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Journal of Sustainable Tourism

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Social responsibility and total quality in thehospitality industry: does gender matter?

Cristina Quintana-García, Macarena Marchante-Lara & Carlos G. Benavides-Chicón

To cite this article: Cristina Quintana-García, Macarena Marchante-Lara & Carlos G. Benavides-Chicón (2018) Social responsibility and total quality in the hospitality industry: does gender matter?,Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26:5, 722-739, DOI: 10.1080/09669582.2017.1401631

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2017.1401631

Published online: 30 Nov 2017.

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Social responsibility and total quality in the hospitality industry:does gender matter?

Cristina Quintana-Garc�ıaa, Macarena Marchante-Laraa and Carlos G. Benavides-Chic�onb

aDepartment of Economics and Business Administration, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain; bDepartment ofApplied Economics (Economic Structure), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain

ARTICLE HISTORYReceived 29 July 2016Accepted 20 October 2017

ABSTRACTThis empirical study examines the role of gender diversity in topmanagement teams (TMTs) and their impact on corporate socialresponsibility (CSR), which is an underexplored topic within the hotelsector. Based on stakeholder theory, we argue that the relationshipbetween gender diversity and hotel performance is indirect and mediatedby CSR. Our study also analyses how the implementation of total qualitymanagement (TQM) and CSR influences hotel stakeholder results, andhence business performance. Using a sample of Spanish hotels, weprovide evidence that gender diversity in TMTs increases the level ofimplementation of CSR within the hotel industry. The results show that theimpact of gender diversity on hotel performance is mediated by CSR. Thefindings also suggest that the adoption of TQM and CSR managementphilosophies improves the capacity of hotels to benefit their stakeholders,and that this improvement has a positive effect on hotel performance.

KEYWORDSTotal quality management;corporate socialresponsibility; hospitalityindustry; gender diversity;stakeholders; topmanagement teams

Introduction

The majority of research on gender diversity in the workplace has addressed the development offemale representation on corporate boards, or has analysed the hurdles that organizations have toovercome to achieve gender parity (Burke & Mattis, 2013). Few quantitative studies have investigatedgender diversity and its impact on corporate value creation. The current literature has mainlyaddressed the direct influence of female board directors on financial performance rather than onsocial performance.

Furthermore, there is no consensus on whether the presence of women at the top of the corpo-rate hierarchy improves firm performance. Although some studies have provided confirmatory evi-dence on this issue (Joecks, Pull, & Vetter, 2013; Olayemi Badru, Bagudu, & Alfa, 2015), other studieshave found a negative relationship (Adams & Ferreira, 2009; M�ınguez-Vera & Martin, 2011). In a com-prehensive survey of empirical studies, Rhode and Packel (2014) concluded that such a relationshiphas not been convincingly established. Terjesen, Sealy, and Singh (2009) and Zhang, Guo, and Mu(2016) reached similar conclusions.

Inconsistent findings are generally explained by different sample choices, various construct meas-ures, or even by differences in context (i.e. countries, industry) or variables (Zhang et al., 2016). Analternative explanation for these contrasting findings is that researchers have not adequately ana-lysed the relationship between gender diversity and firm performance. We argue that this relation-ship is not direct, but is mediated by specific firm practices. Taking into account previous studies that

CONTACT Macarena Marchante-Lara mmarchante@uma.es

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM, 2018VOL. 26, NO. 5, 722–739https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2017.1401631

have found that gender diversity positively affects actions related to corporate social responsibility(CSR) (Galbreath, 2016a; Harjoto, Laksmana, & Lee, 2015), we hypothesize that gender diversity in topmanagement teams (TMTs) has a positive influence on the implementation of CSR, which in turnenhances firm performance.

On the other hand, CSR and total quality management (TQM) are key management philosophiesin the hospitality industry. This sector faces huge challenges regarding changes in demand, increas-ing competition and globalization. The hotel industry is one of the sectors that can most benefitfrom the development of CSR due to the impact of this approach on its stakeholders. CSR is particu-larly relevant in the hotel sector because of fierce industry competition, human resource manage-ment and the impact of tourism on the local community, among other aspects. First, competitionamong hotels is quite intense; thus, CSR practices can be used as part of a hotel�s product differentia-tion strategy to boost its competitive advantage (Calveras, 2015) and may be an influential factor inthe client�s buying decision process (Su, Swanson, & Chen, 2015). Second, regarding human resourcemanagement, CSR practices have acquired a fundamental role in the hotel industry, which is charac-terized by being labour-intensive and having a high staff turnover (Zientara, Kujawski, & Bohdano-wicz-Godfrey, 2015). Finally, the success of tourism in any community requires the support of thecommunity�s residents (Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004). The degree of hospitality that residents extend tovisitors directly affects client satisfaction, expenditure levels and the willingness of tourists to revisitthe hotel or recommend the destination.

In addition, TQM in the hotel industry may guarantee client loyalty, client satisfaction and cost sav-ings (Harrington & Keating, 2006; Wang, Chen, & Chen, 2012). TQM and CSR could be simultaneouslyimplemented by hospitality organizations as part of a valuable firm strategy that improves hotel com-petitiveness and long-term business sustainability. Some studies have analysed TQM in the hospital-ity industry, particularly its influence on performance (Claver-Cort�es, Pereira-Moliner, Tar�ı, & Molina-Azor�ın, 2008; Prajogo & Sohal, 2006; Wang et al., 2012), and have obtained mixed results. Similarly,some studies on the relationship between CSR and financial performance have reported positive,neutral or even negative associations (e.g. Garay & Font, 2012). Therefore, the research questionshould not only be whether CSR and financial performance are linked, but also what the nature ofthat link is.

Moreover, studies on CSR practices implemented by hotels have mainly analysed their environ-mental impact, the communication of CSR policies, and the content and evolution of CSR reportingover time (Chung & Parker, 2010). Few studies have followed a comprehensive approach to CSR prac-tices in hospitality companies that take into account economic, environmental and social dimensions.

This study resolves these contradictory findings and advances the literature in at least four ways.First, we contribute to the existing literature by providing an empirical test of whether gender diver-sity and hotel performance are mediated by specific hotel practices. Given the growing importanceof CSR in the current hospitality corporate landscape (Calveras, 2015; Zientara et al., 2015), we analyseCSR as a mediating practice between gender diversity and hotel performance.

Second, we take a broader approach to CSR by taking into account its economic, social and envi-ronmental dimensions. The inconsistent evidence regarding the association between CSR and hotelperformance mentioned above may be due to the fact that researchers have not investigated themechanism through which CSR could be positively associated with hotel performance. We arguethat this relationship is indirect and that CSR influences the main hotel stakeholders (employees, cus-tomers and society), which in turn positively affects hotel performance. Consequently, we expandthe scarce literature on CSR practices in the hotel sector.

Third, we extend the upper echelons framework by taking into account gender diversity in TMTs(Galbreath, 2016b), since previous research on gender diversity in leadership positions and CSRmainly focused on the board of directors (Galbreath, 2016a; Harjoto et al., 2015; Hyun, Yang, Jung, &Hong, 2016; Set�o-Pamies, 2015).

Finally, this study also offers managerial contributions. The debate on quotas is relevant, forinstance, several countries, such as Norway, Spain and France, have adopted legislative initiatives to

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promote female representation on corporate boards (Rao & Tilt, 2016). However, women continue tobe underrepresented in leadership positions in most countries. Therefore, this study offers practicalinsights into why gender diversity may benefit firm performance.

The rest of this article is structured as follows. First, we describe the literature review and thehypotheses. Next, we explain the methodology employed in the empirical study and present theresults. Finally, we discuss the results and provide conclusions.

Literature review and hypotheses

Gender diversity and social responsibility

Boards of directors meet infrequently and generally contribute no more than two weeks a year totheir directorship duties. Therefore, boards may have limited ability to generate changes in the work-ing levels of organizations (Forbes & Milliken, 1999). As CSR involves changes and a complex coordi-nation across multiple functional areas, locations and regulatory jurisdictions (Galbreath, 2016b),TMTs may play a more important role in influencing CSR than members of the board of directors.

Additionally, according to the upper echelons theory (Carpenter, Geletkanycz, & Sanders, 2004;Hambrick & Mason, 1984), firms are a function of what their leaders think and believe because theymake most of the firm�s important strategic and organizational decisions. Based on this theory, weargue that gender diversity1 in TMTs will have a positive effect on corporate social performancewithin the hotel industry.

The literature on gender diversity at the top of the corporate hierarchy suggests that women havea positive influence on qualitative tasks, such as CSR control (Bilimoria, 2000; Nielsen & Huse, 2010).This reasoning is also supported by gender-related theories that propose that women are moresocially oriented, more ethically sensitive and empathetic than men (Hillman, Shropshire & Cannella,2007; Singh, Terjesen, & Vinnicombe, 2008). This finding is used as the conventional explanation ofwhy women leaders encourage the implementation of CSR (Hyun et al., 2016). For instance, gendersocialization theory suggests that men and women differ in their orientation towards moral princi-ples, mainly based on the view that women have better internalized communal and ethical valuesbecause of their social roles. Related studies indicate that a greater female presence on corporateboards leads to more civilized behaviour and sensitivity to different opinions (Bilimoria, 2000). Thus,gender diversity can be helpful in addressing CSR issues (Burgess & Tharenou, 2002).

Stakeholder theory offers additional reasons for the assumption that gender diversity will have apositive effect on CSR. This theory asserts that a firm has relationships with a broad set of stakehold-ers, defined as any individual or group, which can affect or be affected by the organization. Stake-holders include clients, employees, communities, regulators, the natural environment and othersbeyond shareholders (Freeman, 1994). This theory suggests that managers should make decisionsthat take into account the interests of all the stakeholders in a firm. In relation to this theory, theabove-mentioned characteristics of women may lead them to take the stakeholders’ interests intogreater consideration. Eagly and Carli (2003) found that women more frequently have a communalorientation, which includes being helpful, sympathetic, and interpersonally sensitive and nurturing.These more communal characteristics convey the idea that women leaders are more likely toacknowledge a broader range of stakeholders, unlike their male counterparts who are more focusedon shareholders and economic concerns (Zelechowski & Bilimoria, 2006).

Human capital theory also provides interesting insights. Specifically, women directors are morelikely to come from non-traditional professional backgrounds, such as community service organiza-tions or academia, and tend to have higher education degrees (Singh et al., 2008; Hillman et al.,2007). As argued by Boeker and Goodstein (1991), these backgrounds and experiences may result inwomen accommodating a broader range of stakeholders than their male counterparts.

Finally, differences in leadership styles may also contribute to the decision-making process. Somecontributions on gender-based differences in managerial behavioural tendencies have found that

724 C. QUINTANA-GARC�IA ET AL.

women may adopt masculine-type characteristics because these are more highly valued in leader-ship positions (Schein, Mueller, Lituchy, & Liu, 1996). This finding is supported by role congruity the-ory (Wood & Eagly, 2009), which states that prejudice arises from an incongruity between a groupstereotype and social role characteristics. This theory frames stereotype content in terms of agencyand communion, where communion (e.g. being helpful, sympathetic, nurturant) is the most impor-tant trait in female stereotype, and agency (e.g. being competitive, dominant, self-sufficient) is themost important trait in both leader and male stereotypes (Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011).Given that agentic qualities are ascribed more to men than women (Boulouta, 2013; Spence &Buckner, 2000), leadership is generally associated with masculinity. Therefore, prejudice towardfemale leaders appears to be based on the perceived incongruity between the characteristics ofwomen and the role required of leaders (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003).

Nonetheless, previous research has encountered that women adopt a more participative leader-ship style than men (Eagly et al., 2003). They tend to encourage open conversation so that the needsof a wide range of stakeholders are effectively met and consequently CSR issues are addressed(Nielsen & Huse, 2010). Thus, there is an apparent incompatibility between beliefs about what makesa leader and actions usually attributed to female behaviour. Ryan and Haslam (2007) found that theadoption of masculine characteristics by women leaders is counter-productive because differentevaluations are made of leadership characteristics in men and in women. As a consequence, womenexperience tension between two conflicting stereotypes: the gender stereotype and the managerialone (Boulouta, 2013).

