CHAPTER V

SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF MARKAPURREGION

HinterlandLocation and physical settingSoilsRainfall and TemperatureDemographic backgroundLiteracyOccupational classificationLand use patternsIrrigation source and extent of irrigationCropping patternsAgro-based industriesTownLocation and physical settingHistory and growth of townDemographic growth of townLiteracyClimate, rainfall and temperatureMedical and health facilitiesTransport and communicationOccupational classification

The following mandals constitute the hinterland of Markapur town.

They are Markapur, Tarlupadu, Konakonamitla, Donakonda, Cumbum, Pedda

Araveedu, Dornala, Ardhaveedu and Yerragonda palem.

Location and Physical Setting:

The present study area falls in the upland plateau of the Prakasham

district. Prakasham is one of the newly formed district in Andhra Pradesh,

with parts from Kurnool, Guntur and Nellore districts. The district was

formed on 2nd February, 1970. It is bounded on the north by Guntur

district, on the south by Cuddapah and Nellore districts, on the west by

Kurnool district and on the east by Bey of Bengal. The district lies

between 15°301 and 16° north latitude and 78°431 and 80°25 l eastern

longitude. The western portion of the district which constitute Markapur

region lies in an upland area. It contains large t racts of low shrubs and

forests, diversified with rocky hills and stony plains which form a

distinct feature of the district. This western part was originally in

Kurnool district (which lies in Rayalaseema). As already mentioned it is

included in the Prakasham district (part of Andhra region). However,

Markapur region morphologically, historically, economically, politically

and culturally has more similarities and links with Rayalaseema region.

The western part of Markapur region in our present study with

Yerragonda palem, Dornala, Pedda araveedu and Ardhaveedu mandals is covered

by forests. They are the border foot hills of Eastern Ghats where

Nallamala forests exist.

93

93(a)

In the mandals to the east of Ifarkapur constituting Donakonda,

Tarlupadu, Konakonamitla and Markapur, much of the area is of hilly

terrain, with rocky soils and stony plains. The land surrounding slate

mines is uncultivable because of its rocky and hard nature thereby, the

land available for cultivation is less. Consequently, most of the land

holdings in the region are small and uneconomic.

Soils:

In the entire Markapur region 90 percent of the soils are red and the

remaining 10 percent are black. Much of these black soils are in Cumbum

and Tarlupadu mandals. The soils in the region are less fertile with poor

2ground water levels and are not suitable for gainful agriculture.

Climate and Rainfall:

As already mentioned the entire Markapur region falls in the rain

shadow region of Eastern Ghats, where the rainfall is less, uncertain and

erratic. Most of the rainfall occurs during the South-West Monsoon season

which s tar ts in the 2nd week of June and extends upto October. Droughts

are common in the region. The average rainfall of the district for the

decade 1981- 1991 is 751 mm (which itself is low) while that of Markapur3

region is 652mm. The rainfall is not sufficient to the needs of the

region and therefore very often exposed to droughts. The climate is

usually hot and humid. The temperatures are very high during summer which

go upto 45°C. The minimum and maximum temperatures recorded during 1993

are 15.6°C and 44.4°C respectively.

94

Demographic Background:

The total population of the hinterland according to 1991 census is

3,41,261. Of this 51 percent are males and 49 percent are females.

Further, 20 percent are SCs and 4 percent are STs.

The total number of households are 66,850. The average size of the

household is five.

The population density of the region is 134.

Literacy:

Of the total population of 3,41,261, 26 percent are literates. Within

this, 19 percent are males and 7 percent are females. And within the

literates the percentage of female literates is only 24 percent. This

shows that illiteracy is high in the region and is more predominant among

the females.

Occupational Classification:

Of the total population of 3,41,261, 46 percent are main workers, 3

percent are marginal workers and the remaining 51 percent are non-workers.

Of the 46 percent main workers, more than half of them, that is, 24

percent are agricultural labourers. The farmers' share accounted only 13

percent. The remaining 9 percent are distributed in various activities

like livestock, rearing, mining and quarrying, manufacturing, construction,

trade and commerce, and other services.

Surprisingly according to 1991 census, only 0.5 percent of the

population is shown working in mining and quarrying when the actual

95

condition is that of over 70 percent of population ranging between 30,000

to 40,000, from nearly 40 villages are dependent on slate mines for their

livelyhood. This shows the nature of record maintenance of registered

workers in the slate mines of Markapur region.

