SOCI 1301: SOCI 1301: Introduction to Introduction to SociologySociology

Social Research MethodsSocial Research Methods

4 Basic Research 4 Basic Research Methods in SociologyMethods in Sociology

1.Survey Research (an objective method)1.Survey Research (an objective method) Questionnaire or interview studiesQuestionnaire or interview studies

2. Analysis of Existing Sources (Document 2. Analysis of Existing Sources (Document Studies) (objective or subjective)Studies) (objective or subjective)

3. Observational Research 3. Observational Research Two types: unobtrusive or participantTwo types: unobtrusive or participant

4. Experimentation (most objective, least 4. Experimentation (most objective, least variance of any method but not often used variance of any method but not often used

Advantages/Advantages/Disadvantages with the Disadvantages with the MethodsMethods

Surveys- easy to do, fast but missing data, Surveys- easy to do, fast but missing data, problems in sampling, biasesproblems in sampling, biases

Analysis of Existing Sources- easy data Analysis of Existing Sources- easy data collection but someone else’s datacollection but someone else’s data

Observation-simply subjective…Observation-simply subjective… Experiments- excellent control of variance but Experiments- excellent control of variance but

ethics and application issues keep it generally ethics and application issues keep it generally unused in sociologyunused in sociology

Steps in the Research Steps in the Research ProcessProcess

1. Define the Problem- choose subject1. Define the Problem- choose subject 2. Review the literature2. Review the literature 3. Formulate Hypotheses (or research 3. Formulate Hypotheses (or research

questions)questions)

AND THEN…AND THEN…

4. Design the Methodology4. Design the Methodology

Methodological DesignMethodological Design

Results of a study are only as good as Results of a study are only as good as the methodology used.the methodology used.

What will be specifically measured?What will be specifically measured? Where? Identify the Where? Identify the study environmentstudy environment.. Sampling? Who and how many?Sampling? Who and how many?

A A samplesample is a cross-section of the population is a cross-section of the population under investigation that is both random and under investigation that is both random and representative of that populationrepresentative of that population

Methodology, contd.Methodology, contd.

How will the study variables be How will the study variables be operationalized?operationalized? Variables—known or unknown quantities that affect Variables—known or unknown quantities that affect

or are affected by the presence of another variable.or are affected by the presence of another variable. Independent variables CAUSE change in Dependent Independent variables CAUSE change in Dependent

variables (the EFFECT)variables (the EFFECT) If A If A B, A is the independent variable and B is the B, A is the independent variable and B is the

dependent variabledependent variable Operationalization is defining what is meant by a Operationalization is defining what is meant by a

variable label (i.e. Crime—define it for the purposes variable label (i.e. Crime—define it for the purposes of this study)of this study)

Methodology, cont’d.Methodology, cont’d.

5. Collect the Data5. Collect the Data6. Data Analysis6. Data Analysis

--SPSS (Statistical Package for the --SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Social Sciences) is excellent Sciences) is excellent

7. Draw Conclusions--accept or Reject 7. Draw Conclusions--accept or Reject hypotheses or answer research questionshypotheses or answer research questions

How might someone conduct a study to How might someone conduct a study to determine if the full moon has any effect on the determine if the full moon has any effect on the crime rate? Design a study from beginning to crime rate? Design a study from beginning to end using these steps.end using these steps.

Flaws in ResearchFlaws in Research

Bias (question, sampling, etc.)Bias (question, sampling, etc.) TeleologyTeleology Poor methodologyPoor methodology Misanalysis of findingsMisanalysis of findings Statistical conclusionsStatistical conclusions Misinterpretation of resultsMisinterpretation of results Significance levelsSignificance levels