In summary, it can be argued that although women in TMTs are driven by a number of structuralforces that influence their practices when addressing CSR, female psychological characteristics,human capital and leadership style lead them to enact stereotypical female behaviour, which in factimprove a firm�s social performance. Given the above-mentioned arguments, it is reasonable toexpect that women managers will pay more attention than men to the firm�s compliance with CSR.Hence, hotels that have more women in TMTs are likely to increase the development of CSR in theirorganizations. The preceding points form the basis of the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: The greater the gender diversity in the top management team, the greater the implementa-tion of corporate social responsibility.

Social responsibility

CSR has emerged in the public debate following reflections on Sustainable Development (SD). SDrefers to a macro-societal and macro-economic project that targets the social and individual welfareof the world’s population. CSR is a firm�s strategic and operational response to this project(Prud�homme & Raymond, 2013). Thus, there is great similarity between the conceptualization of CSR,which integrates economic, social and environmental dimensions, and the conceptualization of sus-tainability (Set�o-Pamies, 2015). This paper adopts the definition of CSR proposed by the EuropeanCommission (2001): “the voluntary integration by firms of social and environmental concerns in theirbusiness operations and in their interactions with their stakeholders”. In other words, hotels thatadopt CSR not only comply with the law, but go beyond it by integrating social, environmental,human rights and consumer concerns in their core strategy and business operation.

Previous studies have paid considerable attention to the relationship between CSR and firm per-formance. Several meta-analyses (Margolis, Elfenbein, & Walsh, 2009; Orlitzky, Schmidt, & Rynes,2003) have shown that there is no consistent evidence of such a relationship. Several reasons mayunderlie inconclusive studies: wide variations between empirical studies in the measurement of CSRand firm performance; failure to take into account the market segment or industry effect; or the useof a misspecified econometric model.

Currently, myriad stakeholders seek information on hotel CSR practices and demonstrate growingawareness concerning its impact (Chung & Parker, 2010). This article argues that the association

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between CSR and firm performance is indirect; that is, CSR practices enhance customer, employeeand society results, and these in turn have a positive impact on hotel performance. To fully under-stand the extent of such practices, this paper addresses CSR operational practices and classifies theminto economic, environmental and social dimensions (Garay & Font, 2012).

First, the term “economic dimension” refers to the impact of the hotel industry on the economicconditions of its stakeholders and on economic systems at local, national and global levels. Hotelscommitted to CSR take into account the following economic aspects, among others: the direct eco-nomic value generated and distributed, procedures for local hiring, and policies regarding locallybased suppliers (Global Reporting Initiative [GRI] 2006, 2011; UNEP-WTO, 2005). Empirical evidencesuggests that organizations that are perceived by their employees as economically responsible arethose in which the employees are more likely to be satisfied with their job because they witness animprovement in productivity and customer satisfaction, which directly influences the employees’work environment and conditions (Lee, Lee, & Li, 2012). Recent experimental research on Chinesehotels has shown that CSR has a positive influence on customer satisfaction, brand preference, cus-tomer purchase intentions and word-of-mouth intentions (Su et al., 2015).

Second, the term “environmental dimension” refers to the conservation and management ofresources, and involves actions that minimize pollution and preserve biological diversity and the nat-ural heritage (UNEP-WTO, 2005). Paradoxically, the hotel industry activity itself may undermine thereasons for tourist influx. That is, the more appealing the destination, the more likely it will deterio-rate due to visits. Therefore, the optimal use of environmental resources is crucial since it couldbecome a key success factor for hotel competitiveness (Rodr�ıguez & Cruz, 2007; Tar�ı, Claver-Cort�es,Pereira-Moliner, & Molina-Azor�ın, 2010). In the Nordic hospitality sector, Heikkurinen (2010) demon-strated that if a hotel has a reputation for being environmentally responsible then the key stakehold-ers will have a more favourable view of that hotel. Such a reputation would confer the followingbenefits: the hotel would be considered to be a better employer; it would also be considered to be abetter partner and supplier; and guest loyalty would increase. Regarding customers, a study thatincluded a sample of hotel users in the USA (Lee, Hsu, Han, & Kim, 2010) showed that a green hotelimage affects behavioural intentions, such as revisiting, offering positive recommendations and awillingness to pay a premium.

Finally, the term “social dimension” concerns human rights, labour practices and equal opportuni-ties for all members of society (GRI 2006, 2011; UNEP-WTO, 2005). A socially responsible hotel ensuresthat its employees have equal opportunities, good working conditions and fair salaries. Social actiontowards the community also includes respect for and the promotion of the historic heritage and tra-ditions of host communities. In relation to customers, this dimension involves issues such as servicesafety and a prompt and cordial response to queries and complaints (UNEP-WTO, 2005). Previousstudies have found that a good work–family balance, workplace flexibility and other aspects of work–life quality have a positive effect on employee results (Bohdanowicz & Zientara, 2009). Similarly,Prud’homme and Raymond (2013) found that hotels that develop sustainable practices embodyingsocial actions, such as supporting the local community, have a positive effect on customersatisfaction.

The preceding arguments form the basis of the second hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2: The implementation of a high level of corporate social responsibility has a positive impacton employee, customer and society results.

Total quality

Several studies have suggested that quality management does not always enhance hotel perfor-mance (Tar�ı et al., 2010). Different explanations for this finding include the use of different measuresof TQM, the lack of sustained management interest or ineffective implementation (Harrington & Keat-ing, 2006; Wang et al., 2012). The present study suggests that when the whole organization is

726 C. QUINTANA-GARC�IA ET AL.

involved in managing quality, there is an improvement in customer, employee and society resultsthat, in turn, improve hotel performance.

The European Foundation for Quality Management Excellence Model (EFQM, 2010) gives a com-prehensive definition of the meaning of quality management. It has been widely used to guideorganizations in the implementation of quality management (van der Wiele, Kok, McKenna, & Brown,2001) and is considered to be a valid representation of TQM. As proposed by this model, we describefive enabler criteria that improve results with respect to people (employees), customers and society.These criteria are (1) leadership; (2) partnerships and resources; (3) employees; (4) strategy; and (5)processes, products and services.

“Leadership” (EFQM, 2010) is a key pillar of an effective quality management system. Hotel manag-ers that show a strong commitment to quality have a direct effect on employees regarding howclearly they understand their role. Likewise, studies on commitment to quality on the part of leadersas a key issue in the TQM setting have also found that such commitment has a positive influence oncustomers (Tar�ı et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2012).

Organizations which engage in TQM manage “partnerships and resources” to underpin their strat-egy and the effectiveness of processes. This involves dealing with partners and suppliers to ensuresustained success, as well as the use of technology, information, and knowledge to support strategyand optimize decision-making (EFQM, 2010; Harrington & Keating, 2006).

In addition, the principles governing quality place a value on “employees” and promote a cultureof participation and autonomy (EFQM, 2010). TQM includes the development of employee skillsthrough training and teamwork. It also fosters the empowerment of employees to address problemsand make decisions with the aim of improving results. Employees with an increased level of auton-omy are more motivated and tend to make greater efforts to offer good service (Alonso-Almeida,Rodr�ıguez-Ant�on, & Rubio-Andrada, 2012). Previous research has shown that training and incentivesystems have a positive moderating effect on the relationship between TQM and customer satisfac-tion and performance (Zientara et al., 2015). Similarly, Tar�ı et al. (2010) showed that hotels that arehighly committed to quality management increase employee motivation and achieve greater stake-holder satisfaction and competitive performance.

“Strategy” is another key enabler within a TQM approach, where business operations must have asound basis and be continuously reviewed and improved, and strategies and policies must be effec-tively deployed (Harrington & Keating, 2006). The appropriate communication of the strategic planand its progress up, down and across the company has been found to be essential to guarantee theeffectiveness of TQM (London, 2002).

Lastly, excellent organizations design, manage and improve “processes, products and services”(EFQM, 2010). Hotels should improve processes to reduce defects and waste, increase productivity,operational reliability and innovation, and consequently develop high-quality products and services(Prajogo & Sohal, 2006). Wang et al. (2012) viewed process management as a construct of TQM andshowed that this philosophy benefits the performance of hotels because they are more responsiveto changes in internal and external customer needs.

The appropriate management of these enablers may positively influence the results of the mainstakeholders. The foregoing aspects form the basis of the third hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3: The implementation of a high level of total quality management has a positive impact onemployee, customer and society results.

Total quality, social responsibility and hotel performance

TQM is consistent with the ethical and instrumental aspects of CSR (McAdam & Leonard, 2003) as itsuccessfully strikes a balance between profit-seeking motives and respects the interests of a widerange of stakeholders (Ghobadian, Gallear, & Hopkins, 2007). The TQM and CSR managementapproaches identify the needs and claims of multiple stakeholders and share values such as acting

JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 727

proactively as well as adopting an ethical perspective beyond the expectations of society and laws.Thereby, the ethical anchor of CSR has a strong affinity with the principles of TQM (van der Wieleet al., 2001).

From an instrumental perspective, TQM systems produce changes in the organizational culturethat benefit the incorporation of CSR goals and practices (Zink, 2007). More specifically, TQM pursuescontinuous improvement and innovation which also encourage learning processes relevant to CSR(Zwetsloot, 2003). Thus, TQM systems are valuable instruments in the application of CSR.

There is evidence to suggest that TQM facilitates the penetration of CSR within organizations.McAdam and Leonard (2003) proposed that current models are consistent with the principles of CSRand its objectives, and that the practice of CSR can spread more rapidly through organizations thatimplement TQM models. Isaksson (2005) reviewed the synergies between the two concepts by com-paring the indicators used in the triple bottom line and TQM-related measurements. Similarly, vander Wiele et al. (2001) proposed a CSR audit instrument similar to the TQM methodology and testedit in a pilot case study. These studies suggested that methodologies based on the broad principles ofTQM enable the most effective implementation of CSR within a shorter period of time. Nevertheless,there is a dearth of empirical studies that use quantitative methods to investigate the above-men-tioned relationship between TQM and CSR. The aim of the present study is to address this issue.

TQM may act as a foundation for the development of CSR. It is more widespread than CSR, whoseimplementation is more recent in the hospitality context (e.g. Alonso-Almeida et al., 2012; Calveras,2015; Claver-Cort�es et al., 2008). In fact, the quality movement emerged in the 1920s. TQM is consid-ered to be one of the most durable management innovations of the last three decades to have beenapplied worldwide in all types of organizations (Ghobadian et al. 2007). However, CSR arose in the1980s (van der Wiele et al., 2001). This aspect justifies the investigation of whether or not existingquality management conduits and processes in hotels influence the development of CSR. Thus, thefourth hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 4: The implementation of a high level of total quality management has a positive influence onthe implementation of a high level of corporate social responsibility.

Since the performance of an organization depends on its capacity to satisfy the needs and expect-ations of the stakeholders, the fifth hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 5: Better employee, customer and society results lead to better hotel performance.

Methodology

Sample and data collection

The database used in this study was created by the “Quality, Productivity and Competitiveness in theHospitality Industry for Andalusia” project [PO7/SEJ-02889], which was financed by the Regional Gov-ernment of Andalusia (i.e. the Junta de Andaluc�ıa). The CSR and TQM data were directly obtained viaa questionnaire administered to the hotel managers by the project researchers. The economic datawere obtained via questionnaires and the annual accounts filed by firms in the Mercantile Registry.2

Information on gender diversity was also drawn from the annual accounts.In 2009, the System of Multiterritorial Information of Andalusia identified 822 Andalusian hotels

with 3–5 stars, which were taken as the statistical population. Because the number of hotels wasknown, the sample size could be calculated for a finite population. Using a 95% confidence leveland a 5% sampling error, the sample size was estimated to be 262 hotels. Based on this result, adirectory of the hotels to be surveyed was created using the Turespa~na Hotel Guide, which lists cer-tified hotels, published by the regional government and Camerdata.3 Andalusia is a very largeregion, and so the sample distribution was based on the relative importance of the hotel sector ineach province in the region. Establishments were also identified according to their location (coastal,inland or capital).

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Fieldwork was conducted during spring–summer 2010. Questionnaires that were not correctlyanswered were discarded. Hence, the database included representative parameters for a sample of122 Andalusian hotel establishments, and provided direct information on 14.84% of the establish-ments. The potential for non-response bias was addressed by comparing key attributes, such as loca-tion, category (number of stars) and size (number of rooms), of the respondents andnon-respondents contained in the database. The statistical tests used to investigate non-responsebias (t-test and Kolmogorov–Smirnov two-sample test) showed that there were no significantdifferences between groups.

