SOL Review What do you remember? Biology…. The study of life.

SOL Review What do you remember? Biology. The study of life.

8 Characteristics of Life C Cell Structure and Function R Reproduction O Organization G Grow and Development H Homeostasis E Energy R Response to Stimuli E Evolution (Adaptation) Or GO-CHEERR

The Scientific Method

Are there any safety rules?

Scientific Method Terms Independent Variable: The variable which is used as the basis for estimating or predicting the outcome of an experiment (what is changed). Example: Time Dependent Variable: The variable which is estimated or predicted (what is measured). Example: Rate of Growth

Control: Standard for comparison for testing the results of an experiment. The group that is not exposed to the variable. Variable: The condition that is being tested. *Only one variable can be tested in an experiment. Constants: Factors that you do not change in the experiment

Independent Variable: X axis Dependent Variable Y axis Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 876543876543 Growth in cm. Plant Growth

A biology class wanted to develop a research project to predict the effects of a new highway on wildflower species found in the Piedmont region of Virginia. The class could best conduct such a study by sampling flowers found in the highway construction area F one year before highway construction begins G both before and after highway construction is completed _ H immediately after highway construction is finished J during the time highway construction is taking place Question #1

Two plant species found in a dry region of the western United States exhibit vastly different abilities to survive. Species A has very slow stem growth and few leaves but is very abundant. Species B has rapid stem growth and many leaves but is very rare. Which hypothesis is most likely supported by this information? F Leaf shape may give species B an advantage over species A. G Flower size and color may give species B an advantage over species A. H Reduced root growth may give species A an advantage over species B. J Reduced stem growth may give species A an advantage over species B. _ Question #2

Question #3 What is the first step of a scientific investigation? F. formulate a hypothesis G. gather and analyze data H. identify a question J. Design an experiment

Microscopes Light Microscope Advantages: View live organisms Inexpensive Can be taken into field Disadvantages: Low magnification Low resolution Electron Microscope Advantages: High Magnification High Resolution Disadvantages: Expensive Can not be taken into field Organisms are killed in preparation process

Question #4 A microscope with a 4x objective lens and a 10x ocular lens produces a total magnification of A. 14x B. 40x C. 400x D. 4000x

Question #5 The clarity of an image produced by a microscope is called: A. magnification B. resolution C. micrograph D. amplification

THE CELL THEORY (ABCs) ALL LIVING THINGS ARE MADE FROM CELLS (Schleiden/Schwann) CELLS ARE THE BASIC UNIT OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN LIVING THINGS. (Schleiden/Schwann) ALL CELLS COME FROM PRE-EXISTING CELLS. (Virchow) *Robert Hooke coined the term cell

The Cell Cycle

Result or Product of Mitosis? TWO new daughter CELLS IDENTICAL to the parent (Asexual reproduction) The cells will grow until they are forced to divide Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Meiosis Summary

Abiotic Factors: non-living Water, Wind, Rocks, pH, Salinity, Sun, etc

Biotic Factors : Living Plants,Animals,Bacteria

DNA Double helix Contains the nitrogenous bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine Consist of a sugar/phosphate backbone with nitrogen bases pairing up to form the rungs of the ladder. A=T G=C

DNA.. The Race for the Double Helix The Blue Print for life. Franklin and Wilkins: Worked together in determining that DNA was a double helix. Watson and Crick: Made a model of the structure of DNA that worked (1953).

DNA and RNA DNA Double stranded Found in the nucleus Contains T,A,G,C Contains the sugar DeoxyriboseRNA Single stranded Found in and out of the nucleus Contains U,A,G,C Contains the sugar ribose

Nucleotides Building block (monomer) of nucleic acids. Consists of a sugar, phosphate, and a base.

Replication The process of making a copy of DNA. Occurs in the nucleus. Is semi-conservative. Required so a cell can divide and each new cell will have a copy of the DNA.

