Sociology

Exam Review

What Is Sociology?

“...The systematic study of human society ”– Systematic

• Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior

– Human society• Group behavior is primary focus; how groups influence individuals

and vice versa

– At the “heart of sociology”• The sociological perspective which offers a unique view of society

The Sociological PerspectivePeter Berger

• Seeing the general in the particular– Sociologists identify general social patterns in the

behavior of particular individuals.

• Seeing the strange in the familiar– Giving up the idea that human behavior is simply a

matter of what people decide to do– Understanding that society shapes our lives

Sociological Perspective and Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mills

C. Wright Mills’Sociological Imagination

• The power of the sociological perspective lies not just in changing individual lives but in transforming society.

• Society, not people’s personal failings, is the cause of social problems.

• The sociological imagination transforms personal troubles into public issues.

Sociological Theory

• Theory: a statement of how and why facts are related– Explains social behavior to the real world

• Theoretical paradigm: A set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking– Structural-functional– Social-conflict– Symbolic-interaction

Structural-Functional TheoryA theoretical framework in

which society is viewed as a whole unit, composed of interrelated parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium

Also known as functionalism and structural functionalism

Functional Analysis

• Focuses on Social Structure and Social Function

• Structure- stable pattern of behavior

• Function: consequences of patterns for operation of society

• Argues that Social Order is based on Social Consensus

Social Functions

• Manifest Functions- Intended

• Latent Functions- Unintended

• Dysfunctions- Problematic

Critical Evaluations of Functional Analysis

• Tends to be conservative

• Tends to dismiss change-”systems”

• Overlooks the negative

Structural-Functional Paradigm• The basics

– A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole

– Views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability

• Key elements:– Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of

social behavior found in social institutions.– Social function refers to the consequences for the operation

of society as a whole.

Conflict Theory

A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as being composed of groups

competing for scarce resources.

Conflict Theory

• Focuses on Social Tension and Social Change

• Is macro level orientation• Argues that Social Order is maintained

by direct or indirect exercise of power• “Marginality”-those on the fringe of

society• Originated from the work of Karl Marx

Social-Conflict Paradigm• The basics:

– A macro-oriented paradigm– Views society as an arena of inequality that generates

conflict and social change

• Key elements:– Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the

expense of the majority.– Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to

social inequality.– Dominant group vs. disadvantaged group relations

Symbolic-Interaction Theory

A theoretical perspective that focuses on how

people use symbols to establish meaning,

develop their views of the world, and

communicate with one another.

Interactionism

• Focuses on details of everyday life and interaction between people, and on how meaning is assigned to human interaction

• Is micro level orientation• Argues that society responds through

symbolic interaction• Originated from the studies of Max Weber

and George Herbert Mead

Who’s Who in the Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm• Max Weber

– Understanding a setting from the people in it

• George Herbert Mead– How we build personalities from social

experience

• Erving Goffman– Dramaturgical analysis

• George Homans & Peter Blau– Social-exchange analysis

Critical Evaluation• Structural-Functional

– Too broad, ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender, focuses on stability at the expense of conflict

• Social-Conflict– Too broad, ignores how shared values and mutual

interdependence unify society, pursues political goals

• Symbolic-Interaction– Ignores larger social structures, effects of culture,

factors such as class, gender & race

Sociological Investigation

A logical system that derives knowledgeFrom direct, systematic observation

Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation

• Scientific sociology– The study of society based on systematic

observation of social behavior– Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with

our senses

• Interpretive sociology– The study of society that focuses on the meanings

people attach to their social world

• Critical sociology– The study of society that focuses on the need for

change

Causation• Cause and effect

– A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another (Hard to establish)

• Correlation– A relationship by which two or more variables change

together (direct/inverse- positive/negative)• Spurious correlation

– An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable

• Types of variables– Independent: The variable that causes the change – Dependent: The variable that changes (its value

depends upon the independent variable)

Variables

• Dependent Variable- The variable that changes due to the

• Independent Variable- the variable that causes the change

• Dependent: Grade on the Exam

• Independent(s): The amount of time studying, reading level, energy level, grades on previous tests, etc.

Spurious Correlations

Shoe Size & Math Skill

Scientific Sociology Terminology

• Concepts–A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form

• Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case

• Measurement–A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case

• Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable

Scientific Sociology Terminology

• Reliability–Consistency in measurement– Does an instrument provide for a consistent

measure of the subject matter?