Variables

Dependent variableTwo alternative measures of hotel performance were included in the model (the Appendix provides adetailed description of the two measurements of the independent variable). One was the quantita-tive measure “Net income” (or net loss), defined as the earnings of the hotel after interest, taxes,depreciation and amortization in 2009 (the year before the questionnaire was administered). This var-iable is expressed in euros and underwent logarithmic transformation to account for its skewed distri-bution.4 The other was the qualitative measure “Performance: Economic-financial goals”. This variableis based on the EFQM Excellence Model (EFQM, 2010) and indicates to what extent the economic andfinancial goals have been achieved. A 7-point Likert-type scale was used to measure this variable.

Exogenous variablesThe implementation of TQM (represented in the model as “TQM”) is an exogenous variable that hasan impact on stakeholders and CSR. This variable comprises five constructs based on the enablers ofthe EFQM model: leadership; employees; strategy; partnership and resources; and processes, prod-ucts and services. A 7-point Likert-type scale (ranging from 1 = very low to 7 = very high) was createdfor the items of each enabler. The items were designed according to the criteria of the EFQM Excel-lence Model (EFQM, 2010) and the literature reviewed for the hypotheses development (Camis�on,1996; Claver-Cort�es et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2012). The Appendix shows the items employed to mea-sure each construct.

The other exogenous variable “Gender diversity in the top management team” describes the levelof implementation of CSR. The TMT was defined as all of the top-level executives within the organiza-tion. This definition included all of the C-level positions (e.g. the chief executive officer and the chieffinancial officer), as well as all executives above the rank of vice-president and senior vice-president (Cohen & Dean, 2005). This variable was measured as the percentage of women in the TMT(Krishnan & Park, 2005).

Endogenous variablesA group of endogenous variables were included in the model. First, the implementation of CSR (rep-resented in the model as “CSR”) is explained by TQM and gender diversity in the TMT. CSR explainsthe impact on stakeholders. This variable comprises three constructs that represent the economic,environmental and social dimensions. The items of each construct were designed according to theGRI framework (GRI, 2006) and the review of the literature used for the hypotheses development(UNEP-WTO, 2005; Tar�ı et al., 2010). A 7-point Likert-type scale (ranging from 1 = very low level ofimplementation to 7 = very high level of implementation) was created for the items in order to mea-sure the level of commitment according to the degree to which the actions and practices of eachdimension of CSR had been implemented.

Second, three variables “Employee Results”, “Customer Results” and “Society Results” wereincluded to represent the impact on stakeholders. These constructs explain the performance of thehotel and are explained by the implementation of TQM and CSR. The items of each construct were

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designed according to the EFQM Excellence Model (EFQM, 2010) and the GRI framework (GRI, 2006).A 7-point Likert-type scale was created for all the items (see the Appendix).

Given that multiple-item scales were used to measure the constructs of the variables “TQM”, “CSR”,“Employee Results”, “Customer Results” and “Society Results”, these scales were tested for their reli-ability and validity. The scale items were selected according to the EFQM and GRI frameworks andprevious literature. This approach helped ensure content validity. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)was conducted to test the validity of all the measures. A sample size of 150 units (122 hotels in ourcase) requires a factor loading of at least 0.45 for each item (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998).The results of CFA supported the convergent validity of all the measures, given that all the estimatedloadings of the indicators for the constructs were statistically significant (minimum factor loading =0.528) (data available upon request). Cronbach’s a was used to test the internal consistency of eachconstruct. It is generally accepted that the lowest limit for Cronbach’s a is 0.70 (Robinson, Shaver, &Wrightsman, 1991). The values obtained were more than 0.70 for each construct, thus supportingtheir internal consistency (data available upon request).

Having confirmed the validity and reliability of the constructs, the average of the multiple meas-ures was used to create a single scale score for each construct (MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Ahearne,1998). “TQM” was then conceptualized as a latent variable in which the five EFQM model enablerswere used as indicators of this latent construct. Similarly, “CSR” was conceptualized as a latent vari-able in which the economic, environmental and social dimensions were used as indicators.

Control variablesThe analysis included two control variables that represented the characteristics of the firm, whichwere based on previous studies relating to gender diversity, CSR and firm performance (gender diver-sity on the board of directors and size). “Gender diversity on the board of directors” was measured asthe percentage of women on the board as a control variable to explain CSR (Nielsen & Huse, 2010).The “Size” of the establishment was measured as the number of available rooms. “Size” controls theeffect of scale economies on the implementation of TQM and CSR, and modifies any advantagesresulting from having more resources available (Garay & Font, 2012; Harrington & Keating, 2006). It isa relevant variable that can directly explain performance (Rodr�ıguez & Cruz, 2007).

Figure 1 shows the theoretical model.

Data analysis and results

Table 1 shows the variables, descriptive statistics and correlations.Structural equation modelling was used to test the hypotheses. Stata software was used to esti-

mate the model and specify the relationships proposed in the hypotheses. Table 2 shows the pathsof the model. Some hotels did not provide information on net income, and thus maximum likelihoodwith missing values was used to estimate this value (Acock, 2013).

Figure 1. Theoretical model.

730 C. QUINTANA-GARC�IA ET AL.

The goodness-of-fit index (GFI) for the model showed that it had a satisfactory fit (0.929). Valuesclose to or more than 0.90 are considered acceptable (Hair et al., 1998). The normed chi-square,where the x2 is adjusted by the degrees of freedom, was of 1.75 (recommended range 1.0–2.0). Theroot-mean-square error of approximation index (RMSEA) was 0.078 (recommended range 0.05–0.08;Bollen, 2014). The comparative fit index (CFI) was 0.907. A value equal to or more than 0.90 is consid-ered acceptable (Acock, 2013).

The results shown in Table 2 support Hypothesis 1. The higher presence of women in the top man-agement team enhances a hotel’s socially responsible behaviour. In a complementary analysis,Hypothesis 1 was tested by estimating the model using alternative measures of gender diversity. Theindependent variable “gender diversity in the top management team” was measured as a dummyvariable that was assigned a value of 1 when there was more than one woman in the TMT and 0 oth-erwise. The control variable “gender diversity on the board of directors” was also measured as adummy variable that was assigned a value of 1 when there was more than one woman on such aboard and 0 otherwise. The results of the complementary test consistently supported the findings ofthe model. The alternative measures showed that gender diversity in the TMT has a positive influenceon the implementation of CSR (b1 = 0.871, z-statistic = 2.12, p < 0.05), and that gender diversity onthe board of director does not have significant effect on CSR (b2 = 0.102, z-statistic = 1.42, p > 0.05).

