SFD - The Oakwood Academy

Yes do revise the facts and the SFD but also wherever there are any new developments DICE them for their impact or how

much progress they ACTUALLY led to...

Revision Card 1 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = How important was religion in Medicine 500‐1350?

Information to revise…1. Galen believed there was a layer of

vessels called the RETAE MIRABILE. He thought this might explain the soul in our bodies. This is why the Christian Church adopted Galen’s work.

2. Throughout The Dark Ages and Middle Ages the Christian Church in Europe preserved the books of Galen (useful for people later in the Renaissance)

3. The Christian Church in The Middle Ages did not allow anyone to question Galen’s work. If you did it was like questioning God and could lead to imprisonment or death.

4. Galen’s ideas and books were used to train physicians in The Middle Ages. The Church controlled the training of physicians in The Middle Ages.

5. Medical teaching was based on reinforcing Galen’s teachings – not questioning them.

6. People believed illness was caused by their sins. Disease was sent as a punishment from God. This prevented discussion about practical causes of illness.

7. Medical schools did gradually start to operate more independently from the Church – but this was not until the Reformation of the 1500s.

8. Hospitals were run by the Church. Monks and Nuns would care for the sick and pray for them. This was good for care but not much progress was being made in medicine as it focused all on God and old Galenic ideas.

9. Hospitals set up by the Church e.g. St Bartholomew’s 1123 and St Leonard’s in York. The Church also set up almshouses to care for people.

10. The Church were the only organisation involved in care in The Middle Ages.

Summary/Judgement…During the Dark Ages (after The Romans left) people became very superstitious. Britain became Christian. God and The Church became powerful throughout this time and up to the 1500s. The Church controlled training, care and even knowledge of Galen’s ideas in their libraries.

Revision Card 2 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = What did Medieval people believe caused disease?

Information to revise…

1. The Black Death struck Britain from 1347‐51.2. God and superstition dominated medieval medicine. During the Black Death in

Barcelona a 7km long candle was placed around the city so God would protect it.3. People prayed and blamed their sins for the terrible pestilence (disease)

Medieval people did not know the cause of disease. 4. Flagellants believed whipping themselves would stop God punishing them with

the Black Death.5. Other Medieval ideas about the causes of the Black Death were the movement

of the planets, Jews and the humours being out of balance. 6. Medieval people also believed bad air or miasma caused illness – but did not

know why.7. Galen’s ideas were used – theory of opposites – but often mixed up with other

ideas such as zodiac charts and urine charts.8. Medieval people did use humoural treatments such as bleeding and purges.

However they often mixed these up with superstitious zodiac charts or prayers.9. People were overwhelmingly superstitious. They believed lucky charms could

prevent illness. They also believed in the magical powers of BEZOAR stone. 10. Star signs were probably consulted as much as physicians because they believed

the movement of the planets caused illness.

Revision Card 3 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = How did Medieval people treat illness?


1. Bleeding – copied Galen’s ideas.2. Herbs and Honey – again linked to 4 Humours & Galen.

Apothecaries trained but had no qualifications – herbal medicines & balms. Purges & Laxatives – 4 Humours

3. Barber Surgeons – bleeding, cut hair & performed surgery.4. Praying for the sick.5. Whip themselves – Flagellants during The Black Death punished

themselves so God did not need to!!!6. Physicians used handbooks called VADEMECUM – meaning Go with

me. Trephining was common for illnesses of the head.7. Bezoar Stone – magical cure for all ills!!!8. They had a range of different healers – wise women to physicians.9. Care for the sick was usually done at home.10. There was little understanding of disease, so treatments usually had

little impact.

Questions to have a go at…• Describe the range of treatments used in the Middle Ages?• Explain how Medieval medicine was a CONTINUITY of ideas from

ancient times?

Summary/Judgement…

There were very few new ideas about treating illness. Medieval people did not understand the cause of disease and did not have any scientific ideas. They relied heavily on ancient ideas such as Galen’s and on superstitious and religious beliefs.

Revision Card 4 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Was Medieval Public Health a killer?

Information to revise…1. Medieval public health was poor. 2. Towns were dirty and full of animals and waste. Animal and human excrement

was common on the streets.3. Towns such as London were becoming overcrowded.4. Butchers had to kill their animals in the town which created a lot of offal / waste5. The Church had good facilities such as at Canterbury Cathedral – garderobes

(toilets), fresh water and baths. However, these were just for monks, the abbottand Church workers.

6. The Church collected taxes and was well organised to build facilities as good as The Romans – but didn’t always share them.

7. There were public latrines in towns such as Leicester but these were not emptied regularly. There were no proper sewers.

8. The Black Death of 1347‐51 killed over 1/3 of Europe’s population. 9. There were some attempts to improve hygiene – e.g. 1347 Sanitary Act tried to

keep the streets clean, and there were government reports into poor “stench” in towns.

10. Some towns such as Southampton did try to improve their sanitation ad hygiene but this was not common and not organised nationally.

Questions to have a go at…• Describe the ways in which Medieval people tried to prevent the spread of disease

during the Middle Ages? • Describe the difficulties faced by government in dealing with the public health

problems of the Middle Ages?


In Medieval times towns grew but there were no proper sewage or water supplies. No‐one knew the cause of disease. Some Kings e.g. Edward III were better than others at coming up with laws or rules to clean streets but these were inconsistent. Government did not really have the authority or desire to control hygiene. There were also too many wars to spend money on rather than public health. There were some good facilities in Castles for the rich and Monasteries run by The Church.

Revision Card 5 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = What was done about public health from 1350‐1750?


• In the Renaissance towns grew – population increase.• But there was no big development in public health.• London pop = 100,000• Infectious diseases were difficult to control.• Days of prayer would be ordered during epidemics.• Barrels of tar were burnt to make the air smell better.• Henry VIII 1528 – fled from London due to the sweating sickness which broke out –

but there was no such escape for most people.• Great Plague 1665 – don’t get mixed up with Black Death – see card 7.• Laws were passed in local areas to try and contain and prevent the spread of the

disease – closed theatres, dogs & cats were killed, carts to collect the dead & crosses painted on doors and houses boarded up for 28 days. Quarantine – red cross.

• Days of fasting and prayer ordered because they still thought God was a cause.• 1750 – Gin Problem – too much being consumed – government brought in laws to

make Gin more expensive.

Questions to have a go at…

Compare the way authorities (government) dealt with the Black Death of 1347 to the Great Plague of 1665?

How far was the period 1350‐1750 one of continuity in dealing with public health?


Responses to public health problems were reactive. Authorities responded when disease broke out rather than having any big prevention schemes or plans. The measures and laws they made were mostly ineffective because people from 1350‐1750 did not understand the cause of disease.It was not until Louis Pasteur’s germ theory that this would really change – see public health 1800s.

Revision Card 6 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Did medicine really change from 1350‐1750?


YES because…• Changes in the Church meant that people began to question the work of Galen

(Reformation)• Printing – Johan Gutenberg – 1454 – introduced printing press – ideas could

spread more quickly – impact on medical training.• Microscope invented – 1673 – Antony von Leeuwenhoek – impact much later –

not at the time.• Pare – war surgery – false limbs, eggyolks etc – war helping medicine develop.• Vesalius – Fabric of the Human Body – 1543 – anatomical knowledge improved –

questioned Galen.• Harvey – circulation of the blood – new ideas to challenge Galen (more progress

in anatomy)

NO because…• There was serious opposition to the new ideas of Vesalius & Harvey – held back

progress.• Still used 4 Humours = wrong! No understanding of cause of illness – no Pasteur

yet. • Still superstitious – God and movement of the planets used to explain plague of

1665.• Treatments of King Charles II – still bled him (Galen’s favourite idea!) still used

Bezoar Stone on him – poor chap (1685)• Still no professional doctor qualifications or nursing training.

“2nd Feb 1685 – Two of the King’s physicians opened a vein in his right arm and drew off about 16ounces of blood. Within a few moments to free his stomach of all impurities they administered an emetic (make him vomit). Soon after they gave him laxative pills so as to drain away the humours……3rd Feb – drew off 10 ounces of blood from the jugular……6th Feb – every other hour oriental Bezoar Stone. The King died soon after noon, towards the 54th year of his age.”

Account of the death of Charles II by Sir Charles Scarborough 1685.

Revision Card 7 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = What role did women have in medicine?


1. Women’s role 1350‐1750 = housewife. Care in the home.2. Very little solid evidence about them as most could not read

or write.3. Women made herbal remedies and medicines – some linked

to 4 humours – purges etc.4. Most people could not afford doctors etc so care was

provided at home.5. Women were midwives.6. Nuns worked on care for ill in convents.7. Doctors were sometimes worried that they lost business to

women healers because they were cheaper and often better!!!

8. Lady Grace Mildmay wrote books of cures etc – included herbal, humoural and superstitious (God) references.

9. Men criticised these women throughout this time.10.No proper nursing training until Nightingale’s nursing school

1860s.

Revision Card 8 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Why was the Industrial Revolution such a killer? (1750‐1850)

Information to revise (Public Health 1750‐1848)

1. In the early 19th century, the growing towns of Britain were overcrowded, had poor housing (slums), bad water supply and disease/epidemics.

2. Main killers = Cholera – Diptheria – Smallpox – TB – Typhoid. These diseases spread too quickly and authorities found it difficult to react / respond.

3. Cities grew massively due to industrialisation = London 957,000 in 1801 –2,362,000 in 1851!!!

4. People still believed miasma and spontaneous generation were the causes of disease.

5. Laissez Faire – government did not care – they did not see it as their responsibility to clean up or organise facilities like the Romans had.

6. People also did not want increases in taxes or government power.7. Cholera outbreaks – 1832, 1848, 1866. Killed thousands – memorials in

cities.8. Cases of overcrowding – eg Bury – 1842 – 63 families slept 5+ in a bed, 210

families 4 in a bed!!!9. Infant mortality very high.10. Industrialisation happened way too quickly – cities grew out of control.


Why did the authorities find it so difficult to deal with infectious diseases in the 18th and 19th centuries?


Cities grew too quickly. Government did not think health was their responsibility. People wanted low taxes. No‐one understood the cause of disease. Slow responses to deadly epidemics.

Revision Card 9 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = When did the government start to care about public health?

Information to revise – Public Health 1848‐1900…

1. In 1842, Edwin Chadwick argued that disease was the main reason for poverty, and that preventing disease would reduce the poor rates.

2. Chadwick was pushy which helped lead to change but also upset people so the 1848 act was not really good enough. He also did not really know the cause of disease.

3. In 1848, a cholera epidemic terrified the government into doing something about prevention of disease ‐ through both public and individual health measures.

4. At first the government tried ‐ as the Romans had done ‐ to prevent illness among the population by public sanitation measures.

5. The first public health measures were based upon the idea thatmiasmas (bad smells) caused disease. Although the idea was wrong, the measures against the miasmas involved a greater focus on cleanliness, and this improved public health.

6. Further measures included:• In 1848 the first Public Health Act caused the setting up of a Board of Health, and gave towns the right

to appoint a Medical Officer of Health.• In 1853 vaccination against smallpox was made compulsory.• In 1854 improvements in hospital hygiene were introduced (thanks in large part to Florence

Nightingale).• In 1875 a Public Health Act enforced laws about slum clearance, provision of sewers and clean water,

and the removal of nuisances.• By the 1860s local governments were putting pressure on the government to take action.

7. Louis Pasteur’s germ theory – proved cause of illness – no excuse not to clean up.8. 1867 Reform Act – working class men had the vote – they’d vote to clean up – end of laissez faire (see card 12)9. Government made smallpox vaccine compulsory in 1852.10. Big changes were taking place but they would take time to take effect – still not perfect by 1900 – as proved by poor condition of British soldiers In the Boer War.

Revision Card 10 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = How did science & technology improve Public Health? (1750‐1900)Information to revise…

1. Great Stink + More Cholera = pushed government to even more action in 1860s.2. Joseph Bazalgette – great engineer – designed and built huge sewer network and

water supply for London – 1300 miles of sewers – still work today – took 7 years to build.

3. New pumps and steam engines enabled him to design and build this. 4. Louis Pasteur 1861‐5 = Germ Theory.5. Germ Theory meant there was no excuse not to clean up cities – however this

would take time to filter through.6. Germ Theory did mean individuals like John Snow would no longer have to argue

with strong opponents of the cause of disease.7. SCIENCE GOVERNMENT AND INDIVIDUALS ALL HAD A ROLE IN IMPROVING PUBLIC

HEALTH FROM 1848‐1900.


• Explain why public health improved from 1848‐1900?

• How did the authorities deal with public health from 1700‐1900? (Careful with the time frame here)

• What factor was the most important in leading to Public Health improvements in the 19th century?

Revision Card 11 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Who is Britain’s most famous Cow? (smallpox vaccine – 1790s)


1. Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox and published his work to The Royal Society in 1798.

2. Observed milkmaids – Sarah Nelmes, Blossom the Cow, James Phipps.3. The Royal Society rejected Jenner’s work. There was such strong opposition to

vaccination that even when the government funded doctors to vaccinate people, they had to have guns to protect themselves from attacks!

4. After Jenner had published his work over 100 doctors signed a declaration that they were confident in his vaccine.

5. 1807 – government grant of £20,000 to Jenner = first ever real government investment in anything except war since The Romans!

6. In 1852 the government made it compulsory to be vaccinated.7. Jenner did not know why his vaccine worked; but his observations and recordings

made him confident that James Phipps would not die when he tested it on him. However he could not develop any other vaccines.

8. Jenner became world famous – USA picked up his idea & statues made in France even though they were Britain’s enemy at the time.

9. Jenner had used observation and scientific approach to discover and test his vaccine.

10. By 1871 number of smallpox cases in GB dropped dramatically.


Explain the importance of Jenner’s discovery of the smallpox vaccine in medicine?Don’t forget there was strong opposition to this idea.

Revision Card 12 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = The biggest breakthrough in medicine? (Pasteur – 1860s)


1. Louis Pasteur was alive from 1822 to 1895.2. His big discovery/theory was Germ Theory. This meant that germs were the cause of

infectious diseases. (microbes in the air cause decay)3. Pasteur published germ theory in 1861 – but it would take 20 years or more to have a

big impact on vaccinations and public health. 4. Pasteur worked for several different industries. He worked for the brewing industry

for Monsieur Bigo, and also the sugar beet industry in 1857. He also worked for the silkworm industry. Pasteur became a professor of Chemistry.

5. Pasteur investigated why alcoholic drinks went sour, why silkworms were dying of disease but also tried to find a link between germs and decay.

6. Louis Pasteur’s father and daughters died. He also had a stroke which left him paralysed.

7. Before Pasteur proved germ theory people believed God was a cause of disease, miasma (bad smells), the humours and Spontaneous Generation (which meant people thought germs were caused by decay – not the other way round)

8. He was able to prove germ theory by using his invention of the swan necked flask. He could also use better microscopes than people had before.

9. Pasteur had serious and strong opposition from scientists at the time such as monsieur Pouchet – even Florence Nightingale refused to believe in it in the late 1800s!

10. It was a big breakthrough because he and other scientists could identify illnesses and then develop different vaccines because unlike Jenner they knew what they were looking for.


• Explain the factors which led to the discovery of germ theory?• Explain why Pasteur’s germ theory was so important in medicine?• Who was more important in medicine – Jenner, Pasteur or Koch – explain?

Revision Card 13 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Koch vs Pasteur – who was the most important?

Information to revise…1. Key dates: 1843 – 1910. Nobel Prize in 1905.

2. Who was Koch? German doctor who became interested in Pasteur’s work and began to study bacteria too. His wife bought him a microscope for his birthday and it sparked an interest for him.

3. He Discovered the specific bacterium that causes anthrax, which also was the final proof of Pasteur’s germ theory. So, his work built on Pasteur’s and enabled more discoveries – could see him as important for developing germ theory into practical vaccinations.

4. Laid down the methodology of how researchers should discover the germ that caused a specific infectious disease, enabling others to find bacteria for, eg, typhoid, tetanus, meningitis, dysentery, cholera, plague

5. SCI/TECH were important: Developed ways of staining and studying bacteria so they could be photographed using a new high‐quality photographic lens and studied in detail. Also used chemical industrial dyes developed in Germany. (Industry)

6. TEAMWORK: His assistant Julius Petri discovered how to grow cultures of bacteria on a substance made from potatoes and gelatine (much easier to study than a liquid)

7. Problems: Ongoing rivalry with Pasteur (a French scientist) It was still quite slow to identify diseases and vaccines even with teams – but at least they knew what they were looking for.

8. German government was keen to promote Koch because of the rivalry and war between G and France. This led to too many claims of discoveries when they had not been made – watch out for propaganda!!

9. Koch and Pasteur did work together and praised each other when their countries made peace.

10. Better communications between scientists led to more discoveries.

Questions to have a go at…• Explain the factors which led to Koch’s discoveries of vaccines?• Explain why Koch’s work was so important in medicine?• Who was more important in medicine – Jenner, Pasteur or Koch – explain?

The German government showing Koch as a heroic St George defeating the dragon of diseases –propaganda – or justified?

Step aEdward Jenner

Step 6Crick & WatsonDNA

Step 5 Fleming, Florey & ChainAntibiotics.

Step 1Louis Pasteur & Germ Theory

Step 2Robert Koch develops Germ theory & applies it.

Step 3 Louis Pasteur’s work in the 1880s

Step 4 SulphonamidesEhrlich & Domagk

Explain which one of these discoveries was the most important in the prevention of disease?

1. What did they do?2. How were/are their ideas limited?3. How big was their contribution in prevention of disease?

Learning outcomes…I can…1. Summarise the discoveries of Louis Pasteur.

(D/C)2. Consider the importance of the factors which

helped Louis Pasteur make his discoveries. (C/B)

3. Judge the significance of Pasteur’s work in medicine. (B/A/A*)

Revision Card 14 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Was Florence Nightingale REALLY important? (1800s)


1. At Scutari during the Crimean War (1854) she emphasised the need for better medical care of patients – this work was reported in papers and she was seen as a hero.

2. Nightingale School for nurses set up in 1860 – better training for nurses to care and help patients survive.

3. Published book “Notes on Nursing” – world famous manual to improve nursing.4. She wrote over 200 books about hospital design and organisation.5. Germany had proper training of nurses from 1833 – she built on this. She had

trained at Kaiserwerth in Germany. 6. Nursing was not seen as a respectable career until the work of Nightingale.7. She led a team of nurses in the Crimean War – first woman to do so – helped by

wealthy family connections.8. She still did not agree with Pasteur’s Germ theory – even by 1900 – but did believe

in clean hospitals.9. Doctors were becoming more professional in GB due to the qualifications and

exams they had to have from the Royal College of Surgeons.10. 1858 General Medical Council set up so that all qualified doctors had to be

registered.

Questions to have a go at…• How important was the work of Florence Nightingale in improving hospital care in

the 19th century?• Explain developments in medical training from 1700‐1900?


Yes there were clearly steps forward. However, hospitals and care was still run by charitable donation by 1900. Hospitals for the poor were not good. Her work would have an impact when government took responsibility for hospitals and would set standards of hygiene in the 1940s.

Revision Card 15 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Hospitals: should we see them as houses of death in the 1800s?


1. 1859 – first Cottage Hospital = Sussex – small hospitals for local care – by 1900 there were 300 of them.

2. 18 voluntary hospitals in London 1850s – 4000 beds – inadequate & run by charities – not secure funding – therefore poor conditions.

3. Doctors at voluntary hospitals gave services for free – therefore care and treatment was inconsistent.

4. Middle & upper classes could afford treatment – even at home.5. Some doctors set up sick clubs where you could pay weekly and build up funds to pay

when needed treatment.6. Working classes – millions of people could not afford treatment.7. Many elderly people who could not afford to get care went into workhouses to be fed and

sheltered – many of these had disgusting conditions. 8. 1867 London – government ordered workhouses to work together to build infirmaries so

people could be cared for and treated better.9. By 1900 there were still thousands of poor people in workhouses when they should have

been in hospitals – BUT the infirmaries were treating more than voluntary hospitals.10. By 1900 hospitals were still appalling by today’s standards. However, at least because of

the work of Nightingale and Pasteur there was now a discussion about wanting to improve them!


• How was care of the sick improving from 1700‐1900? • How important was the work of Nightingale in improving care for the sick by

1900?

Revision Card 16 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Had medicine and public health really improved from 1750‐1900?

Information to revise…1. Individuals such as Jenner, Pasteur & Koch had a big impact on medicine due to

their discoveries relating to the cause of diseases – and vaccinations.2. However, the work they did took time to have such big impact because of serious

opposition which needed overcoming.3. Government started to support individuals such as Jenner, Pasteur & Koch and

made investments in their work e.g. Institut Pasteur in Paris. 4. However, it took time for the teams of scientists to develop new vaccines for

different diseases.5. There were big advances in science and tech which did not happen in previous

periods – eg improved microscopes and chemical dyes helping Koch.6. However, industrialisation brought terrible living conditions in the big cities – e.g.

Cholera outbreaks in London up until 1866.7. Hospitals and care for the sick were improving – e.g. nursing became a profession

and wards became cleaner by 1900.8. However, hospitals were still run by charities and there were still too few of them.

Many poor people could not afford care.9. This period of time saw huge developments and change.10. However, there were still many continuities and problems in 1900 such as appalling

public health in cities as seen in Charles Booth’s research on the slums in London.


How far had progress been made in medicine and public health by 1900?Changes were still taking too long for many…

Revision Card 17 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Why did Life expectancy increase in the 20th C? (Magic Bullets)


1. In 1900 people were still dying from a range of public health diseases such as TB and pneumonia, whereas by 1997 most people were dying of “old age” diseases such as heart problems or Cancers.

2. Life expectancy in 1901 was 47. The Boer War showed how malnourished and unhealthy British working class men were.

3. Huge scientific and tech developments in the 20th C increased our life expectancy. Also increased government involvement in care through the NHS helped.

4. Magic Bullets were a key development to help in the fight against diseases. 5. A vaccine prevents a disease, but a magic bullet can cure you of a disease if you

already have it.6. A magic bullet is a chemical drug which can target the microbe / disease.7. Ehrlich – a member of Koch’s team – knew of dyes and antitoxins. Found a magic

bullet – Salvarsan 606 which cured Syphilis. 8. Government supported him with funds + scientists such as Hata joined the team so

by 1909 they had discovered Salvarsan 606.9. 1932 – 2nd magic bullet – Prontosil – discovered by Domagk. This red dye seemed

to work against blood poisoning. Sulphonamides in Prontosil were developed for different infections.

10. Many chemical magic bullets had side effects – damaged kidneys or turned you red. Not perfect yet!


You will want to revise this in case you get a question about teamwork – government – science as important factors in the development of medicine.

Revision Card 18 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Penicillin – the wonder drug which saved millions? (1920s‐40s)

Information to revise…1. Lister discovered Penicillin in the 1800s but did nothing with it.2. In 1928 Alexander Fleming discovered Penicillin by chance in his laboratory. He

could grow a little but could not make it or make it into a medicine / drug. 3. In 1929 Fleming published his discovery of Penicillin.4. Florey and Chain at Oxford Uni read Fleming’s work and started to make Penicillin

themselves.5. Norman Heatley helped design the scientific equipment which could produce

penicillin.6. Florey & Chain first tested Penicillin on mice.7. The British government could only give them £25 for research in 1940 because

they were too focused on WW2.8. Florey and Chain tested Penicillin on humans in the 1940s – e.g a policeman called

Albert Alexander. Unfortunately they did not have enough and although he was getting better when they ran out, he died.

9. Dec 1941 the USA joined the war and were interested in penicillin. They funded the mass production of it on an industrial scale – remember the British could not do this.

10. Florey, Chain & Heatley had not made a new discovery themselves, but they had developed ways to make it a useful, practical treatment. It saved millions of lives in WW2.

Questions to have a go at…• How important has teamwork been in the development of medicine in the 20th C?• Why was WW2 an important factor in the development of Penicillin?• Explain the importance of the work of Florey & Chain?

Who was really responsible for the development of Penicillin?

Revision Card 19 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = DNA – the future of medicine? (1950s +)

Information to revise…1. Study of genetics began in 19th century when Mendel had

the idea of characteristics being passed down.2. 20th C could use electron microscopes to see inside human

cells.3. Scientists realised if they could identify sets of codes which

determine appearance then they could do the same for disease.

4. Crick & Watson investigated structure of DNA using X ray crystallography developed by Wilkins and Franklin.

5. 1953 – W & C discovered structure of DNA.6. 1990 Human Genome Project to map out chromosomes in

cells.7. Scientists have identified particular genes that pass on

hereditary conditions.8. Could replace faulty cells with new ones from stem cell

research – controversial.9. Better understanding of where some illnesses come from. 10.Modern doctors believe that stem cells and genetic

engineering will allow doctors to cure or prevent most diseases in the 21st century. In 1999, however, a healthy young man who volunteered for gene therapy to cure a congenital liver complaint died of a toxic response.

Revision Card 20 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = Has Science been the biggest life saver of the 20th C?


1. X – rays – Roentgen 1895 – developed for use in 1900s2. X Ray crystallography – we can now analyse DNA – what potential will

that have?3. