: LIGHT

• Geotropism-influenced by gravity

• Thigmotropism-influenced by touch

Photosynthesis and respiration are complementary processes for cycling carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere.

Parts of the LeafParts of the Leaf

Stamen is the male portion includes the anther and filamentPistil: Where fertilization takes place!!!

Sticky stigma Style and ovary: female parts!!! Ripened Ovary: FRUIT!!!!

RespirationRespiration

• Cells release the chemical energy stored in the products of photosynthesis.

• This energy is transported within the cell.

• ATP is created and used to power the cells activities.

• Takes place in the ___________________?

Mitochondria

Prokaryotic CellsProkaryotic Cells

• Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.

• Archaebaacteria can survive in primitive conditions. (ex: high heat, no oxygen)

• Prokaryotic cells have no true nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, and their DNA is circular.

Prokaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic CellsEukaryotic Cells

• Have membrane bound organelles.

• Larger ribosomes than prokaryotic cells.

• Have membrane bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cell

Cellular OrganellesCellular Organelles• Nucleus: Contains DNA, site where RNA is made.

• Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis.

• Mitochondria: Site of cell respiration.

• Chloroplast: Site of photosynthesis.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum: Transports material through the cell.

• Golgi : Packages products for export.

• Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes.

• Cell membrane: Controls what enters and leaves the cell.

• Cell Wall: Provides support.

Kingdoms

• Monera: Eubacteria/Archaebacteria Bacteria and Blue Green Algae (Cyanobacteria). E. Coli and Samonella

• Protista: Algae and Protists (paramecium and euglena)

• Fungi : Yeast, Mushrooms

• Plantae: gymnosperms and angiosperms

• Animalia: invertebrates and vertebrates

Monera

Question #17

In plants, energy is stored as:

a. glucose

b. lipids

c. starch

d. proteins

Question #18

• Proteins are formed from binding amino acids together through the process of:

a. cellular respiration

b. dehydration synthesis

c. hydrolysis

d. ionization

Question #19

Carbohydrates are stored in the liver and muscles of animals in the form of:

a. glucose

b. glycerol

c. glycogen

d. glycine

Question #20

Which macromolecule contains nitrogen?

a. protein

b. carbohydrate

c. lipid

d. water

Question #21

Reactions in anaerobic and aerobic respiration are controlled by:

a. enzymes

b. oxygen

c. pyruvic acid

d. water

Question #22

Which process is a form of autotrophic nutrition?

a. cellular digestion

b. photosynthesis

c. fermentation

d. regulation

Question #23

The first eukaryotic kingdom was the kingdom

a. Animalia

b. Plantae

c. Protista

d. Eubacteria

Question #23

Osmosis is a type of:

a. active transport

b. passive transport

c. facilitated diffusion

d. ion transport

Question #24

In plant cells, the organelles that conduct photosynthesis and the organelles that conduct cellular respiration are the:

a. chloroplast and chromoplasts

b. chromoplasts and leukoplasts

c. leukoplassts and mitochondria

d. chloroplast and mitochondria

Question #25

Which of the these reduces the number of chromosomes in sex cells to one half?

a. Chemosynthesis

b. Cytokinesis

c. Meiosis

d. Metamorphism

Energy flow in Ecosystem

• Climax community= community at its climax:

• Energy flow from high to low

• Pioneer species: Lichen and mosses

Food Webs and chains

• Autotroph: Makes own food Plants and Algae

• Heterotroph: Consumes food (all others)

• Carnivore: Eats Meat

• Herbivore: Eats Plants

• Omnivore: Eats both

Energy in Ecosystem More

herbivores than

carnivores Most

biomass is at the bottom

Most energy is at the bottom

Web

In the diagram, which organism provides nutrients for the largest number of other organisms? a. Bluefish b. Sealc. Snapper d. Herring

Succession!!!!

Each drawing represents different stages in community succession within the state of Virginia. Which of the following drawings represents the climax community in this succession pattern? a. F b. G c. H d. I

The end!!!!

Which is required by all living things?

a. Oxygen

b. Energy

c. Mobility

d. Carbon dioxide