The results exhibited in Table 2 strongly confirm Hypothesis 2 since the level of CSR implementa-tion has a significant and positive influence on the results regarding employees, customers and

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations.

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Net income (log) 10.97 4.42 1.002. Performance: economic-financial goals 4.65 1.42 0.75� 1.003. Employee results 5.14 1.08 0.54� 0.41� 1.004. Customer results 5.70 0.86 0.70� 0.59� 0.45� 1.005. Society results 5.10 1.12 0.51� 0.43� 0.37� 0.33� 1.006. TQM 5.29 0.68 0.39� 0.35� 0.56� 0.41� 0.25� 1.007. CSR 4.63 1.11 0.63� 0.50� 0.30� 0.41� 0.71� 0.24� 1.008. Size 137.3 144.87 0.30� 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.10 0.15� 0.18� 1.009. Gender diversity in the topmanagement team

0.20 0.29 0.15 0.05 0.07 0.15 0.04 0.16 0.19 0.00 1.00

10. Gender diversity on the board ofdirectors

0.20 0.32 0.26 0.03 0.11 0.17 0.15 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.71 1.00

�p< 0.05.

Table 2. Results of Structural equation model estimation.

Hypotheses Path Effect estimate z-Statistic

H1 Gender diversity in the top management team! CSRGender diversity on the board of directors! CSR

1.145�

¡0.1042.31

¡1.23H2 CSR! Employee results

CSR! Customer resultsCSR! Society results

0.453��

0.540���

0.881���

2.575.208.32

H3 TQM! Employee resultsTQM! Customer resultsTQM! Society results

1.143���

0.657���

0.186

6.355.181.582

H4 TQM! CSR 0.452��� 3.71H5 Employee results! Net income (log)

Employee results! Performance: economic-financial goalsCustomer results! Net income (log)Customer results! Performance: economic-financial goalsSociety results! Net income (log)Society results! Performance: economic-financial goalsSize! Net income (log)Size! Performance: economic financial goals

0.724��

0.171�

2.476���

0.750���

0.666�

0.330��

0.007���

¡0.0008

2.612.048.057.162.643.454.33

¡0.15�p< 0.05; ��p < 0.01; ���p < 0.001 (two-tailed tests for hypothesized variables).x2 = 159.81 (91 df) Normed x2 = 1.75; GFI = 0.929; RMSEA = 0.078; CFI: 0.907.

JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 731

society. Hypothesis 3 was partially supported: The implementation of a high level of total quality man-agement has a positive impact on employee, customer, and society results. The results showed thatTQM has a positive impact on two groups of stakeholders: employees and customers, whereas it didnot have a significant influence on society results. Hypothesis 4, which tested TQM as an antecedentof CSR, was confirmed. Hotels that have a higher implementation of TQM show a higher develop-ment level of CSR. Finally, Hypothesis 5 was confirmed. The results with respect to employees, cus-tomers and society have a significant and positive effect on the indicators employed to measure theperformance of hotels.

Regarding the effect of control variables, a significant and positive association was found betweensize and net income. It was also found that gender diversity on the board of directors does not have asignificant influence on the implementation of CSR practices.

Discussion and conclusions

Discussion

This study extends the literature on the relationship between gender diversity and firm performance. Thefindings support the hypothesis that gender diversity in the TMT has a positive effect on performance.However, the impact is not direct, but is mediated by CSR. These results are consistent with previousstudies that have found that greater gender diversity on boards has a positive influence on CSR (Gal-breath, 2016a), and that it plays a more significant role in stakeholder management in firms which pro-duce consumer-oriented products and operate in more competitive industries (Harjoto et al., 2015). Ourfindings are the first to specifically support this hypothesis in relation to the hospitality industry.

The results also confirm the hypothesis that the implementation of CSR has a positive impact onemployee, customer and society results, which in turn have a positive effect on hotel performance.Similarly, it was found that TQM has a positive influence on two main stakeholders: employees andcustomers. This evidence is consistent with previous contributions that have shown a positive associ-ation between quality management in hotels and improved competitiveness (e.g. Claver-Cort�eset al., 2008; Wang et al., 2012). Although no direct association was found between TQM and the satis-faction of social needs, an association was found between the implementation of CSR and theseneeds. The image or reputation of the hotels and the level of satisfaction of society with their actionsare more associated with the practice of CSR.

Finally, our study also supports that the implementation of quality management in hotels facili-tates the development of CSR. This result is in line with studies that have suggested that quality man-agement models and methodologies catalyse the spread of CSR within organizations (McAdam &Leonard, 2003; Zink, 2007).

Theoretical and practical implications

The present study suggests that the impact of gender diversity on firm performance is dependent onCSR practices. These findings may help researchers to investigate alternative pathways throughwhich women in TMTs may influence financial performance. In line with stakeholder theory, thisstudy comprehensively investigated the advantages of two relevant management philosophies thatcan be applied to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. The investigation of these philoso-phies in combination has provided new insights into the capacity of hotels to improve stakeholderresults and their level of competitiveness.

Because competition in the hotel industry is intense, managers need to develop distinctive resour-ces to create advantages over competitors. This study found that CSR and TQM are two intangibleresources that can help to provide sustainable competitive advantages. The results show that genderdiversity in TMTs provides different values, socio-cognitive perspectives and skill sets that enhancethe implementation of CSR. This finding should encourage hotels to adopt positive discrimination

732 C. QUINTANA-GARC�IA ET AL.

policies and diversity and equal opportunity programmes to increase the presence of women inTMTs. The results are also relevant to the manager selection process because they highlight theimportance of taking into account the diverse background of individuals nominated for TMTs.

Currently, there is controversy on quotas for women on boards (Rao & Tilt, 2016). Hence, the find-ing of improvements in the implementation of CSR and hotel performance in this study provides sup-port for the increased representation of women at all managerial levels.

