Sneak preview of A Guide to Australian Dragons in Captivity

reptilepublications

By Dr Danny Brown BVSc (Hons) BSc (Hons)

A Guide to…AustralianDRAGONSin Captivity

A Guide to…

Australian D

RA

GO

NS in Captivity By D

r Danny Brow

n BVSc (H

ons) BSc (Hons)

reptilepublications SNEAK PREVIEW

ABOUT THE AUTHOR ....................................................................................................................................15

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................................................16

INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................................................18 GENERAL MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................................19

PET SUITABILITY ...........................................................................................................................................................................................19CHOOSING YOUR STOCK ..............................................................................................................................................................19Selecting an Individual Dragon ..............................................................................................................................................21

HANDLING AND HYGIENE ............................................................................................................................................................22 TRANSPORTATION ....................................................................................................................................................................................23 Short Journeys.....................................................................................................................................................................................................23Long Journeys ......................................................................................................................................................................................................25Timber Boxes ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................26Plastic Containers ...........................................................................................................................................................................................26

PURCHASE AND FREIGHT ETIQUETTE ..................................................................................................................27 Buyers ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................27Sellers .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................28

LEGAL REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................................................................................................................28

GENERAL SAFETY ........................................................................................................................................................................................30

SECURITY ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................30

QUARANTINE ......................................................................................................................................................................................................31

HOUSINGINDOOR ENCLOSURES ..................................................................................................................................................32Rack Systems ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................32Tubs .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................32Tanks ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................33Pits ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................33Timber Enclosures .........................................................................................................................................................................................34Glass, Perspex or Plastic Moulded Commercial Terrariums ......................................................34 Mesh Terrariums ...............................................................................................................................................................................................35

OUTDOOR ENCLOSURES ........................................................................................................................................35Pits ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................35Aviaries ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................37

ENCLOSURE SIZE ..........................................................................................................................................................................................39Minimum Enclosure Sizes .................................................................................................................................................................39

COMPATIBILITY ...............................................................................................................................................................................................39 VENTILATION ......................................................................................................................................................................................................40

CONTENTS

SUBSTRATE .............................................................................................................................................................................................................41

Sand ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................41

Soil ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................42

Gravel ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................42

Scoria ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................42

Leaf Litter .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................42Potting Mix ................................................................................................................................................................................................................43Sphagnum Moss ...............................................................................................................................................................................................43Peat.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................43Bark and Wood Chip...................................................................................................................................................................................43Wood Shavings ...................................................................................................................................................................................................43Corn Cob Litter ....................................................................................................................................................................................................44Walnut Shell Litter .........................................................................................................................................................................................44Alfalfa/Lucerne Pellets ...........................................................................................................................................................................44Compressed Timber Pellets ...........................................................................................................................................................44Compressed Newspaper Pellets .............................................................................................................................................44Zeolite and Clumping Cat Litter .............................................................................................................................................44Paper ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................44Artificial Grass ......................................................................................................................................................................................................45Indoor/Outdoor Carpet ........................................................................................................................................................................45

HIDE SITES .......................................................................................................................................................................................................45 Vertical Hide Sites ..........................................................................................................................................................................................45Horizontal Hide Sites ................................................................................................................................................................................45

ENCLOSURE ENRICHMENT ...................................................................................................................................47Surface Litter ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................48Branches and Hollows.............................................................................................................................................................................48Artificial Plants ....................................................................................................................................................................................................48Dried Plants ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................49Live Plants ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................50

HEATING ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................50

HEAT CORD OR TAPE ..............................................................................................................................................................................51

HEAT MATS ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................51

HEAT ROCKS ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................52

CERAMIC HEATERS....................................................................................................................................................................................52

GLOBES...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................53Standard Incandescent Globes ................................................................................................................................................53Reflector Globes ...............................................................................................................................................................................................53Reptile Lamps .......................................................................................................................................................................................................53Halogen Bulbs ......................................................................................................................................................................................................53Infrared Globes ...................................................................................................................................................................................................54Mercury Vapour Lamps .......................................................................................................................................................................54Metal Halide Bulbs ........................................................................................................................................................................................54

LIGHTING ............................................................................................................................................................................................................56 THE SCIENCE OF LIGHTING .......................................................................................................................................................56Visible Light ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................56Infrared ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................56Ultraviolet A (UV-A) .....................................................................................................................................................................................56Ultraviolet B (UV-B) ......................................................................................................................................................................................56Ultraviolet C (UV-C) ......................................................................................................................................................................................59