Another significant aspect to be noticed is that the number of

agricultural labourers is almost twice the number of cultivators, that is,

actual farmers. This may be because, due to the ungainful agricultural

conditions in the region, most of the marginal and small farmers are

converting themselves to agricultural labourers.

Land Use Pat tern:

The total geographical area of the Markapur hinterland is 10,67,774

acres.

From the table No. 5.1 we can observe that in the past seven years

there are no major changes in the land use patterns of Markapur region.

The only significant change is the decrease in the percentage of current

fallows from 6 to 2 in the recent years.

«The average figures of the seven years, from 1985-86 to 1991-92 would

give us better account of land use pattern in Markapur region. It is

evident from the table that 47 percent of the land is under forests. 12.5

percent under barren, uncultivable and cultivable waste. Nearly 11 percent

of land is under current and other fallow lands. Thereby, the net sown

area constitute only 2,05,722 acres, that is, nearly 20 percent of total

land.

96

Tabl* 9.1

LAND USE PATTERN IN MARKAPUR REGION(Percentages)

Yaar Total Geo-graphicalArea(•eras)

Forest Barren &uncultl-vable land

Permanentpastures

Land UnderMiac.Traaa

CultivablaWaste

Land Put Currant othar Mat Araa Araa Sown Totalto Non- Follow follow Sown Mora than CroppedAgrioul- land* lands Onoa Araatural Osas

1885-66 1021226 47

66-67 1021227 47

67-66 1022226 47

66-69 1021226 47

68-90 1021226 47

90-91 1067774 47.6

91-92 1067774 47.6

6

6

6

6

6

9

9

2

2

2

2

3.6

4

3

1

1

1

1

.6

.6

1

6

6.5

6

5

4

4.6

5.5

7.6

7.5

7.5

7.6

7

6.6

6

6.5

6

8

6

5

3.5

2

6 19 2 21(212297)

6 18 1 19(196049)

5.5 17 3 20(202672)

5 20.6 3 23.6(239046)

6 21 2 23(230164)

5 20.6 2.6 23(243476)

6.5 19.5 2.6 22(233969)

1034666 47 2.6 5.5 5.5 19.5 21.6(222623)

aouroai Compiled frost tha Data avalable at Chief Planning Offioar, Ongole.

7 5 217

Thus, much of the land in the llarkapur region is either covered under

forests or wasted as barren, uncultivable and cultivable waste. Further,

due to low rainfall and drought conditions, a significant portion of the

land is left over as fallow lands. This might be also due to less

fertility and ungainful agricultural conditions existing in the region. As

the rainfall is less and due to lack of irrigation facilities, the area

sown more than once is as low as only 22,890 acres, that is, 2 percent of

total land.

Land Holding Details:

From the table 5.2 we can observe that, of the 61,995 holdings in

Markapur region, 63.5 percent holdings are of small and marginal farmers,

34.5 percent are of semi-medium and medium farmers and the rest 2 percent

of the holdings are of large farmers.

Table: 5.2

Land Holdings in Markapur Region(in acres)

T y p e of LandHo l d i n g

Number ofHo 1 dings

7. of t o t a lt o t a lholdi ngs

Area undert h i scategory

% oft o t a larea

Marginal and Small 39,525 63.5 94,198

Semi-medium and

medium 21 . 434

Large 1 , 036

Total 61,995

34.5 1,98,849

20 37.413

100 3.30.457

28 .5

6 0 . 0

11 .5

100

Source: Compiled from the Agricultural Census, 1991. Office ofthe Chief Planning Officer, Prakashazn District.

98

Though 63.5 percent of the holdings are with marginal and small

farmers, they own only 28.5 percent of the total area of the land.

Semi-medium and medium farmers hold 60 percent of the land and the large

farmers who own only 2 percent of the holdings covers 11.5 percent of the

land.

Irrigation Sources and Extent of Irrigation:

Table 5.3 shows that 57 percent of the irrigated area in the Markapur

region is through dug wells. Other major irrigation sources are Tanks and

Tube wells where 21 percent and 18.5 percent of Gross irrigated area is

under these sections respectively. Only 2 percent of the gross irrigated

area is under canal irrigation.

In fact the gross area irrigated is only 5.5 percent of the total

geographical area. Thus, the irrigation level is very less. And whatever

little irrigation there is, is mainly through dug wells, tube wells and

village tanks.