Limitations and future research

This study has some limitations that should be addressed by future research. First, we used cross-sec-tional data from one of the main Spanish tourist regions. The findings could be made more robust byusing data from other regions and countries. The use of a longitudinal design could show the evolu-tion of causality between variables, especially the relationship between changes in the number ofwomen in TMTs and CSR and financial performance.

Second, the questionnaires in this study were completed by hotel managers. Further researchincorporating interviews with stakeholders (employees, customers and society) would be useful tofully understand the relationships addressed in this study.

Third, this research could be extended to include a broader definition of gender diversity to be inline with contemporary gender theory. Finally, the effect of group diversity in TMTs was analysed.Future studies should include not only senior executives, who establish corporate strategy, but alsomiddle management and department managers, among others, who implement strategy.

Notes

1. The authors are aware that gender diversity goes beyond the man-woman dichotomy. However, due to the lack ofmore detailed information on the composition of TMTs, we approach the issue of gender diversity by calculatingthe proportion of women in TMTs. In fact, a recent study based on the most influential social surveys using nationalsampling frames in the USA (Westbrook & Saperstein, 2015) suggested that by providing the same two-answeroptions, “male” and “female”, the surveys considered that these categories cover all possible gender diversity. How-ever, the study suggested introducing changes in the way gender diversity is measured in surveys to be in line withcontemporary gender theory. Future research should take into account a broader definition of gender diversity. Inthis line, there is a growing body of research that has investigated the business case for LGBT-supportive policiesand CSR (e.g. Pichler, Blazovich, Cook, Huston, & Strawser, 2016; Shan, Fu, & Zheng, 2016).

2. Spanish firms are required to file their annual financial accounts in the Mercantile Registry, which is thus an impor-tant source of reliable data on these firms.

3. Camerdata SA, created in 1985 by the Spanish Chamber of Commerce, is a pioneering company in creating busi-ness databases that include the censuses of all Spanish Chambers of Commerce. It also has a permanent pro-gramme that ensures that the national census is fully updated at least once a year using data from all Chambers ofCommerce. This database is complemented by data from other sources or public media, such as the MercantileRegistry.

4. The value 0 was assigned if the hotel had negative profit (only 16 hotels experienced a loss). This is a common tech-nique for handling negative values when logarithmic transformation is implemented.

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge the feedback received from participants in the 2nd International Conference on Advances inManagement, Economics and Social Sciences MES’15 in Rome (2015), the VI International Conference: Tourism, Econom-ics and Environment in Malaga (2015) and the anonymous referees of earlier versions of this manuscript. This is a studycarried out within the Santander Center for Corporate Social Responsibility of the University of Malaga (Spain), whichhas financial support from Banco Santander. The views in the manuscript are solely the responsibility of the authors.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 733

Notes on contributors

Cristina Quintana-Garc�ıa has a PhD degree in Economics and Management Sciences, and is professor of Management atthe University of Malaga (Spain). She is director of the Andalusian Research and Technological Development Group“Technological Innovation, Quality and Corporate Social Responsibility” (SEJ-414). She is also director of the SantanderCenter for Corporate Social Responsibility of the University of Malaga. She made a research stay as a Visiting Scholar atHarvard University in 2001, at Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in 2004, at Sloan School of Managementof the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2009 and at London Business School in 2016. She has been director ofQuality and Strategic Development at the University of M�alaga in the period 2008–2011. She develops many studiesregarding technological innovation, social responsibility, gender and quality. The results from her research have beenpublished in international journals and conference proceedings.

Macarena Marchante-Lara is industrial engineer and holds a master degree in Occupational Health and Safety and aPhD degree from the University of Malaga. She is an assistant professor and a trainee researcher in the Department ofEconomics and Business Administration at the University of Malaga (Spain). She is a member of the Andalusian Researchand Technological Development Group “Technological Innovation, Quality and Corporate Social Responsibility” (SEJ-414). She is research fellow and academic collaborator of the Santander Center for Corporate Social Responsibility of theUniversity of Malaga (Spain). Her research focuses on service sector, especially on quality, gender and socialresponsibility.

Carlos G. Benavides-Chic�on holds a PhD degree and is graduated in Administration and Business Management (Hons)and in Economics (Hons) from the University of Malaga. He is an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Eco-nomics (Economic Structure) in the Faculty of Economics and Business Sciences at the University of Malaga (Spain). He isa member of the Andalusian Research and Technological Development Group “Tourism Economics: Labor Market andEnvironment” (SEJ-139) and the Santander Center for Corporate Social Responsibility of the University of Malaga (Spain).His research focuses on tourism sector, especially on quality, productivity and social responsibility in the hospitalitysector.

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JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 737

Appen

dix.List

ofitem

sinclud

edin

theque

stionnaire

tomea

sure

thetheo

reticalcon

structs

Construct

Sources

Items

7-PointLikertscale

Performance:

econom

ic-financial

goals

EFQM(2010)

Thelevelofachievemento

fthe

econom

icandfinancialgoals

1=0%

,2=<20%,3

=between20%and40%,4

=between

40%and60%,5

=between60%and80%,6

=between

80%and90%,and

7=between90%and100%

Employee

results

EFQM(2010),G

RI(2006)

ER-Item

1.Improvem

entinthelevelofachievemento

fthe

keyresults

ofthehoteldue

toem

ployee

training

andcareer

developm

ent

1=verylow7=veryhigh

improvem

ent

ER-Item

2.Increase

inem

ployee

motivationandinvolvem

ent

1=verylow7=veryhigh

increase

Custom

erresults

CR-Item

1.Thehotelcustomercomplaint

ratethisyear

1=averyhigh

rate7=0%

CR-Item

2.Repeatgu

estrate(loyalty)

1=0%

7=veryhigh

rate

Societyresults

SR-Item

1.Theimageandrepu

tatio

nofthehotelaccording

tothepress,

professionalpu

blications,awards

andrecogn

itions,etc.

1=verylow7=veryhigh

SR-Item

2.Thelevelofsatisfactionof

societywith

thehotel’s

actio

nsaccordingto

lettersof

complaint

oracknow

ledg

ementsreceived,the

press,etc.

1=verylow7=veryhigh

Leadership

EFQM(2010),Cam

is� on

(1996),Claver-Cort� es

etal.