LIGHTING OPTIONS .................................................................................................................................................................................59UV-B Emitting Fluorescent Tubes .........................................................................................................................................60Black Lights ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................60Compact UV-B Emitting Lamps ...............................................................................................................................................61Mercury Vapour Lamps .........................................................................................................................................................................62‘Modified’ Halogen (Quartz or Dichroic Halogens) Bulbs ............................................................63Metal Halide Lamps ....................................................................................................................................................................................63

THERMOSTATS ...................................................................................................................................................................................63Probe Thermostats .......................................................................................................................................................................................64On/Off Thermostats ....................................................................................................................................................................................64Dimming Thermostats ............................................................................................................................................................................64Pulse Proportional Thermostats ............................................................................................................................................64

HUMIDITY .......................................................................................................................................................................................................65 FEEDING METHODS AND NUTRITIONINVERTEBRATE FOOD ITEMS ......................................................................................................................68Crickets—Acheta domestica .................................................................................................................................................................68Cockroaches ............................................................................................................................................................................................................68Mealworms—Tenebrio molitor .........................................................................................................................................................69King Mealworms or Superworms—Zophobas morio .................................................................................69Maggots/Flies/Pupae—Musca vetutissima ..................................................................................................................70Slaters .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................70Silkworms—Bombyx mori and other caterpillars ............................................................................................71Termites ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................71Earthworms—Lumbricus terrestrius ...........................................................................................................................................71Locusts—Chortoicetes terminifera .................................................................................................................................................71Fruit Flies—Drosophila species .....................................................................................................................................................72Waxworms—Galleria mellonella ....................................................................................................................................................72Wild Fodder ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................72Nutritional Data Averages for Invertebrate Diets .....................................................................................73

VERTEBRATE FOOD ITEMS ................................................................................................................................74Rats and Mice ........................................................................................................................................................................................................74Chicks and Small Birds ...........................................................................................................................................................................75Guinea Pigs ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................75Fish ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................75Reptiles ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................75Nutritional Data Averages for Vertebrate Diets ...........................................................................................76

ARTIFICIAL DIETS .......................................................................................................................................................................77

HERBIVOROUS/OMNIVOROUS DIETS ....................................................................................................................77Table of Calcium to Phosphorus Ratio in Fruits and Vegetables ......................................78

CARNIVOROUS/INSECTIVOROUS DIETS ...........................................................................................................80

CULTURING INSECT FOOD ITEMS ..................................................................................................81Crickets—Acheta domestica .................................................................................................................................................................81Speckled Feeder Roaches—Nauphoeta cinerea ..................................................................................................84Locusts— Chortoicetes terminifera ................................................................................................................................................84Bush Flies—Musca vetutissima .........................................................................................................................................................85Mealworms—Tenebrio molitor and King Mealworms—Zophobas morio ........................87Slaters .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................88‘Lesser Waxworms’—Indian Meal Moths Plodia interpunctella ...................................................88Fruit Fly/Vinegar Fly/Ferment Fly—Drosophila species .........................................................................89

DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS .........................................................................................................................................90

CALCIUM ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................90Gut Loading .............................................................................................................................................................................................................90Dusting.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................91

PROTEIN........................................................................................................................................................................................................................92

FEEDING FACILITIES ...........................................................................................................................................................92 FEEDING PROBLEMS .........................................................................................................................................................93

TREATMENT ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................95Assist Feeding .....................................................................................................................................................................................................95Force Feeding ........................................................................................................................................................................................................95Tube Feeding .........................................................................................................................................................................................................96

BREEDINGVISUAL SEXING ...................................................................................................................................................................................97Colour .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................97Size ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................97Femoral and Preanal Pores .............................................................................................................................................................98Hemipenal Bulges ..........................................................................................................................................................................................99Paracloacal Spur Structures ......................................................................................................................................................100

OTHER SEXING TECHNIQUES .............................................................................................................................................100Hemipenal Probing .................................................................................................................................................................................100Hemipenal Popping................................................................................................................................................................................100Hemipenal Transillumination .................................................................................................................................................101Hemipenal Observation ..................................................................................................................................................................103Hemipenal Plug Observation .................................................................................................................................................103Hemipenal Palpation ............................................................................................................................................................................104Cloacal Opening Shape ....................................................................................................................................................................104Hydrostatic Eversion .............................................................................................................................................................................105