Famous Research ErrorsFamous Research Errors

The 1936 Presidential PollThe 1936 Presidential Poll

Literary DigestLiterary Digest used auto registration lists and telephone directories used auto registration lists and telephone directories from which to draw a random sample in their presidential poll to from which to draw a random sample in their presidential poll to see if Franklin Roosevelt or Alfred Landon would win the race. see if Franklin Roosevelt or Alfred Landon would win the race. The sample was random but not representative. The only people The sample was random but not representative. The only people who had telephones in 1936 were urban dwellers and the only who had telephones in 1936 were urban dwellers and the only ones with cars (at the height of the Great Depression) were ones with cars (at the height of the Great Depression) were wealthier Americans. These groups would have voted for the pro-wealthier Americans. These groups would have voted for the pro-urban, pro-business candidate Landon. FDR got most of his urban, pro-business candidate Landon. FDR got most of his support from rural America, underrepresented in the survey… the support from rural America, underrepresented in the survey… the result of the poll was that Landon would win… FDR won easily.result of the poll was that Landon would win… FDR won easily.

This was a classic error in sampling.This was a classic error in sampling.

Another Research ErrorAnother Research Error

The Hawthorne ExperimentsThe Hawthorne Experiments

Industrial Psychologist Elton Mayo (1920’s) conducted a series of experiments at Industrial Psychologist Elton Mayo (1920’s) conducted a series of experiments at Western Electric’s Hawthorne Plant in Illinois. In one trial he wanted to see if light Western Electric’s Hawthorne Plant in Illinois. In one trial he wanted to see if light levels in the factory would increase production. After getting an initial reading of levels in the factory would increase production. After getting an initial reading of productivity, he brought in more lighting. Productivity rose. He increased light productivity, he brought in more lighting. Productivity rose. He increased light again with the same result. About to conclude that light levels in fact DO increase again with the same result. About to conclude that light levels in fact DO increase productivity, he turned off the extra lights and productivity rose yet again! He productivity, he turned off the extra lights and productivity rose yet again! He turned down the lighting even more (below where it was originally) and productivity turned down the lighting even more (below where it was originally) and productivity continued to rise. He could not understand what was occurring… Then he continued to rise. He could not understand what was occurring… Then he discovered that the workers had been told that an “efficiency expert” was observing discovered that the workers had been told that an “efficiency expert” was observing their plant. The workers were simply reacting to the fact that they were being their plant. The workers were simply reacting to the fact that they were being watched… some thought the tests were about keeping their jobs—so all were very watched… some thought the tests were about keeping their jobs—so all were very productive regardless of lighting conditions. productive regardless of lighting conditions.

This phenomena came to be know as the Hawthorne Effect—the unintended effect(s) This phenomena came to be know as the Hawthorne Effect—the unintended effect(s) of a researcher’s presence. A modern example– the change in one’s driving habits of a researcher’s presence. A modern example– the change in one’s driving habits when being followed by a policeman…when being followed by a policeman…

Reliability and validityReliability and validity

Reliability refers to consistency in Reliability refers to consistency in measurementmeasurement

Validity refers to accuracy in Validity refers to accuracy in measurementmeasurement

Good research always uses RELIABLE Good research always uses RELIABLE methods to achieve ACCURATE results.methods to achieve ACCURATE results.

Conclusions of ResearchConclusions of Research

Hypotheses—statements about what one expects to find in their Hypotheses—statements about what one expects to find in their research—cannot be proven or disproven—they can only be research—cannot be proven or disproven—they can only be accepted or rejected. Research proves nothing—it only accepted or rejected. Research proves nothing—it only demonstrates that a relationship may exist between two factors at demonstrates that a relationship may exist between two factors at some level.some level.

All relationships are not cause and effect, some are mere All relationships are not cause and effect, some are mere correlationscorrelations– variables related to each other, but perhaps only – variables related to each other, but perhaps only indirectly…(Ex. Death rates and seeing a doctor are correlated indirectly…(Ex. Death rates and seeing a doctor are correlated variables—death rates are higher for people who have recently variables—death rates are higher for people who have recently seen a doctor, but seeing a doctor does not cause death rates to seen a doctor, but seeing a doctor does not cause death rates to rise—sickness causes BOTH.)rise—sickness causes BOTH.)