Sociology

Semester Exam Review

What Is Sociology?

“...The systematic study of human society ”– Systematic

• Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior

– Human society• Group behavior is primary focus; how groups influence individuals

and vice versa

– At the “heart of sociology”• The sociological perspective which offers a unique view of society

The Sociological PerspectivePeter Berger

• Seeing the general in the particular– Sociologists identify general social patterns in the

behavior of particular individuals.

• Seeing the strange in the familiar– Giving up the idea that human behavior is simply a

matter of what people decide to do– Understanding that society shapes our lives

Sociological Perspective and Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mills

C. Wright Mills’Sociological Imagination

• The power of the sociological perspective lies not just in changing individual lives but in transforming society.

• Society, not people’s personal failings, is the cause of social problems.

• The sociological imagination transforms personal troubles into public issues.

Sociological Theory

• Theory: a statement of how and why facts are related– Explains social behavior to the real world

• Theoretical paradigm: A set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking– Structural-functional– Social-conflict– Symbolic-interaction

Structural-Functional TheoryA theoretical framework in

which society is viewed as a whole unit, composed of interrelated parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium

Also known as functionalism and structural functionalism

Functional Analysis

• Focuses on Social Structure and Social Function

• Structure- stable pattern of behavior

• Function: consequences of patterns for operation of society

• Argues that Social Order is based on Social Consensus

Social Functions

• Manifest Functions- Intended

• Latent Functions- Unintended

• Dysfunctions- Problematic

Critical Evaluations of Functional Analysis

• Tends to be conservative

• Tends to dismiss change-”systems”

• Overlooks the negative

Structural-Functional Paradigm• The basics

– A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole

– Views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability

• Key elements:– Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of

social behavior found in social institutions.– Social function refers to the consequences for the operation

of society as a whole.

Conflict Theory

A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as being composed of groups

competing for scarce resources.

Conflict Theory

• Focuses on Social Tension and Social Change

• Is macro level orientation• Argues that Social Order is maintained

by direct or indirect exercise of power• “Marginality”-those on the fringe of

society• Originated from the work of Karl Marx

Social-Conflict Paradigm• The basics:

– A macro-oriented paradigm– Views society as an arena of inequality that generates

conflict and social change

• Key elements:– Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the

expense of the majority.– Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to

social inequality.– Dominant group vs. disadvantaged group relations

Symbolic-Interaction Theory

A theoretical perspective that focuses on how

people use symbols to establish meaning,

develop their views of the world, and

communicate with one another.

Interactionism

• Focuses on details of everyday life and interaction between people, and on how meaning is assigned to human interaction

• Is micro level orientation• Argues that society responds through

symbolic interaction• Originated from the studies of Max Weber

and George Herbert Mead

Who’s Who in the Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm• Max Weber

– Understanding a setting from the people in it

• George Herbert Mead– How we build personalities from social

experience

• Erving Goffman– Dramaturgical analysis

• George Homans & Peter Blau– Social-exchange analysis

Critical Evaluation• Structural-Functional

– Too broad, ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender, focuses on stability at the expense of conflict

• Social-Conflict– Too broad, ignores how shared values and mutual

interdependence unify society, pursues political goals

• Symbolic-Interaction– Ignores larger social structures, effects of culture,

factors such as class, gender & race

Sociological Investigation

A logical system that derives knowledgeFrom direct, systematic observation

Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation

• Scientific sociology– The study of society based on systematic

observation of social behavior– Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with

our senses

• Interpretive sociology– The study of society that focuses on the meanings

people attach to their social world

• Critical sociology– The study of society that focuses on the need for

change

Causation• Cause and effect

– A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another (Hard to establish)

• Correlation– A relationship by which two or more variables change

together (direct/inverse- positive/negative)• Spurious correlation

– An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable

• Types of variables– Independent: The variable that causes the change – Dependent: The variable that changes (its value

depends upon the independent variable)

Variables

• Dependent Variable- The variable that changes due to the

• Independent Variable- the variable that causes the change

• Dependent: Grade on the Exam

• Independent(s): The amount of time studying, reading level, energy level, grades on previous tests, etc.

Spurious Correlations

Shoe Size & Math Skill

Scientific Sociology Terminology

• Concepts–A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form

• Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case

• Measurement–A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case

• Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable

Scientific Sociology Terminology

• Reliability–Consistency in measurement– Does an instrument provide for a consistent

measure of the subject matter?

• Validity–Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure– Does an instrument actually measure what it sets

out to measure?

If measurement is not Reliable, then it can’t be Valid- but needs to be both to be of any value

Scientific Sociology Terminology

• Objectivity– A state of personal neutrality in conducting research

• Value-free research– Weber said sociologists should strive to be

dispassionate and detached.

• Replication– Repetition of research by other investigators– Helps limit distortion caused by personal values

Limitations of Scientific Sociology

• Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions.

• The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied.

• Social patterns change.• Sociologists are part of the world they study,

making value-free research difficult.

Miligram's Experiment

• The Original Miligram Experiment (1961) • VideoSift: Online Video *Quality Control

• Administered electric shocks to “Subjects”

Sociological Research Methods A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research

• Experiment–A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions

• Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated guess)

• Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment

• “Hawthorne effect”– A change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studied

Control

• To be certain that the change in the dependent variable was due to the exposure to the independent variable, the researcher must keep constant other factors that might intrude.

• One method is to break group into experimental and control groups.– Experimental group is exposed to independent

variable.– Control group is exposed to a placebo.

Survey ResearchA research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview

• Population– The people who are the focus of the research

• Sample– The part of the population that represents the

whole

• Random Sample– Drawing a sample from a population so that every

element of the population has an equal chance of being selected

CultureThe values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects

that together form a people’s

way of life

Terminology

• Nonmaterial culture– The intangible world of ideas created by

members of a society

• Material culture– The tangible things created by members

of a society

Terminology• Culture shock

– Disorientation due to the inability to make sense out of one’s surroundings

• Domestic and foreign travel

• Ethnocentrism– A biased “cultural yardstick”-Evaluate

based on your own Culture’s standards

• Cultural relativism– More accurate understanding-cultural

perspective-context of the culture

Symbols

• Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture

• Societies create new symbols all the time.

• Reality for humans is found in the meaning things carry with them.

– The basis of culture; makes social life possible

Symbols

• People must be mindful that meanings vary from culture to culture.

• Meanings can even vary greatly within the same groups of people.– Fur coats, Confederate flags, etc.

Values and Beliefs

• Values– Culturally defined standards of

desirability, goodness, and beauty, which serve as broad guidelines for social living. Values support beliefs.

• Beliefs– Specific statements that people hold to

be true.– Particular matters that individuals

consider to be true or false.

Norms

• Types– Proscriptive

• Should-nots, prohibited– Prescriptive

• Shoulds, prescribed like medicine

• Mores and Folkways– Mores (pronounced "more-rays")

• Widely observed and have great moral significance

– Folkways• Norms for routine and casual interaction

Rules and expectations by which society guides its members’ behavior

Social Control

• Guilt– A negative judgment we make about

ourselves

• Shame– The painful sense that others

disapprove of our actions

Various means by which members of society encourage conformity to norms

Cultural Diversity

• Subculture–Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of society’s population.

• Counterculture–Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society.

Terms• Culture integration

– The close relationships among various elements of a cultural system• Example: Computers and changes in our language

• Culture lag– The fact that some cultural elements change more

quickly than others, which might disrupt a cultural system• Example: Medical procedures and ethics

• Cultural universals– Traits that are part of every known culture; includes family, funeral rites, and jokes

SocializationThe lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential

and learn culture

Social ExperienceSocialization• The lifelong social experience by which

individuals develop their human potential and learn patterns of their culture

Personality• A person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking,

feeling, and acting– Could a person’s personality develop without social

interaction?

Nature and Nurture• Biological sciences–The role of nature

– Elements of society have a naturalistic root.

• Social sciences–The role of nurture– Most of who and what we are as a species is

learned, or social in nature.– Behaviorism

• Nature or nurture?– It is both, but from a sociological perspective,

nurture matters more.

Social IsolationEffect on nonhuman primates: Harlows’ experiments

• Six months of complete isolation was enough to disturb development.

Effect on children: Anna and Isabelle• Years of isolation left both children damaged and only

capable of approximating a normal life after intensive rehabilitation.

Genie• Somewhat less isolated, but suffered permanent

disabilities

Theories

• Freud- Id, Ego, Superego-Psycho-sexual stages

• Piaget- Cognitive development

• Kohlberg- Moral Reasoning

• Mead/ Cooley- “Self”/ “Looking glass self”

Erik Erickson

• Psycho-Social stages• Critics: Not everyone confronts the

challenges in the same order.• Not clear if failure to meet one challenge

predicts failure in other stages• Do other cultures share Erickson’s definition

of successful life?

This theory views personality as a lifelong process (8 Stages) and success

at one stage prepares us for the next challenge.

Agents of Socialization

• The Family• The School• The Peer Group• The Mass Media• Church• Government

The Family

• Most important agent – A loving family produces a happy well-

adjusted child.

• Parental attention is very important– Bonding and encouragement

• Household environment– Stimulates development

• Social position– Race, religion, ethnicity, class

Socialization and Life Course

• Each stage of life is linked to the biological process.

• Societies organize the life course by age.

• Other factors shape lives: race, class, ethnicity, and gender.

• Stages present problems and transitions that involve learning.

Social Interaction In Everyday LifeThe process by which people act and

react in relation to others

Social Interaction

• The symbolic interaction paradigm– What are the other two major theories?– Do either have implications here?

• Humans rely on social structure to make sense out of everyday situations.

Status

• A social position that a person holds

• Status set– All the statuses held at one time

• Dance partner• Boss• Friend• Harley club member• Sports participant• Business manager

Type of Status

• Ascribed: Involuntary positions

• Achieved: Voluntary positions

Often the two types work together. What we’re ascribed often helps us achieve other statuses.

•Master status: Has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life.

Role

• Role set– A number of roles attached to a single status– Example: status of mother

• Disciplinarian

• Sports authority

• Dietitian

• Dr. Mom

• Pretty mom

The behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status

Role Conflict and Role Strain• Role conflict

– Involves two or more statuses• Example: Conflict between role expectations of a

police officer who catches her own son using drugs at home–mother and police officer

• Role strain– Involves a single status

• Example: Manager who tries to balance concern for workers with task requirements–office manager

Figure 6.1 Status Set and Role SetsA status set includes all the statuses a person holds at a given time. The status set defines “who we are” in society. The many roles linked to each status define “what we do.”

Role Exit

• Role exit: Becoming an “ex”– Disengaging from social roles can be very traumatic

without proper preparation.

• The process of becoming an “ex” – Doubts form about ability to continue with a certain role.– Examination of new roles leads to a turning point at

which time one decides to pursue a new direction. – Learning new expectations associated with new role.– Past role might influence new self.

The Social Constructionof Reality

• The process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction.

• “Street smarts”• The Thomas theorem

– Situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences

• Ethnomethodology– The study of the way people make sense of their

everyday surroundings– Explores the process of making sense of social

encounters

Goffman’s Dramaturgical Analysis

• Presentation of self or impression management– Efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of

others.

• Role performance includes– Stage setting– Use of props: costume, tone of voice, gesture– Example: Going to the doctor and playing the

expected patient role.

Examining social interaction in terms of theatrical performances