If we observe the changes in the irrigation sources over different

years, we can notice that, while the percentage of irrigated area through

dug wells is decreasing, there is gradual increase in the area irrigated

through tube wells. This shows that there is increasing use of tube wells

with the wide use of electric motors. However, the role of tanks in

irrigation is varied in different years since this is based on extent of

rainfall in each year. The more the rainfall, the more the tank irrigation

will be. The only river flowing through the region is Gundlakamma which is

no way useful to the region's irrigation purposes.

99

Table 5 . 3

IRRIOATION SOURCES AND EXTENT OF IRRIOATION IN MARKAPUR REGIONC Parc«ntaga>a)

Yaar Canals Tanka Tubavalls Dugwalls OtharSouroas

Nat IrrigatedAraa

% of Nat sown araa (or)X of Nat Croppad araa

1966-66 2 2.6 1.3 94 .2

66-67 6 1 2.4 91.6 .1

67-66 - 28 16 66 1

66-69 4 42 14 39 1

69-90 1.6 20 28 46 4.6

90-91 1 26.8 31.6 36 3

91-92 1 23 37.6 36 2.6

34686 17.7

20794 11.4

27334 16.6

47890 23

46804 22

42600 19.5

44686 21.7

21 18.6 67 1.5 37713 18.7

iouroa- Coapllad froa tha Data availabla at Chiaf Planning Offlcar, Ongola.

2

Cropping Pattern:

Of the total 1,97,728 acres of net cropped area, 48.5 percent of the

area is under food crops and 41.6 percent is under commercial crops.

Further, 1.3 percent is under vegetables and the rest 8 percent is under

other miscellaneous crops.

Of the 48.5 percent under food crops, 21 percent is under major

millets, 11 percent is under minor millets and the remaining 8.5 percent is

under cereals mainly rice.

Of the 41.5 percent under commercial crops, most of it is under

groundnut, cotton, tobacco and chillies.

Table 5.4

AREA UNDER PRINCIPAL CROPS IN MARKAPUR REGION(percentages)

Year Rice Jowar Bajra Cotton Tobacco Groundnut Total

1985-86 2.S 4.6 35.5 4.01986-87 1.5 42.5 39.0 1.51987-88 23.0 35.0 28.5 6.01988-89 28.5 31.0 26.0 6.01989-90 13.5 34.0 31.0 8.01990-91 18.0 23.0 22.0 11.01991-92 17.5 16.5 20.0 16.0

10.0 2.0 63,4948.5 7.0 68,2874.0 3.5 73,2626.5 2.0 1,07.1747.5 6.0 93,8668.0 18.0 1,20,1329.0 21.0 1.14,060

Average 15 32.5 29 7.5 7 . 5 8. 5 91 .468

Source: Compiled from the Data available at Chief Planning Officer,Prakasam D i s t r i c t

Thus, the cropping pattern in the llarkapur region shows that, the

majority of the region is under food crops particularly under millets which

does not generate any marketable surplus. Further, the various commercial

crops grown in the region also does not generate any significant

agro-processing industries except a few groundnut and rice mills.

101

The main reasons for the low efficiency of agriculture in llarkapur

region are unfavourable natural conditions (example poor soils, less &

erratic rainfall, undulating nature of terrain in some areas), traditional

farming practices of the community characterised by little use of physical

inputs such as irrigation, fertilizers, improved seeds. Also inadequate

provision of agriculture infrastructure. Only a small portion of the

cultivated area is under commercial crops like tobacco, cotton, groundnut.

In this situation little cash income arrives to the farmer. The cropping

pattern has continued without change for many years. The agriculture

production in many parts of region has touched a low leaving the farmer

with little or no incentives to make additional savings and investments.

This state of agriculture is responsible for the backwardness of the

region.

The cropping pattern of the region is characterized by mono-culture in

rice with little diversification. In years of crop failures and famines,

there is exodus of people from the rural areas to mining and industrial

areas.

However, the region is not without areas of progressive farming

although they constitute a small fraction of the total area. In Cumbum and

parts of Tarlupadu mandals where fertile black soils are existing, there

is increasing trend towards cultivation of tobacco and cotton.

The cropping pattern is characterized by very little diversification.

The holdings are of very small size and can hardly sustain an average

102

family. Also accompanied by this agricultural backwardness is the social

backwards interms of health, education and inadequate transport and

communication facilities. The existing transport facilities are deficient

and do not provide satisfactory accessibility to many areas of the region.