BREEDING AGE.................................................................................................................................................................................105

COURTSHIP ...............................................................................................................................................................................................105

MATING ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................105

STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE BREEDING SUCCESS ......................................105

COOLING ................................................................................................................................................................................................................105

SEPARATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................................108

REPRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................................................................108

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES .............................................................................................................................................108

EGG TYPE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................108

CLUTCH SIZE .....................................................................................................................................................................................................108

BREEDING FREQUENCY ..............................................................................................................................................................108

GRAVIDITY ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................109

CARING FOR BREEDING FEMALE DRAGONS .........................................................................................109

NEST FACILITIES ...........................................................................................................................................................................111 ARBOREAL SPECIES .............................................................................................................................................................................111

TERRESTRIAL SPECIES ....................................................................................................................................................................111

EGG LAYING .............................................................................................................................................................................................112 EGG MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................................................................................114 Collecting and Handling .................................................................................................................................................................114Determining Egg Viability ............................................................................................................................................................115

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION .......................................................................................................................................118

INCUBATION FACILITIES .............................................................................................................................................................118

CONTAINERS .....................................................................................................................................................................................................118 HEATING ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................119

TEMPERATURE CONTROL .........................................................................................................................................................120

INCUBATION MEDIUM ....................................................................................................................................................................120Vermiculite .............................................................................................................................................................................................................120 Perlite ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................121Sphagnum Moss ...........................................................................................................................................................................................121 True Peat Moss ................................................................................................................................................................................................121Coir Peat Moss ................................................................................................................................................................................................121Sand ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................121 No Substrate .......................................................................................................................................................................................................122

INCUBATION REGIMES ...................................................................................................................................................................122

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT SEX DETERMINATION .................................................................123

NATURAL INCUBATION ..............................................................................................................................................125

HATCHLING CARE .....................................................................................................................................................................125

FEEDING ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................125 Feeding Frequency ..................................................................................................................................................................................126Supplementation ........................................................................................................................................................................................126

LIGHTING ................................................................................................................................................................................................................126

HOUSING .................................................................................................................................................................................................................126

HEATING ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................126

COMPATIBILITY ...........................................................................................................................................................................................126

COMMON DISEASES AND DISORDERSDISCLAIMER ............................................................................................................................................................................................128

NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS ...............................................................................................................................129 OBESITY ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................129

METABOLIC BONE DISEASE (CALCIUM/VITAMIN D3 DEFICIENCY) ..............129Early Onset Metabolic Bone Disease ..........................................................................................................................129Late Onset Metabolic Bone Disease ............................................................................................................................130Delayed Metabolic Bone Disease .....................................................................................................................................130Reproductive Metabolic Bone Disease ...................................................................................................................131

GUT IMPACTION ........................................................................................................................................................................................131

PARASITIC DISORDERS ..............................................................................................................................................133INTERNAL PARASITES .....................................................................................................................................................................133EXTERNAL PARASITES ....................................................................................................................................................................135

SKIN DISORDERS ........................................................................................................................................................................135DYSECDYSIS.......................................................................................................................................................................................................135SCALE ROT ............................................................................................................................................................................................................135 NAIL, TOE AND LIMB DISORDERS...................................................................................................136

EYE DISORDERS .............................................................................................................................................................................137EYE POPPING ...................................................................................................................................................................................................137

EYE TRAUMA.....................................................................................................................................................................................................137PHOTOKERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS ...............................................................................................................................138PRIMARY BACTERIAL EYE INFECTIONS ..........................................................................................................138

RESPIRATORY DISORDERS ................................................................................................................................138BACTERIAL PNEUMONIA ...........................................................................................................................................................138

VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY ...............................................................................................................................................................139

HUMIDITY RELATED PROBLEMS ..................................................................................................................................139 PARASITIC PNEUMONIA ............................................................................................................................................................139

TRAUMA ............................................................................................................................................................................................................139

BITE INJURIES .................................................................................................................................................................................................139 THERMAL BURNS .....................................................................................................................................................................................140

REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS .......................................................................................................................140 PRE-OVULATORY AND POST-OVULATORY STASIS (EGG BINDING OR DYSTOCIA) ..........................................................................................................................................140UTERINE INFECTION ..........................................................................................................................................................................143 HEMIPENAL INJURIES AND INFECTION ..........................................................................................................144 CONGENITAL DEFECTS ..................................................................................................................................................................144