REPLICATION Original Strand With the help of Enzymes Helicase: Unwinds/unzips DNA Polymerase: makes complementary strands

Transcription Copying the code for a gene from DNA. This process occurs in the nucleus. The code is delivered to the ribosome by RNA.

After transcription occurs, DNA rewinds to its pre-transcribed state.

The 3 RNAs tRNA: Transfer RNA: Brings the amino acid to the ribsome. Matches up its anti- codon to the codon on mRNA. mRNA: Messenger RNA: Brings the codon to the ribosome. (Brings the message from DNA to the ribosome) rRNA: ribosomal RNA: Along with protein, it is a component of ribosomes. (made in the nucleolus)

rRNA + protein = Ribosome

Question #7 If the codon A-A-A is found on mRNA, what anti-codon on tRNA that will match up to it? A. T-T-T B. U-U-U C. G-G-G D. C-C-C

Question #8 Which base sequence of a DNA molecule produces a codon on an mRNA molecule that will allow the amino acid valine to be incorporated into a protein? A. G-G-TB. G-A-T C. C-G-AD. C-A-A Amino Acid mRNA Code LeucineC-C-A ArginineC-G-A PhenylalanineU-U-U ValineG-U-U LysineA-A-A

DNA Technology Gel electrophoresis: -Forensics PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction Recombinant DNA: Insulin, growth hormone : Pest resistance in plants Human Genome: A complete map of the human DNA sequence. Detect, treat, and prevent many genetic diseases

PCR Gel electrophoresis electrophoresis Human Genome

Question #9 Recombinant DNA is presently used in the biotechnology industry to : A. increase fertilization B. treat infectious diseases C. treat genetic disorders D. decrease agricultural yields

Cloning The production of genetically identical cells and/or organisms.

Mendel and Genetics Mendel is considered to be the father of genetics. Mendels laws of heredity are based on his mathematical analysis of observations of patterns of inheritance. Simple genetic recombinations are governed by the laws of probability.

Genotype: The alleles present in an organism. Phenotype: The physical characteristics present. (This is due to the alleles present) due to the alleles present)

Punnett Squares Dominant alleles: Capital letter Recessive alleles: Lower case letter Example : Red is dominant to white. R = red r = white G = green g = white

Question #10 The gene for tallness (T) is dominant over the gene for shortness (t) In pea plants. A homozygous dominant pea plant is crossed with a Heterozygous pea plant, and 200 seeds are produced. Approximately How many of these seeds can be expected to produce plants that are homozygous dominant? A. 0 B. 50 C. 100 D. 200

ALAlaLal ALAALLAALlAaLLAaLl AlAALlAallAaLlAall aLAaLLAaLlaaLLaaLl AlAaLlAallaaLlaall Question #11 In holly trees, red fruit (A) are dominant to white fruit (a), and spiny leaves (L) are dominant to smooth leaves (l). According to this Punnett square, how many of the new holly trees from this cross could have white fruit and smooth leaves? A. NoneB. 1 out of 16 C. 9 out of 16D. all

Characteristics of Water Water has a high specific heat. It takes a lot of energy to change the temperature of water. Water absorbs heat when it evaporates. In the solid form, ice floats, preventing lakes and oceans from freezing solid. Water is the universal solvent. It can carry nutrients into and around cells, and carry wastes away. Cohesion/Adhesion

Diffusion The movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration. Diffusion occurs in cells when substances which are dissolved in water move from an area of higher to lower concentration. No energy is needed for diffusion to occur.

Osmosis The movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane. A special type of diffusion. Movement occurs from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lesser water concentration. High Low

Hypertonic: Water concentration is greater inside the cell. (solute concentration is higher outside the cell) concentration is higher outside the cell) Hypotonic: Water concentration is greater outside the cell. (solute concentration is higher inside the cell) concentration is higher inside the cell) Isotonic: Water concentration is the same inside and outside of the cell. (solute concentration is equal inside and outside of the cell).