Agro-based Industries:

As we have already discussed, Markapur region is marked with

subsistence agricultural economy. Besides paddy, predominantly subsistence

crops like millets and pulses are grown thereby the need

for agro-processing is minimum. There are 30 rice mills in the hinterland

besides 8 rice mills in town. Further, there are 7 ground nut mills in the

hinterland. Though cotton and sugarcane are the main commercial crops,

the agro-processing units are in towns like Guntur and Narasaraopet which

are located 100 kms. away from Markapur. Another commercial crop is

oranges which is marketed in Vijayawada, Hyderabad and Nagapur. Thus the

very nature of agriculture in Markapur generates less scope for marketing

and processing.

The major employment source in the hinterland is slate mining and

slate manufacturing, which is discussed in detail in the following chapter.

103

MARKAPURTOWN

Location:

Markapur is a small town situated in the eastern part of Peninsular

India. It is located on the Guntakal-Guntur broad guage line. It is the

head quarters of the Revenue Division in the district and is about 80 kms.

South-West of Ongole, the district head quarters. It is located 350 kms.

from Hyderabad, the capital of Andhra Pradesh.

History and Growth of Town:

The most important aspect behind the history of Markapur town is the

existence of Lord Chenna Kesava Shrine. This temple was built in the

medieval period. Markapur is named after a shepherd girl, 'Marika', by

whom the temple here is said to have been founded in the fourteenth century

A.D. However, Marikapuram village began to develop from early nineteenth

century, when an officer of Gajapathi Raja by name Telugu Rayudu built the

tank here as well as the large Telugu Rayudu Tank in the Nallamala valleyg

in the north-west corner of the mandal.

During 1920s and 1930s Markapur is a small village with a population

of around 6OOO. While probing into the history of town, discussions with

senior citizens of town brought to light some interesting facts. Markapur

was basically a local pilgrimage centre and infact the growth of village is

due to migration of Vaishyas to this village to establish small shops

considering its pilgrimage importance. Its importance grew with the9

completion of nine storied Raja Gopuram in mid 1930s. Another reason for

development of Markapur as pilgrimage centre is of its location on the way

104

to another major pilgrimage centre, Srisailam. People visit this temple

and go to Srisailam which is 80 km away from Markapur. However, discovery

of slate stone in the surrounding areas of Ifarkapur during 1920s changed

the entire fortune of liarkapur town.

llarkapur for the first time on 1st October^ 1964 was declared as grade

III municipality town. Later on, on 2nd May, 1984 it was upgraded as grade

10II municipality town. The area of the town is 28.77 square kilometers.

Markapur is the largest slate manufacturing centre in India and produces

nearly eighty percent of the slates manufactured in India. Presently, it

is the head quarters of the Revenue Division.

Demographic Growth of Town:

The total population of the Markapur town according to 1991 census is

45,563 of which 51 percent are males and the remaining 49 percent are

females. The population growth of Markapur town since 1951 is presented in

the below given table.

Table:5.S

POPULATION GROWTH OF MARKAPUR

Year Populat ion Decade variation Growth rate(Z)

1951 11.794 3.3481961 16,665 4.8711971 22,263 5.5981981 34,381 12.1181991 45.563 11.182

39.641.333.654.432.5

Source: Census of India, 1991.

105

From the table 5.5 we can observe that, the decadal variation of

population of Markapur indicates that there are wide fluctuations in the

growth rate of Markapur town. During the last four decades the population

of Markapur increased from 11,794 to 45,536 registering a growth ra te of

286 percent.

In the history of Markapur only in the decade 1971-81 the growth rate

of town was above 50 percent. However, again in 1991 census, the growth

rate has fallen down from 54 percent to 32 percent. Also, there is

decrease even in the absolute increase of population between 1981-91 when

compared to that of 1971-81 decade.

The major section of population in Markapur town are Vaishyas. They

constitute 30% of the total population of Markapur. Other important

sections are Muslims (207.), Balijas (157.), Reddies (157.).12 Primarily

Vaishyas are the most important dominant section engaged fully in all

commercial activities like hotel industry, clothing, general (kirana)

stores and others besides slate industry. Muslims are mostly engaged in

automobile industry besides slate industry.

In Markapur, according to 1991 census reports, 8 percent of people

belong to Scheduled Castes and 1 percent to Scheduled Tribes.