• Validity–Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure– Does an instrument actually measure what it sets

out to measure?

If measurement is not Reliable, then it can’t be Valid- but needs to be both to be of any value

Scientific Sociology Terminology

• Objectivity– A state of personal neutrality in conducting research

• Value-free research– Weber said sociologists should strive to be

dispassionate and detached.

• Replication– Repetition of research by other investigators– Helps limit distortion caused by personal values

Limitations of Scientific Sociology

• Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions.

• The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied.

• Social patterns change.• Sociologists are part of the world they study,

making value-free research difficult.

Miligram's Experiment

• The Original Miligram Experiment (1961) • VideoSift: Online Video *Quality Control

• Administered electric shocks to “Subjects”

Sociological Research Methods A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research

• Experiment–A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions

• Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated guess)

• Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment

• “Hawthorne effect”– A change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studied

Control

• To be certain that the change in the dependent variable was due to the exposure to the independent variable, the researcher must keep constant other factors that might intrude.

• One method is to break group into experimental and control groups.– Experimental group is exposed to independent

variable.– Control group is exposed to a placebo.

Survey ResearchA research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview

• Population– The people who are the focus of the research

• Sample– The part of the population that represents the

whole

• Random Sample– Drawing a sample from a population so that every

element of the population has an equal chance of being selected

CultureThe values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects

that together form a people’s

way of life

Terminology

• Nonmaterial culture– The intangible world of ideas created by

members of a society

• Material culture– The tangible things created by members

of a society

Terminology• Culture shock

– Disorientation due to the inability to make sense out of one’s surroundings

• Domestic and foreign travel

• Ethnocentrism– A biased “cultural yardstick”-Evaluate

based on your own Culture’s standards

• Cultural relativism– More accurate understanding-cultural

perspective-context of the culture

Symbols

• Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture

• Societies create new symbols all the time.

• Reality for humans is found in the meaning things carry with them.

– The basis of culture; makes social life possible

Symbols

• People must be mindful that meanings vary from culture to culture.

• Meanings can even vary greatly within the same groups of people.– Fur coats, Confederate flags, etc.

Values and Beliefs

• Values– Culturally defined standards of

desirability, goodness, and beauty, which serve as broad guidelines for social living. Values support beliefs.

• Beliefs– Specific statements that people hold to

be true.– Particular matters that individuals

consider to be true or false.

Norms

• Types– Proscriptive

• Should-nots, prohibited– Prescriptive

• Shoulds, prescribed like medicine

• Mores and Folkways– Mores (pronounced "more-rays")

• Widely observed and have great moral significance

– Folkways• Norms for routine and casual interaction

Rules and expectations by which society guides its members’ behavior

Social Control

• Guilt– A negative judgment we make about

ourselves

• Shame– The painful sense that others

disapprove of our actions

Various means by which members of society encourage conformity to norms

Cultural Diversity

• Subculture–Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of society’s population.

• Counterculture–Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society.

Terms• Culture integration

– The close relationships among various elements of a cultural system• Example: Computers and changes in our language

• Culture lag– The fact that some cultural elements change more

quickly than others, which might disrupt a cultural system• Example: Medical procedures and ethics

• Cultural universals– Traits that are part of every known culture; includes family, funeral rites, and jokes

SocializationThe lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential

and learn culture

Social ExperienceSocialization• The lifelong social experience by which

individuals develop their human potential and learn patterns of their culture

Personality• A person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking,

feeling, and acting– Could a person’s personality develop without social

interaction?

Nature and Nurture• Biological sciences–The role of nature

– Elements of society have a naturalistic root.

• Social sciences–The role of nurture– Most of who and what we are as a species is

learned, or social in nature.– Behaviorism

• Nature or nurture?– It is both, but from a sociological perspective,

nurture matters more.

Social IsolationEffect on nonhuman primates: Harlows’ experiments

• Six months of complete isolation was enough to disturb development.

Effect on children: Anna and Isabelle• Years of isolation left both children damaged and only

capable of approximating a normal life after intensive rehabilitation.

Genie• Somewhat less isolated, but suffered permanent

disabilities

Theories

• Freud- Id, Ego, Superego

• Piaget- cognitive development

• Kohlberg- Moral Reasoning

• Mead/ Cooley- “Self”/ “Looking glass self”

Erik Erickson

• Critics: Not everyone confronts the challenges in the same order.

• Not clear if failure to meet one challenge predicts failure in other stages

• Do other cultures share Erickson’s definition of successful life?

This theory views personality as a lifelong process (8 Stages) and success

at one stage prepares us for the next challenge.

Agents of Socialization

• The Family• The School• The Peer Group• The Mass Media• Church• Government

The Family

• Most important agent – A loving family produces a happy well-

adjusted child.

• Parental attention is very important– Bonding and encouragement

• Household environment– Stimulates development

• Social position– Race, religion, ethnicity, class

Socialization and Life Course

• Each stage of life is linked to the biological process.

• Societies organize the life course by age.

• Other factors shape lives: race, class, ethnicity, and gender.

• Stages present problems and transitions that involve learning.

Social Interaction In Everyday LifeThe process by which people act and

react in relation to others

Social Interaction

• The symbolic interaction paradigm– What are the other two major theories?– Do either have implications here?

• Humans rely on social structure to make sense out of everyday situations.

Status

• A social position that a person holds

• Status set– All the statuses held at one time

• Dance partner• Boss• Friend• Harley club member• Sports participant• Business manager

Type of Status

• Ascribed: Involuntary positions

• Achieved: Voluntary positions

Often the two types work together. What we’re ascribed often helps us achieve other statuses.

•Master status: Has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life.

Role

• Role set– A number of roles attached to a single status– Example: status of mother

• Disciplinarian

• Sports authority

• Dietitian

• Dr. Mom

• Pretty mom

The behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status

Role Conflict and Role Strain• Role conflict

– Involves two or more statuses• Example: Conflict between role expectations of a

police officer who catches her own son using drugs at home–mother and police officer

• Role strain– Involves a single status

• Example: Manager who tries to balance concern for workers with task requirements–office manager

Role Exit

• Role exit: Becoming an “ex”– Disengaging from social roles can be very traumatic

without proper preparation.

• The process of becoming an “ex” – Doubts form about ability to continue with a certain role.– Examination of new roles leads to a turning point at

which time one decides to pursue a new direction. – Learning new expectations associated with new role.– Past role might influence new self.

The Social Constructionof Reality

• The process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction.

• “Street smarts”• The Thomas theorem

– Situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences

• Ethnomethodology– The study of the way people make sense of their

everyday surroundings– Explores the process of making sense of social

encounters

Goffman’s Dramaturgical Analysis

• Presentation of self or impression management– Efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of

others.

• Role performance includes– Stage setting– Use of props: costume, tone of voice, gesture– Example: Going to the doctor and playing the

expected patient role.

Examining social interaction in terms of theatrical performances

Groups and Organizations

Primary Groups

• Traits– Small– Personal orientation– Enduring

• Primary relationships– First group experienced in life– Irreplaceable

• Assistance of all kinds– Emotional to financial

Small social groups whose members share personal, lasting relationships.

Secondary Groups

• Traits– Large membership– Goal or activity orientation– Formal and polite

• Secondary relationships– Weak emotional ties– Short term

• Examples– Co-workers and political

organizations

A large, impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity.

Figure 7.1 Cards Used in Asch’s Experiment in Group ConformityIn Asch’s experiment, subjects were asked to match the line on Card 1 to one of the lines on Card 2. Many subjects agreed with the wrong answers given by others in their group.Source: Asch (1952).

Social Conformity

• Kitty Genovese/What would you do?

• “Bystander Effect”/ Diffusion of Responsibility”– The larger the # of People in a group the less

likely someone will respond (until someone else does)

– The less clear the situation the less likely someone will intervene

Sexuality and Society

Sex: A Biological Issue• The biological distinctions between females

and males• Primary sex characteristics

– Organs used for reproduction

• Secondary sex characteristics– Bodily development that distinguishes mature

males and females

Sexual Orientation- rooted in Biology, social experience plays some role

Theoretical Analysis• Structural-functional analysis

– Need to regulate sexual behavior– Latent function

• Symbolic-interaction analysis– The social construction of sexuality– Sexual practices vary from culture to culture.