NASAL AND ORAL DISORDERS .............................................................................................................146NASAL ABRASIONS—NOSE RUBS ............................................................................................................................146 JAW DISEASE/PERIODONTITIS/STOMATITIS.........................................................................................147

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICATIONS ...................................................................................147Subcutaneous or Intramuscular Injections .....................................................................................................147Liquid Oral Medication ......................................................................................................................................................................148Tablet Oral Medication ......................................................................................................................................................................150

MAKING THE MOST OF YOUR REPTILE VETERINARIAN.........150

SPECIESBEARDED DRAGONS PogonaPRONUNCIATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................153

DESCRIPTION ..............................................................................................................................................................................154ADULTS, JUVENILES, SEXING, SUBSPECIES ............................................................................................154

IN THE WILD .....................................................................................................................................................................................158DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT ...........................................................................................................................................158

IN CAPTIVITY ...............................................................................................................................................................................159

STATUS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................159

HOUSING .......................................................................................................................................................................................................159 INDOOR ENCLOSURES ....................................................................................................................................................................159 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................161 OUTDOOR ENCLOSURES ............................................................................................................................................................161 COMPATIBILITY ...........................................................................................................................................................................................161

FEEDING ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................162

BREEDING....................................................................................................................................................................................................163INCUBATION AND HATCHLING DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................165BREEDING RECORDS FOR THE BEARDED DRAGON SPECIES ...................................166HYBRIDISATION AND COLOUR VARIANTS .................................................................................................167LONGEVITY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................169ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................169

CREVICE AND ROCK DRAGONS CtenophorusPRONUNCIATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................170



IN CAPTIVITY ...............................................................................................................................................................................178STATUS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................178


FEEDING ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................180

BREEDING....................................................................................................................................................................................................181INCUBATION AND HATCHLING DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................183BREEDING RECORDS FOR THE CREVICE AND ROCK DRAGON SPECIES ....................................................................................................................................................................................183HYBRIDISATION AND COLOUR VARIANTS .................................................................................................184LONGEVITY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................184ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................184

TWO-LINED DRAGONS DiporiphoraPRONUNCIATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................185



IN CAPTIVITY ...............................................................................................................................................................................191

STATUS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................191


FEEDING ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................193

BREEDING....................................................................................................................................................................................................193INCUBATION AND HATCHLING DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................195BREEDING RECORDS FOR THE TWO-LINED DRAGON SPECIES ............................195HYBRIDISATION AND COLOUR VARIANTS .................................................................................................196

LONGEVITY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................196ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................196

EARLESS AND HEATH DRAGONS Tympanocryptis, Ctenophorus and RankiniaPRONUNCIATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................197



IN CAPTIVITY ...............................................................................................................................................................................205

STATUS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................205


FEEDING ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................208

BREEDING....................................................................................................................................................................................................208INCUBATION AND HATCHLING DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................209BREEDING RECORDS FOR THE EARLESS AND HEATH DRAGON SPECIES ....................................................................................................................................................................................209HYBRIDISATION AND COLOUR VARIANTS .................................................................................................210LONGEVITY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................210ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................210

FRILLED DRAGONS ChlamydosaurusPRONUNCIATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................211



IN CAPTIVITY ...............................................................................................................................................................................215

STATUS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................215


FEEDING ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................218

BREEDING....................................................................................................................................................................................................218INCUBATION AND HATCHLING DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................219BREEDING RECORDS FOR THE FRILLED DRAGON SPECIES ........................................220HYBRIDISATION AND COLOUR VARIANTS .................................................................................................220LONGEVITY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................220ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................220

LARGE ARBOREAL DRAGONS Lophognathus, Caimanops and Chelosania

PRONUNCIATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................221





FEEDING ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................231BREEDING....................................................................................................................................................................................................232INCUBATION AND HATCHLING DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................233BREEDING RECORDS FOR THE LARGE ARBOREAL DRAGON SPECIES.....234HYBRIDISATION AND COLOUR VARIANTS .................................................................................................234LONGEVITY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................234ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................234

RAINFOREST DRAGONS HypsilurusPRONUNCIATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................235




HOUSING .......................................................................................................................................................................................................241 INDOOR ENCLOSURES ....................................................................................................................................................................241 Summary ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 243 OUTDOOR ENCLOSURES ............................................................................................................................................................243 COMPATIBILITY ...........................................................................................................................................................................................244

FEEDING ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................244

BREEDING....................................................................................................................................................................................................245INCUBATION AND HATCHLING DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................246BREEDING RECORDS FOR THE RAINFOREST DRAGON SPECIES ........................247HYBRIDISATION AND COLOUR VARIANTS .................................................................................................248LONGEVITY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................248ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................248

SAND DRAGONS CtenophorusPRONUNCIATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................249





FEEDING ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................257

BREEDING....................................................................................................................................................................................................258INCUBATION AND HATCHLING DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................260BREEDING RECORDS FOR THE SAND DRAGON SPECIES .................................................260HYBRIDISATION AND COLOUR VARIANTS .................................................................................................261LONGEVITY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................261ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................261

SMALL ARBOREAL DRAGONS AmphibolurusPRONUNCIATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................262




HOUSING .......................................................................................................................................................................................................267 INDOOR ENCLOSURES ....................................................................................................................................................................267 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................268 OUTDOOR ENCLOSURES ............................................................................................................................................................268

COMPATIBILITY ...........................................................................................................................................................................................268

FEEDING ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................269BREEDING....................................................................................................................................................................................................269INCUBATION AND HATCHLING DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................270BREEDING RECORDS FOR THE SMALL ARBOREAL DRAGON SPECIES ....271HYBRIDISATION AND COLOUR VARIANTS .................................................................................................271LONGEVITY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................271ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................271

WATER DRAGONS IntellagamaPRONUNCIATION .....................................................................................................................................................................................272



IN CAPTIVITY ...............................................................................................................................................................................277

STATUS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................277


FEEDING ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................281

BREEDING....................................................................................................................................................................................................281INCUBATION AND HATCHLING DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................283BREEDING RECORDS FOR THE WATER DRAGON SPECIES .............................................284HYBRIDISATION AND COLOUR VARIANTS .................................................................................................284LONGEVITY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................284ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................................284

AUSTRALIAN HERPETOLOGICAL SOCIETIES AND USEFUL WEBSITESHERPETOLOGICAL SOCIETIES ..........................................................................................................................................285OTHER USEFUL WEBSITES .......................................................................................................................................................286

BIBLIOGRAPHYPRINTED LITERATURE......................................................................................................................................................................286ONLINE RESOURCES ..........................................................................................................................................................................289

GLOSSARY .....................................................................................................................................................................................291

HOUSINGThe diversity of dragon species available for captive care may be accommodated in a variety of enclosure designs. No single housing design is appropriate for all dragons. Consideration must be given to each genus and species as well as an individual’s requirements for heating, lighting, security, substrate, ventilation, humidity and furnishings. However, this does not mean that housing dragons needs to be complicated or expensive.

INDOOR ENCLOSURESThe predominant means of housing dragons is in indoor enclosures. Virtually all species can be accommodated indoors, although some, such as large dragons, may be better suited to outdoor housing. Consider the dragon’s basic requirements as well as your own preferences in design.Following are the various types of indoor enclosures available.

Rack SystemsRack systems comprise plastic tubs enclosed within a shelving system. They are compact, secure and inexpensive.

The major disadvantages of rack systems are that they are not as aesthetically appealing as other types of enclosures and are difficult to light appropriately. Heating is usually limited to subfloor heating. This dramatically limits their suitability for dragons except for the temporary housing of very young hatchlings and winter cooling.

TubsEssentially the same as rack systems, tubs are generally positioned in a more open manner, allowing heating and lighting to be provided from above. They are inexpensive and available in a range of sizes.

Tubs are suitable for many dragon species—select a size and height relevant to the species to be housed.

The main disadvantages of tubs are the limitations on furnishings, their aesthetic appearance and their poor security—it is difficult to supply appropriate heating and lighting with a lid on the container. Access can be improved by placing the tub on shelves that can be attached to drawer sliders allowing the whole tub to be moved out from beneath heating and lighting fixtures.

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Recycling tubs with aluminium framed lids

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Recycling tubs are positioned on sliding shelves for easy access

lengthwise, terracotta tiles, tile or timber stacks or commercial hide sites usually shaped as artificial rocks.

Horizontal hides can be used in one of two ways. Most burrowing and digging species will use a hide as a starting point for their burrows, which may start as a shallow depression. Other ground dwelling species will use hides as pre-existing cavities—the artificial equivalent of soil cracks, gaps under logs and spaces between rocks.