Population Density:

The population density of Markapur town was 773 in 1971. It rose to

1,194 in the year 1981. According to the 1991 census, the population

density of Markapur is 1,582.

106

Literacy:

In Markapur, nearly 48 percent of population are literates. There is

one degree and intermediate college at Markapur. Further, there are two

high schools, three middle schools and thirty one primary schools. Besides

this, there are eight English medium convent schools run by various private

organizations. There is one high school for the rehabilitation of child

labours of slate industry run by Assist India, a voluntary organization in

association with Ministry of Labour, Government of India.

Medical and Health Facilities:

There are two major hospitals functioning in Markapur town. They are

the government hospital with 30 beds and an Employees State. Insurance

13(E.S.I) hospital serving as an out patient unit. Further, there are 12

private nursing homes functioning in the town. As many as 13 medical shops

exist in Markapur which supply the required medicines to the people of the

region.

Transport and Communication:

Markapur is located on the route which links Rayalaseema region with

Andhra region. All the buses of Rayalaseema travelling towards Andhra

region pass through Markapur. But, most of these buses are night services

besides a few day services. Further, this town lies on Vijayawada-Guntakal

broad guage railway route.

The Markapur APSRTC Depot daily operates sixty three buses to the

nearby mandals and towns. The total income of the Markapur depot per month

107

is around thirty lakh rupees. Markapur draws people mostly from within 20

14to 25 kms. radius of the town.

There is one Telephone exchange and Telegraph office in Markapur.

However, no S.T.D. facility is available. The number of Telephone

connections existing in town are 297. Recently a radio station is opened

in Markapur.

Occupational classification:

In Markapur, of the total population of 45,563, 31 percent (14,245)

are main workers and 0.5 percent (248) are marginal workers and the rest 68

percent (31,070) are non-workers.

Of the 31 percent of the main workers, a majority of them (9.5%) are

engaged in household manufacturing sector, while only marginal sections

(1%) are engaged in non-household manufacturing sector. Trade and commerce

constitute the next important sector where 6 percent of workers are

engaged. Another 6 percent of workers are engaged in other miscellaneous

services. Also a significant portion (4 percent) of them are agricultural

labours.

Commerce and Trade:

The structure of enterprise (commerce) is primarily defined by the

market economy and its specific local manifestation. Business in Markapur

is of subsistence type. The town business in general is of anarchic nature

and the merchants feel there is high competition among themselves.

108

Most shops are small and capital is limited. Much of the commerce and

trade is carried out in the shopping streets established around the temple

located at the heart of the town. Agro based servicing and supplying

units, fertilizer shops, electric goods, cloth stores, medical shops and

general (kirana) stores constitute the major section of trade and commerce

units. Since, the agriculture in the region is of subsistence type, the

business done by the few agro based units like fertilizer units (11),

servicing units is also seasonal and weak. The number of cloth shops rose

from 22 in 1950 to 64 in 1993. However, there are only three big shops

which are existing from 1960s. Since the majority of people in the region

are workers of slate industry and small and marginal farmers, the buying

capacity of the people is weak thereby the trade and commerce of the town

is weak and is of subsistence type.

Table:5.6Export, Import and Manufacture of Three Most Important Commodities ofMarkapur

Year Import Export Manufacture

1981 S l a t e f ramesS l a b sCountry wine

s 1 a t e sAgarbathisCotton

S la t e sAgarbath i sTooth Powder

S o u r c e : Town D i r e c t o r y o f Andhra P r a d e s h , Census o f I n d i a , 1 9 8 1 .

Any discussion on the commerce and trade of Markapur has to

incorporate the role of Vaishyas, the dominant business community in

Markapur. However, rarely a mention is made of the economic importance or

18social relevance of the present day bania castes. In Markapur, Vaishyas

comprises the largest, most influential and wealthiest segment of the

resident population. The largest single group after Vaishyas is the Muslim

109

community which account for slightly over 20 percent.

Local people say that Vaishyas and Brahmins are anti-Muslim because

these castes mostly retain the spirit of Hinduism in social habits and

ideals and therefore are inimical to Islam. In Markapur, the leading

Vaishaya business men have affiliation either towards Congress or Telugu

Desam parties. However, they are more oriented towards Hinduism and have

19strong sympathy towards Bharathiya Janata Party.

The antagonism between Vaishyas and Muslims in Markapur is not totally

communal or religious but partly due to political and business competition.