• Social-conflict analysis– Highlights dimensions of inequality– Shows how sexuality reflects patterns of social inequality

and helps perpetuate them.– Queer theory–Research findings that challenge the

heterosexual bias in US society.

Controversies-Sexuality

• Teen pregnancy– Highest rates of other high-income countries– Sex education in schools: solution or

problem?– Highest for teenage women with low

incomes and weak families

Abortion- – Remains the most controversial issue

involving sexuality

DevianceThe recognized violation of cultural norms

Deviance

• Norms guide almost all human activities– Most familiar examples are negative instances of rule-

breaking.– Especially righteous people also might be called “deviant.”– “Different” or “unexpected” are often used to describe

deviance from a sociological perspective.

• Crime (laws)– Violation of a society’s formal criminal law– Criminal deviance spans a wide range of behaviors

The recognized violation of cultural norms

Social Control

• Criminal justice system– A formal response by police, courts, and prison

officials to alleged violations of the law.

• Biological context– Biological factors might have a real but modest

effect on whether a person becomes a criminal.

• Personality factors– Deviance is viewed as unsuccessful

“socialization.”

The attempts a society makes at regulating thought and behavior

Social Foundations of Deviance

• Deviance varies according to cultural norms.– No thought or action is inherently deviant.

• People become deviant as others define them that way.– How others perceive and label us

• Both norms and the way people define rule-breaking involve social power.– Rule-makers, rule-breakers, and rule-enforcers– Norms and applying them are linked to social

position.

Labeling Deviance

• Symbolic-interaction analysis– The assertion that deviance and conformity result not so

much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions.

• Primary deviance– Norm violations that most people take part in with little harm

to self-concept

• Secondary deviance– When people “make something” of another’s deviant behavior

• Stigma– Powerful negative label that greatly changes a person’s self-

concept and social identity

• Deviance affirms cultural values and norms.– There can be no good without evil and no justice without

crime.

• Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries.– People draw a boundary between right and wrong.

• Responding to deviance brings people together.– People typically react to serious deviance with shared

outrage.

• Deviance encourages social change.– Deviant people push a society’s moral boundaries.

Durkheim's Basic Insight

Sutherland’s Differential Association

– Deviant behavior is learned.

– Frequency of association is central to the development of deviance.

– If associates are prone to violation of norms, then one is also more likely to take part.

– Conformity reaps rewards while the lack of it reaps punishment.

Deviance and Capitalism

Steven Spitzer’s likely targets of labeling• People who interfere with capitalism.• People who cannot or will not work.• People who resist authority. • Anyone who directly challenges the status quo• White-collar crime

– Those committed by people of high social position in the course of their occupations

• Corporate crime– Illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf

• Organized crime– A business supplying illegal goods or services

Deviance, Race, and Gender

• Hate crime– A criminal act against a person or person’s property by

an offender motivated by racial or other bias• Gender

– The world applies more stringent normative controls to women.

– Strain due to reality of gender-based inequality– Judge the behavior of women and men differently– Why do women commit fewer crimes than men?

Crime• The violation of criminal laws enacted by a

locality, state, or the federal government• Two elements

– The act itself – Criminal intent

• Crimes against the person– Direct violence or threat of it

• Crimes against property– Involves theft of property

• Criminal statistics– Victimization surveys: Crime rate is two to

four times higher than official reports

The Street Criminal: A Profile• Ages 15-24

– 14% of population– 39.7% of arrests for violent crime, 45% of property crimes

• Gender– Males commit 67.4% of property crimes and 82% of violent

crimes• Social class

– Violent crimes committed by a few in poor neighborhoods– White-collar and corporate crime committed by more

affluent• Race and ethnicity

– 69.8% of arrests involve white people– People of color are over-criminalized

• The criminal justice system must operate according to law.

• This principle is grounded in the Bill of Rights.• Anyone charged with a crime must receive:

1. Fair notice of the proceedings

2. A hearing on the charges conducted according to law and with the ability to present a defense,

3. A judge or jury that weighs evidence impartially

US Criminal Justice System

Due Process

Justifications for Punishment

• Retribution-revenge• Deterrence-prevention• Rehabilitation-make better• Societal protection-Removal

– Recidivism- Later offenses by people previously convicted of crimes- High % chance of returning to prison- About a 60-70% chance charged with another crime within 3 years.