When determining the placement of hides, consider the relevant safety issues. Plastic hides are at risk of outgassing—which is the production of fumes from heated plastic—and must never be placed directly under a heat source. Timber hides should also be placed carefully to ensure they do not pose a fire risk if exposed to excessive heat.

Terracotta tiles cater for burrowing and non-burrowing species. If these tiles are placed directly on the substrate and partially beneath a heat lamp, burrowing animals will burrow along one edge and use the tile as the roof of the burrow—this allows them to engage in sub-soil basking by lying adjacent to the warmest part of the tile. The addition of short legs to the tile allows non-burrowers to do the same—simply attach short timber pieces, 2cm higher than the substrate depth to the tile using Liquid Nails TM or construction adhesive. These legs will allow the tile to sit just above the substrate level and provide a gap underneath for use as a hide.

Timber or tile stacks are commonly used as hides by species of rock dwelling dragons. They are constructed from squares of plywood, pavers or floor tiles and are designed to mimic layered, flat exfoliating rock formations. Heat is directed on to the uppermost layer, providing the hide site with a vertical heat gradient from the top to the bottom. A tile should be used on the uppermost layer to avoid the fire hazards associated with heated timber. The bottom layer of a timber and tile stack should be placed on a spacer to keep it off the floor—a couple of

Clear containers may be painted internally to make them opaque

Hollow logs

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Terracotta saucers and bamboo splits make ideal hides for small species

Tile ‘stacks’ are simple to make

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FEEDING METHODS AND NUTRITIONFoods suitable for dragons can be broken into three broad categories—invertebrate food items, vertebrate food items and artificial diets.

INVERTEBRATE FOOD ITEMSThere are many different invertebrate food items suitable for dragons—many may be cultured at home, collected or purchased commercially.

The most common invertebrate food items are crickets and cockroaches. Less commonly fed items include mealworms, mealworm beetles, Zophobas worms, flies, fly larvae, fly pupae, slaters, silkworms, termites, earthworms, locusts, spiders, fruit fly, wax worms and wild fodder.

Each of these food items has a range of positive and negative attributes. Some also have specific uses, such as locusts and termites, and others are accepted more generally. Each live food item, its use and—where relevant—how to culture it, will be discussed below. A comparative nutritional table is provided at the end of this section.

Crickets—Acheta domesticaCrickets form part of a staple diet for 70–90% of small and medium reptile species across all families including dragons. As there is no ideal live food for dragons, crickets are the best of a bad bunch—with one of the lowest fat levels, moderate protein levels but a poor calcium to phosphorus ratio. The latter can be improved by including a high calcium supplement in a cricket’s diet in the days prior to feeding—known as gut loading—or by coating the cricket in a calcium supplement powder immediately prior to feeding—referred to as dusting. (See page 91 for more details).

Crickets may be fed live or freshly killed as part of an artificial mix. They can also be frozen or slow roasted to produce a product suitable for mixing with soft foods.

Cockroaches Cockroaches form part of a secondary staple diet for many species—predominantly larger species, due to the larger size of this food source. In Australia, dragons are fed primarily on one cockroach variety Nauphoeta cinerea known here as speckled feeder roaches or woodies and overseas as lobster roaches. These cockroaches have wings but do not readily fly and will not

Cricket sizes (left to right)—adult female, adult male, 2/3, 1/2, 1/3, 25 day old, 20 day old, 10 day old and pinhead

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CULTURING INSECT FOOD ITEMSCulturing your own insects allows you to supply your dragons with a wide variety of live food. It ensures a continuity of supply, which is not always possible when you rely on commercial suppliers that may run out of stock when demand is high and often favour commercial buyers over small customers.

There are many different methods for producing live foods. Following are the methods I have found most successful, including the insect species I have found the least troublesome.

Crickets—Acheta domesticaCrickets are not difficult to breed, however it is time consuming and requires considerable space if a large number of crickets are required. Basically, crickets require food, moisture, heat and egg laying facilities to thrive.

I have bred crickets in an old freezer chest heated by two light bulbs—just in case one fails—or by a 60W heat cord run around the bottom of the chest’s walls and connected to a basic probe thermostat.

Hides, a water source, food and a foam block standing vertically on a shallow tray should be placed on the floor. Egg cartons or toilet rolls placed vertically make good hides and allow cricket faeces to fall out easily. A moisture source and foods can be placed in separate takeaway containers. Provide ventilation through openings in the container lid and cover in flyscreen to keep flies, geckos and vermin out.