Question #12 Which property of water allows many land-dwelling organisms to Maintain body temperature by eliminating excess heat? A. Waters ability to evaporate. B. Waters movement by capillary action. C. Waters capacity to dissolve substances. D. Waters formation of ions in solution.

Question #13 If lakes were to freeze solid during the winter, the organisms in the lake would die. Which of these characteristics of water helps prevent permanent freezing of lakes? A. Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius. B. Ice floats when it freezes. C. Water becomes a solid as it freezes. D. Ice loses heat when it melts.

Macromolecules Formed from the union of many monomers. The main components of a living cell are: Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. (CHNOPS) Carbon can bond with other carbon atoms and form chains or rings of larger complex molecules. There are four basic organic compound groups: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates Sugar and starches (energy) Cellulose (structural) Monosaccharides (Glucose, fructose) Disaccharides (Sucrose, Maltose) Polysaccharides (Cellulose, Glycogen,starch)

Lipids Insoluble in water. Fats, waxes, oils, steroids, phospholipids 2X the energy of carbohydrates Monomer: glycerol + 3 fatty acids phosphate group + 2 fatty acids Energy storage, protection, insulation

Proteins Built from the 20 amino acid monomers. Enzymes, hormones, transport (hemoglobin), defense (antibodies), structure (hair, nails, muscle) Polymers made by linking amino acids with peptide bonds through dehydration synthesis (water removal).

Protein Structure Primary : the sequence of amino acids Secondary: Pleating and spiraling due to hydrogen bonds Tertiary: Folding due to disulfide bridges Hydrophobic/Hydorphilic regions * Quaternary: 2 or more polypeptides joined together.

Primary: sequence of amino acids. Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

Enzymes Lower the rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy. Serve as catalyst. Speed up reactions:Are not changed in the reaction. Attach to the substrate at the active site. All enzymes have a characteristic 3-D shape.

Denaturation The loss of a proteins 3-D structure, causing it to lose its ability to function (especially enzymes). Can be caused by temperature changes or pH changes. Remember chicken liver lab??

Question #14 Pepsin is found in the human stomach and breaks down proteins to smaller peptides. What is pepsin? a. A mineral b. An enzyme c. A carbohydrate d. A vitamin

Photosynthesis Light energy is converted to chemical energy. Light is the initial energy source in most communities. Photosynthetic cells trap energy from sunlight with chlorophyll, and use the energy, carbon dioxide and water to produce energy-rich organic molecules and oxygen.

Sunlight energy Ecosystem Photosynthesis (in chloroplasts) Glucose Oxygen Cellular respiration (in mitochondria) Water for cellular work Heat energy Energy Cycle

Chloroplast

Photosynthesis and respiration are complementary processes for cycling carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere.

Diagram of Cellular Respiration Occurs in Cytoplasm Occurs in Matrix Occurs across Cristae Cytoplasm

Parts of the Leaf

Respiration Cells release the chemical energy stored in the products of photosynthesis. This energy is transported within the cell. ATP is created and used to power the cells activities.

Mitochondria

Prokaryotic Cells Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. Archaebaacteria can survive in primitive conditions. (ex: high heat, no oxygen) Prokaryotic cells have no true nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, and their DNA is circular.

Eukaryotic Cells Have membrane bound organelles. Larger ribosomes than prokaryotic cells. Have membrane bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Cell

Cellular Organelles Nucleus: Contains DNA, site where RNA is made. Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis. Mitochondria: Site of cell respiration. Chloroplast: Site of photosynthesis. Endoplasmic Reticulum: Transports material through the cell. Golgi : Packages products for export. Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes. Cell membrane: Controls what enters and leaves the cell. Cell Wall: Provides support.