Social Stratification

A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy

Basic Principles

• A trait of society– Doesn’t reflect individual differences, but society’s

structure

• Persists over generations– Social mobility happens slowly.

• Universal but variable– While universal, it varies in type.

• Involves not just inequality, but beliefs– Ideologies justify existence of social stratification.

The Caste System

• Birth determines social position in four ways:– Occupation– Marriage within caste– Social life is restricted to “own kind.”– Belief systems are often tied to religious

dogma.• Many of the world’s societies are caste systems.• Caste system is illegal, but elements survive.

Social stratification based on ascription, or birth

Class Systems

• Social mobility for people with education and skills

• All people gain equal standing before the law.• Work involves some personal choice.• Meritocracy: Based on personal merit

Social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement

Class Systems

• Status consistency– The degree of uniformity in a person's social standing across various dimensions of social inequality.

• A caste system has limited social mobility and high status consistency.

• The greater mobility of class systems produces less status consistency.

The Davis-Moore Thesis

• The greater the importance of a position, the more rewards a society attaches to it.

• Egalitarian societies offer little incentive for people to try their best.

• Positions a society considers more important must reward enough to draw talented people

Social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of a society

Karl Marx: Class and Conflict

• Most people have one of two relationships with the means of production.– Bourgeoisie own productive property.– The proletariat works for the bourgeoisie.

• Capitalism creates great inequality in power and wealth.

• This oppression would drive the working majority to organize and overthrow capitalism.

Stratification and Interaction

• Differences in social class position can affect interaction.

• People interact primarily with others of similar social standing.

• Conspicuous consumption refers to buying and using products because of the "statement" they make about social position.

Bell Curve-IQ

Social Class in the United States

A Middle-Class Society• Everyone stands equal under the law.

• We celebrate individuality.

• We interact mostly with people like ourselves.

• The US is an affluent society.

• Socioeconomic status (SES) reflects money (income, wealth & power), occupational prestige and schooling.

Dimensions of Class

• Income– Earning from work or investments

• Wealth– The total value of money and other assets,

minus any debt• Power

– The ability to control, even in the face of resistance

• Occupational prestige– Job-related status

• Schooling– Key to better career opportunities

US Stratification: Merit and Caste

• Ancestry– Born to privilege or poverty makes a big difference

• Race and ethnicity– Disparity still exists when comparing majority and minority

groups on social and financial variables.– People of English ancestry have always enjoyed the most

wealth and the greatest power in US society.

• Gender– More poor families are headed by women.– On average, women have less income, wealth, and

occupational prestige than men.

Social Classes

• The upper class– 5% of the population– Earn at least $185,000 a year

• The middle class– 40-45% of the population– Large middle class has tremendous cultural influence.

• The working class– 33% of the population– Blue-collar jobs yield between $25,000 and $45,000 a year.

• The lower class– The remaining 20% of the population– Working poor hold low-prestige jobs that provide little income.

The Difference Class Makes• Health

– Amount and type of health care

• Values and attitudes– Vary with position

• Politics– Conservative or liberal

• Family and gender– Type of parental involvement– Socialization practices– Relationships and responsibilities

Social Mobility

• Upward– College degree or higher-paying job

• Downward– Drop out of school, losing a job or divorce

• Structural social mobility– Changes in society or national economic trends

• Intragenerational mobility– Change in social position during a person’s lifetime

• Intergenerational mobility– Upward or downward movement that takes place across

generations within a family

The American Dream• Earnings have stalled for many workers

– From 1974-2004, worker income rose slightly, even as the number of work hours increased and cost of necessities went way up.

• More jobs offer little income– Many industrial jobs have gone overseas,

reducing the number of high-paying US jobs.

• Young people are remaining at (and returning) home (Boomerang Kids)– For the first time ever, half of Americans age 18

to 24 are living with their parents.

Extent of Poverty• Relative poverty–The deprivation of some

people in relation to those who have more • Absolute poverty–A deprivation of

resources that is life-threatening• Poverty line

– About three times what the government estimates people must spend for food.

– The income of the average poor family is 60% of this amount.

• Extent of US poverty– 12.6% (37 million) are impoverished.