All life stages can be fed with the same diet. Fish food flakes, chick starter crumbles, lucerne pellets, egg and biscuit, crushed mouse pellets and ground puppy biscuits are ideal. Smaller life stages simply require food items to be ground finer.

Moisture must be supplied but by a means in which the crickets are not able to drown—newly hatched crickets can drown en masse in a single drop of water—this is of less concern with large crickets. Moisture can be supplied via highly moist food items such as orange, carrot or shredded lettuce. Alternatively it can be supplied as a protected water source, such as water crystals or via a sponge that fits tightly in a reservoir such as a coffee or jam jar lid—these must be topped up regularly and cleaned at least one to two times per week.

Heat can be supplied via light bulbs, a heat mat or heat cord placed within or under the container being used for culturing. The ideal culture temperature is 28°C, maintained by a thermostat the same as that used for an incubator.

A small cricket culture

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Old chest freezer used as a large scale cricket breeding facility

In captivity, small species generally lay more clutches each year than large species. The interval between clutches produced by smaller species is generally 2−3 weeks with 3−5 clutches produced per year. Large species may produce clutches every 4−8 weeks resulting in 2−4 clutches per year.

The highly domesticated Central Bearded Dragon Pogona vitticeps is unique, with females able to multi-clutch simultaneously. In the lower part of their uterus, females may have a clutch ready to be laid while fertilised ovum that will become the next clutch are developing in the upper part of their uterus. Up to 10 clutches per year have been recorded with the interval between clutches as often fortnightly. This is why this species are bred in such large numbers compared to other species.

GRAVIDITYEach group of lizards display different features when laden with eggs (gravid) or carrying young (pregnant).

A gravid dragon can be identified by a marked increase in girth and the outline of the eggs may be visible through her abdominal wall.

Sometimes, the eggs may be gently felt—lightly use your index finger and thumb to pinch along the sides of the abdomen. Eggs will be felt sliding within the uterus.

Eggs should not be palpated in the first two to three weeks after mating is observed. Palpation in very early stages of gravidity often reveals very soft and not particularly well defined lumps. These are early follicles and may rupture if pressed too hard.

CARING FOR BREEDING FEMALE DRAGONS Breeding can inflict a physical toll on females, regardless of the breeding method used. Other than self-inflicted hunger during courtship and occasional fighting injuries, stresses on male lizards at this time are energetically minimal. In comparison, females must produce eggs with sufficient nourishment to support developing young.

Female dragons often lay repeated clutches in a single season, having little time to recover between clutches. They will often noticeably lose weight prior to egg laying—particularly in the tail and over the hips. In most circumstances, condition should be regained within 7−10 days only to then be used for the next clutch of eggs that are following. This process places considerable stress upon a female. The drive to breed is generally stronger than common sense and females may literally ‘lay themselves to death’ if sufficient nutritional support is not provided. Be aware of the following with egg laying females—• Egg laying is an innate response. Females will either lay when they are physiologically ready

to—regardless of conditions—or not lay because conditions are unsuitable and specific cues have not been met.

A gravid Diporiphora nobbi showing distinct egg bulges

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sides should be visible—a clear side and a pink side. The clear side represents the yolk side of the egg and the pink side represents the embryonic side. The eggs should be positioned in the incubation container with the pink side facing upwards.

Dragon eggs are very easy to candle—the embryonic side is often visible to the naked eye without the need for illumination.

Determining Egg ViabilityThere is little benefit incubating eggs that have no likelihood of hatching. Therefore, it is important to be able to identify which eggs are viable—of adequate quality and fertility. Viability should be assessed pre-incubation—at the time of collection and post-incubation—for 10−20 days following incubation. Pre-incubation indicators of non-viable eggs are—Yellowish coloured eggs.Good quality eggs are generally a clean, white colour.Sunken eggsParticularly if other eggs in the clutch appear normal.Soft and squishy eggsEggs that indent easily may indicate drying or non-viability.FirmnessViable eggs are generally plump and slightly compressible like a well inflated balloon. Eggs that are hard are often referred to as ‘slugs’ and are infertile, non-viable eggs.Adherence of substrateWhile it may be quite normal for the eggs of some species to have substrate stuck to the eggs, it should be consistent throughout the whole clutch.Different sized eggs in one clutchSignificant differences in the size of eggs within a single clutch may indicate some eggs—generally the smaller ones—are non-viable.