Mechanisms of Evolution (Charles Darwin) 1809-1882 FATHER of the Evolutionary Theory ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY NATURAL SELECTION, 1859 Today, his concept is the unifying theory in Biology

Charles Darwin (Trip Around the World) Darwin, 21, chosen as a NATURALIST aboard the HMS Beagle He compared the ANATOMY of the biological specimens he collected Over the next 25 years, his concepts evolved

The Struggle for Existence Darwin believed there was a STRUGGLE for existence Rationale: The Earth is not covered with ALL the various offspring of every species Why do you suppose this is the case? COMPETITION

Who will survive Began with PIGEONS h e raised as a boy for desirable variations (color, speed, etc.) ARTIFICIAL SELECTION This Chihuahua mix and Great Dane show the wide range of dog breed sizes created using artificial selection.ChihuahuamixGreat Dane Artificial Selection

Darwins Explanation of Natural Selection Darwin concluded evolution occurs by NATURAL SELECTION! A mechanism for CHANGE in populations Occurs when organisms with FAVORABLE VARIATIONS for a particular environment Survive, reproduce, and pass these variations on to the next generation

Forms of Structural Adaptations Structural adaptations occur over a LONG period of time MIMICRY provides protection for an organism by COPYING the appearance of another species CAMOUFLAGE enables an organism to BLEND in with its surroundings

Todays Definition Evolution: Heredity changes in a group of living organisms over very LONG periods time Thousands upon thousands of years

Evidence of Evolution 1.FOSSILS 2.Comparative ANATOMY 3.EMBRYOLOGY (Development) 4.GENETICS & Biochemistry

What is Ecology? The study of the INTERACTIONS of organisms with one another and with their environment Biosphere = Living GLOBE - part of the earth where LIFE exists SPECIES = INTERBREED freely with one another under natural conditions

Population So what is a population??? A population consists of all the individuals of the SAME SPECIES that live together in the same PLACE at the same TIME Place = habitat Time = assumed now unless otherwise stated Tadpoles in a pond

Habitat versus Niche Struggle for food, water, space, sunlight and other essentials for life HABITAT: Place where a particular population of a species lives (ADDRESS) NICHE: T he JOB the organism performs in an ecosystem A niche is often described in terms of how the organism affects ENERGY flow within the ecosystem Normally only one species per niche

What is an Ecosystem? ALL the factors both living and nonliving (biotic and abiotic) that affect how organisms live All the SPECIES (populations) living in an ecosystem What is a Community?

Factors Limiting Population Growth (Density-Dependent) Availability of RESOURCES (food, shelter, etc) Predators Disease Wastes Space Stress

Density Independent Limiting Factors Density influenced by UNPREDICTABLE events (abiotic) Occur if there is a population is LARGE OR SMALL Regardless of density or size Examples Significant weather events Fire Volcano eruptions Other natural disasters

The population size that an environment can sustain is called the CARRYING CAPACITY (K) A B D E C Said another way, carrying capacity is the size of population during the STEADY STATE portion of a logistic curve Carrying Capacity (K) S-Shaped, Logistics Curve

In the graph below, what is the population of deer at the carrying capacity of the environment? A10 B30 C50 D70 SOL Practice

K-strategist follow which type of survivorship curve? K-strategist r-strategist

Symbiosis TWO or more species live together in a close, long term ASSOCIATION 3 kinds: 1. Parasitism 2. Mutualism 3. Commensalism Sea anemone & hermit crab

SOL Question A symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits while the other is neither harmed nor helped is known as- Aantagonism Bcommensalism Cmutualism Dparasitism

Succession

SOL PRACTICE Each drawing represents different stages in community succession within the state of Virginia. Put them in order from first to last: Which biome is depicted? A. B. C. D.