Demographics of Poverty

• Age– In 2005, 35% of US poor were children.

• Race and ethnicity– Two-thirds of all poor are white.– In 2005, 25% of all African Americans and 21% of Hispanics

were poor.

• Gender– 61% of poor are women.– Women who head households are at high risk of poverty.

Explaining Poverty

• Blame the poor – The poor are mostly responsible for their own poverty.– Culture of poverty produces a self-perpetuating cycle of

poverty– Time limits for welfare

• Blame society– Little opportunity for work– William Julius Wilson: Little opportunity for work; not enough

jobs to support families

Gender Stratification

Gender and Inequality

• Gender–Personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being female and male

• Gender stratification–Unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women

• Male-female biological differences

PatriarchyA form of social organization in which males dominate

females

• Matriarchy–A form of social organization in which females dominate males

• Sexism–Belief that one sex or the other is innately inferior or superior

• Institutional sexism–Found throughout the economy

• The costs of sexism–Sexism limits half of the human population.

• Inevitability of patriarchy–Most sociologists believe gender is socially constructed and can be changed.

Social Stratification

• 59% of all women work.• Women hold primary responsibility for

household duties.• Our culture gives more responsibility for

parenting to women.• On average, women earn 77 cents for every

dollar earned by men.• Some work defined as “men’s work”

Race and EthnicityChapter 14

Definitions

• Race–A socially constructed category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important

• Sociologists consider racial terms misleading at best and harmful at worst. – No society contains biologically “pure” people.

– There are only three major classifications: Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid

Definitions• Ethnicity–a shared cultural heritage

– The United States is a multiethnic society

– Like race, ethnicity is socially constructed

• Remember: Race is constructed from biological traits and ethnicity is constructed from cultural traits.

• For most people, ethnicity is more complex than race and more significant in terms of social identity.

Minority

• General characteristics– Distinct identity: Race, sex, sexual orientation,

the poor– Subordination: Often saddled with lower status

• Stereotypes, stigma, and labeling

• Group size not always a factor– Women in US outnumber men.– Blacks in South Africa outnumber whites.

Any category of people distinguished by physical or cultural difference that a society sets apart and

subordinates

Prejudice

• Prejudice–A rigid and unfair generalization about an entire category of people.

• Stereotype–An exaggerated description applied to every person in some category

Measuring Prejudice

The Social Distance Scale1. Student opinion shows a trend toward greater social

acceptance.

2. People see fewer differences among various minorities.

3. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, might have reduced social acceptance of Arabs and Muslims.

Racism

The belief that one racial category is innately superior or inferior to another

• Racism has been widespread throughout US history where ideas about racial inferiority supported slavery.

• Overt racism in the US has decreased, but remains a serious social problem.

Theories of Prejudice

• Scapegoat theory– Disadvantaged people who unfairly blame

minorities for their own problems

• Authoritarian personality theory– Rigid moralists who see things in “black & white”

• Culture theory

– Everyone has some prejudice because it’s embedded in culture.

Theories of Prejudice

• Conflict theory– Self-justification for the rich and powerful in the

United States

– Minorities might cultivate climate of race consciousness in order to win greater power and privileges.

Discrimination

• Institutional prejudice and discrimination– Bias built into the operation of society’s institutions

• Carmichael and Hamilton: People are slow to condemn or even recognize institutional prejudice and discrimination because it often involves respected public officials and long-established practices.

Unequal treatment of various categories of people

The Vicious Circle

1. Prejudice and discrimination begin as ethnocentric attitudes.

2. As a result, groups can be placed in a situation where they’re socially disadvantaged and labeled.

3. A group’s situation, over time, is thus explained as a result of innate inferiority rather than looking at the social structure. The cycle then repeats itself.

Figure 14.2 Prejudice and Discrimination: The Vicious Circle

Prejudice and discrimination can form a vicious circle, perpetuating themselves.

Patterns of Interaction

• Pluralism–A state in which people of all races and ethnicities are distinct but have equal social standing

• Assimilation–The process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture

• Miscegenation–Biological reproduction by partners of different racial categories

Patterns of Interaction

• Segregation–The physical and social separation of categories of people

– De facto- just happens

– De Jure- by law or policy

• Genocide–The systematic killing of one category of people by another

The END!!!