A healthy clutch of P. vitticeps eggs ready for removal for candling

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A clutch in trouble—many of these Pogona vitticeps eggs will not be expected to progress normally or hatch

A clutch of non-viable freshly laid Amphibolorus muricatus eggs

displaying sunken, yellow and squishy features and substrate adhering to

only one egg in the clutch

NASAL AND ORAL DISORDERSNASAL ABRASIONS— NOSE RUBS This type of abrasion affects all dragons but is more common in Lophognathus, Hypsilurus, Intellagama and Pogona species. It is caused by repeated trauma to the skin on the tip of the snout. It is generally the result of an individual repeatedly pacing up and down against a wire mesh surface to escape from a dominant individual, to attack a subordinate, to flee the keeper or to access more appropriate companionship or areas on the other side of the mesh. Repeated trauma may also be the result of a repeated concussive injury from leaping off a raised area onto a hard surface.

The tissue on the tip of the snout is quite thin and overlies a bony area—healing in this area is often slow. Repeated trauma to a previously damaged area will cause thickened scar tissue to develop, which will further delay healing and result in an open ulcerated area often complicated by exposed bone.

Treatment should commence with the correction of the husbandry issue that initially caused the problem—this is most important. In the short-term, move the individual to another enclosure or cover the wire with an opaque and/or soft material such as shadecloth, fibreglass fly mesh, poster cardboard or CorfluteTM. It may not be necessary to cover the entire surface—just the side where the rubbing is occurring. If the nose rubbing is occurring at ground level, cover the side to a height of 1−2 SVL—it is very hard for a dragon to rub its nose horizontally when it is standing vertically to reach over a barrier. For those dragons suffering trauma related to falling onto a hard surface, the provision of deeper and softer substrate is recommended.

The nasal abrasion may self-heal once the dragon is removed from its enclosure. However, antibiotic ointments such as silver sulphadiazine

may be used to control secondary infection and

Nasal abrasion in Pogona vitticeps

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Chronic nasal abrasion in Hypsilurus spinipes—note the chronic scar tissue and exposed lower jaw bones

Abscess in the roof of the mouth of a Pogona vitticeps with chronic nasal abrasion

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DESCRIPTION

ADULTSMembers of the bearded dragon group are of medium to large size with short, robust bodies and moderately long tails. A ‘beard’ extends from a spiny gular region when in defensive posture or aroused. Distinctive rows of spiny scales are present along the borders of the head, neck, lateral abdomen and limbs—the arrangement of these spines can be used to distinguish some species.

They range in size—the smallest, the Abrolhos Bearded Dragon P. minor minima measures 115mm SVL and the largest species, the Central Bearded Dragon P. vitticeps measures 250mm SVL. The majority of species in this group measure 120–150mm SVL.

A typical specimen of the smaller species measuring 135mm SVL will weigh an average of 90−100 grams and a typical specimen of the larger species measuring 180mm SVL will weigh an average of 280−300 grams.

Pogona vitticeps

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Pogona barbata

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Pogona henrylawsoni

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DESCRIPTIONADULTSThe crevice and rock dragon group are of medium size with stocky bodies, degrees of dorsal body flattening and moderately long tails. They have relatively small nuchal crests and compensate for this with the ability to erect the skin in the vertebral region into a crest.

They range in size—the smallest species the Ochre Dragon C. tjantjalka measures 73mm SVL and the largest species the Ring-tailed Dragon C. caudicinctus measures 100mm SVL. A typical specimen measuring an average length of 80−90mm SVL will weigh an average of 19.5 grams.

Ctenophorus caudicinctus caudicinctus

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Ctenophorus ornatus

Hemipenal transillumination can be used on hatchlings, sub adults and adults, however spiny tail scales may make this technique difficult.

Hemipenal popping can be used, although this is not recommended in such small specimens as there is a high risk of damage.

Harlow’s technique can be used on hatchlings through to adults.

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NVentral view of an adult male Tympanocryptis intima Ventral view of an adult female Tympanocryptis intima

Head shape variation in Tympanocryptis tetraporophora— male (left) and female

Head shape variation in Tympanocryptis tetraporophora—male (below) and female

Ventral breeding colouration Tympanocryptis tetraporophora—male (left) and female

Tympanocryptis tetraporophora female showing facial flushing indicating receptiveness to mating

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Sneak preview of A Guide to Australian Dragons in Captivity

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