Biogeochemical Cycles Cycling of MATERIALS between the environment and organisms (between living and nonliving reservoirs and back again) Chemical and biological PROCESSES

Biomes A major biological community that occurs over a LARGE area with a SIMILAR climate Climate the PREVAILING weather conditions in any given area is a key factor in determining where a BIOME occurs What two things determine climate? TEMPERATURE and WATER

Human Impact Human activities such as reducing the amount of forest cover, increasing the amount and variety of chemicals released into the atmosphere, and intensive farming have changed the Earths land, oceans, and atmosphere.

Decreasing Temp. Decreasing Moisture Cold Hot WetDry

99 Carolus Linnaeus Called the FATHER OF TAXONOMYCalled the FATHER OF TAXONOMY Developed the modern system of naming known as BINOMIAL NOMENCLATUREDeveloped the modern system of naming known as BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE TWO-WORD name (Genus & species)TWO-WORD name (Genus & species)

100 Classification Groups TAXON (taxa-plural) is a category into which related organisms are placedTAXON (taxa-plural) is a category into which related organisms are placed There is a HIERARCHY of groups (taxa) from broadest to most specificThere is a HIERARCHY of groups (taxa) from broadest to most specific Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, speciesDomain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, species

101 Domain Kingdom Phylum (Division used for plants) Class Order Family Genus Species Hierarchy-Taxonomic Groups BROADEST TAXON

102 KingKing PhillipPhillip CameCame OverOver ForFor GrapeGrape SodaSoda

103 Dichotomous Keying Used to identify organismsUsed to identify organisms Characteristics given in PAIRSCharacteristics given in PAIRS Read BOTH CHARACTERISTICS and either go to another set of characteristics OR identify the organismRead BOTH CHARACTERISTICS and either go to another set of characteristics OR identify the organism

104 Cladistics CLADISTICS is a system of taxonomy that reconstructs phylogenies by inferring relationships based on SIMILARITIES Used to determine the SEQUENCE in which different groups of organisms evolved Focuses on a set of UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS found in a particular group -- DERIVED TRAITS

105 Cladogram Diagram showing how organisms are related based on SHARED, DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS (traits) such as feathers, hair, or scalesDiagram showing how organisms are related based on SHARED, DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS (traits) such as feathers, hair, or scales

106 Multicellularity More than the biomass is composed of SINGLE-celled organisms Small: surface-area-to volume ratio problem True multicellular organisms have found success as permanently ASSOCIATED and COORDINATED Allows cells to specialize into different functions DIFFERENTIATION is the process where cells become SPECIALIZED in FORM and FUNCTION

107 Most plants & animals have specialized cells organized into TISSUES -- Distinct types of cells with a COMMON STRUCTURE and FUNCTION. Example muscle tissue ORGANS -- DIFFERENT TISSUES ORGANIZED into a specialized structure to perform a specific function. Ex. Heart ORGAN SYSTEMS -- group of organs that carry out MAJOR BODY functions (11). EX. circulatory system (heart, blood, & blood vessels) Complex Multicellularity

CharacteristicsEubacteriaArchaebacteriaProtistaFungiPlantaeAnimalia Cell Type (Prokaryote/Eukaryote) PpEEEukaryote Nucleus (Absent/Present) absent yesPPresentpresent Cell Wall (Y/N) Yesyesmostyes none Cell Wall Composition (Type of Carbohydrate) pepticlogylcanNo pepticlogylcan Cellulosechitincellulosen/a Body Type (Uni- or Multi-cellular) uni Uni/ multiMost bothMuliticellularmulticelluar Nutrition (Auto or Heterotroph) both Auto/ heteroAborptive heteroautoIngestive heterotroph Habitat (Land/Water/Air) allLand and water Extremophiles waterlandLand water all 3 Example(s) (Common names) Staphylococcus Streptococcus E. coli Methenogens Heliophiles Thermoacidphiles Euglena Paramecium amoebas mushroom, yeast, bread mold apple tree rose tulip Humans Dolphins Platypus The Six Kingdoms Summary

109 Human Organ Systems

SOL Review What do you remember? Biology…. The study of life.

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