Some of the Muslims do own slate factories besides they have monopoly on

slate transporting. Although a good deal of overlapping exists in the

nature of their commercial ventures, Muslims and Hindus do tend to

specialize their economic activities. Vaishyas mostly concentrate in

general trade, i.e. kirana shops, cloth stores, electric shops, oil trade,

hotel industry besides dominating in the slate manufacturing. Muslims

mostly are engaged in the automobile industry.

Although most of the Vaishyas like to start a new business, very few

wanted to risk the capital that such undertaking would require. This is

accepted by one leading Vaishya Slate industrialist in Markapur, Sudhakar,

where he says "Vaishyas in Markapur though have lot of capital, rarely

venture to invest in any activity other than slate industry, or on any

other new activity within slate industry". Thereby, though there is

declining trend of slates, still many stick to slate business with little

capital investment. However, our interviewee, that is, Sudhakar is a

110

masters graduate in commerce thereby convinced his father to invest money

in starting a new design tiles industry, particularly of green colour which

has greater market in European countries.

Markapur Vaishyas tendency of non investment in new avenues indicate

the subsistence-type thinking that forms their business procedure.

Vaishyas are chary of investment and risk taking. They are greatly

restrained, have conservative familial subsistence orientation of

individual businesses. They all complain of lack of investment capital,

whereas their neighbours always accuse them of having lakhs of rupees

hoarded.

Thus, the "profit motive" among the local merchants and particularly

among Vaishyas has taken an involuted form in a high rate of savings and

business chicanery rather than an outward manifestation in large business

investment and expansion.

This may be one of the important reason for outsiders investing in the

Markapur design tiles industries. To mention, Venkateshwara design tiles

industry, the largest design tiles industry in Markapur, belongs to Manik

Reddy, who hails from Telangana region in Andhra Pradesh. Further, other

design tiles units also belongs to non-local people.

Ill

Notes:

1Hand Book of Statistics, 1989-90, compiled by Office of the Chief PlanningOfficer, Prakasham district, p xv.

ndandal Development Reports, Government, of Andhra Pradesh, compiled by ChiefPlanning Officer, Prakasham District. 1987.

3Hand Book of Statistics, op.cit., 1989-90, p 49.4Ibid, p 47.

Field notes. Interviews with Gunman, President, Slate Mine WorkersAssociation, Trade Union leaders viz.Nasariah, Ravindra, information providedby pamphlets of slate mine workers association, report submitted by slatemine workers to the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh when he visited Markapurin 1987. Also see Planning Commission report on Child Labour in SlateIndustry of Markapur, 1992, pp 9-10.

Hand book of Statistics, op.cit., 1992-93, p 48.

District Gazetteer, Kurnool district, 1951, p 52.g

Presently called as Cumbum tank, rated as one of the biggest tank in AndhraPradesh. Kurnool District Manual, 1886, pp 184-185.

9Narayana, the president of town chambers of trade and commerce, says thathe was nine years old when temple's Raja Gopuram was constructed.lt wasconstructed completely based on money made by people's contribution.People voluntarily participated in the construction activities. He says,he himself used to carry mud haskets and helped in the constructionactivities.

Administrative reports of Markapur Municipality, 1992-93, Office of theMunicipal Commissioner, Markapur.

Ibid. Also please see Planning Commission Report, 1992, op.cit. p 9.

field Notes. Interviews with Assistant Labour Officer, Revenue DivisionalOfficer, Municipal Commissioner, various persons engaged in slate industry,commerce & trade.

13Hand Book of Statistics, 1992-93, op.cit.. p 36.14Field Notes. Interviews with Manager, Assistant Manager. Traffic inspector.

APSRTC, Markapur.

Hand Book of Statistics, 1992-93. op.cit.. p 207.This information does not totally explain the ground level facts. This isbecause, the employees of slate factories and companies never reveal factsto any government officer for any official purpose. Also they stronglyinstruct all the slate workers never to spell out their work place and wagedetails.

Field Notes. Interview with Kesava Rao. General Secretary of Markapur ClolhMerchants Association.

18Zamindar to Ballot Box, Richard G Fox, 1969. p 4.

112

19General Secretary of Slate factory owners association is the active member oflocal R.S.S. unit. The interview with him was undertaken in the office ofthe newly constructing temple at the heart of the town. In the interviewingprocess I was patient enough to listen to his lecture on Hinduism, presentrole of youth to protect it before he actually started talking on thedetails of Markapur slate industry and other aspects.

113