(2008),W

angetal.(2012)

L-Item1.Levelofinvolvemento

fdirectorsto

ensurecontinuous

improvem

entinthehotel

1=verylow7=veryhigh

L-Item2.Levelofp

articipationofdirectorsinprofessionalassociations,

meetin

gs,and

seminars,andinthegiving

andreceivingoftraining

programmes

onqu

ality

andexcellence

1=verylow7=veryhigh

L-Item3.Num

bero

factions

torecogn

izeem

ployee

performance

and

efforttowards

continuous

improvem

ent(em

ployee

ofthemonth,awards

andotherrecognitio

ns)

1=verylow7=veryhigh

Employees

E-Item1.Thefrequencyof

developm

ento

fqualitytraining

programmes

foremployees

1=verylow7=veryhigh

E-Item2.Levelofinvolvementand

theassumptionofresponsibilityof

employeesforq

ualityissues

(takingpartinmeetin

gsandqu

ality

circles,

sugg

estin

gimprovem

ents,etc.)

1=verylow7=veryhigh

E-Item3.Levelofimprovem

entinem

ployee

know

ledg

eof

topicson

safety

andhealth

atworkandtheenvironm

entthrough

diversemeans

ofcommun

ication

1=verylow7=veryhigh

Strategy

EFQM(2010),Cam

is� on

(1996),Claver-Cort� es

etal.

(2008),W

angetal.(2012)

S-Item1.Num

bero

finformationsourcessystem

aticallytakeninto

account

todefine

thehotel’s

strategy

(stakeholders,econom

icmagnitudes,degree

ofnatio

naland

internationalcom

petitiverivalry,etc.)

1=verylow7=veryhigh

S-Item2.Thefrequencywith

which

thestrategy

isdefined,revisedand

updated

1=verylow7=veryhigh

(continued)

738 C. QUINTANA-GARC�IA ET AL.

Construct

Sources

Items

7-PointLikertscale

S-Item

3.Levelofcom

mun

icationofthestrategy

togu

aranteeits

successful

implem

entatio

n1=verylow7=veryhigh

Partnershipand

resources

P&R-Item

1.Num

bero

fallianceswith

otherh

otels,companies,and

institu

tions

(suchas

supp

liers,travelagencies,localtouristic

attractio

ns,

etc.)

1=verylow7=veryhigh

P&R-Item

2.Levelofd

evelopmento

feconomicandfinancialm

anagem

ent

usingtoolssuch

asbalanced

scoreboard,riskmanagem

ent,sensitivity

analysis,activity-based

costing,etc.

1=verylow7=veryhigh

P&R-Item

3.Thedegree

towhich

resources,bu

ildings,equ

ipmentand

materialissustainablymanaged

1=verylow7=veryhigh

Processes,products

andservices

PPS-Item1.Thedegree

towhich

processmanagem

entisimplem

ented

1=verylow7=veryhigh

(inallareas

ofthehotel)

PPS-Item2.Thefrequencywith

which

innovatio

nsinmanagem

ent,

personnelpoliticsandorganizatio

nalstructure

aredeveloped

1=verylow7=veryhigh

PPS-Item3.Thefrequencywith

which

productand

serviceinnovatio

nsare

developed,taking

into

accountthe

needsandexpectations

ofcustom

ers

1=verylow7=veryhigh

PPS-Items4.Levelofq

ualityofthefollowingprocesses:

(a)customerattention;(b)com

fort;(c)functio

nality;(d)cleaningofroom

sandcommon

areas;(e)p

rocurement;(f)

buildingandequipm

ent

maintenance;(g)

modernity;(h)

restaurant;(i)leisureactivities;(j)event

organizatio

n;(k)safetyforcustomersandem

ployees;(l)

locatio

n;(m

)hu

man

resource

managem

ent;(n)m

arketin

g;(o)strategicplanning

;(p)

generalm

anagem

ent

1=verylow7=veryhigh

(Eachprocesshasits

ownvaluation)

Econom

icdimension

GRI(2006),U

NEP-W

TO(2005),Tar� ıetal.(2010),

Leeet

al.(2012)

EC-Item

1.Improvem

entinthedirecteconom

icvaluegeneratedand

distrib

uted

(revenues,em

ploymentcom

pensation,donatio

ns,payments

tocapitalprovidersandgovernments,etc.)

1=verylow7=veryhigh

levelofimplem

entatio

n

EC-Item

2.Designofasustainablesupp

lychain(requiremento

fstand

ards

tosupp

liers,w

hich

have

todemonstrate

ethicalemploymentand

trading

policies)

1=verylow7=veryhigh

levelofimplem

entatio

n

EC-Item

3.Contrib

utionto

localprosperity

(encouraging

localemployment,

hirin

gtopmanagersfrom

thelocalcom

mun

ity,using

localsup

pliers,etc.)

1=verylow7=veryhigh

levelofimplem

entatio

n

Environm

ental

dimension

EN-Item

1.Initiatives

toredu

ceenergy

consum

ption/energy

saveddu

eto

conservatio

nandefficiency

improvem

ents

1=verylow7=veryhigh

levelofimplem

entatio

n

EN-Item

2.Initiatives

toredu

cewater

consum

ption/recyclingandreuseof

water

1=verylow7=veryhigh

levelofimplem

entatio

n

EN-Item

3.Contrib

utionto

habitatp

rotectionandrestoration/strategies

for

managingimpactson

biodiversity

1=verylow7=veryhigh

levelofimplem

entatio

n

EN-Item

4.Initiatives

toredu

ceem

issions,effluentsandwaste

1=verylow7=veryhigh

levelofimplem

entatio

nSocialdimension

SO-Item

1.Providingahealthyandsafeworkenvironm

ent/offerin

gproductsandservices

with

noimpacton

thehealth

andsafetyof

custom

ers

1=verylow7=veryhigh

levelofimplem

entatio

n

SO-Item

2.Initiatives

toensurediversity

andequalopp

ortunities,prevent

discrim

inationintheworkplace

andprom

otework–lifebalance

1=verylow7=veryhigh

levelofimplem

entatio

n

SO-Item

3.Conservatio

nofthecultu

ralheritage

andtraditionalvalues

oflocalcom

mun

ities

1=verylow7=veryhigh

levelofimplem

entatio

n

JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 739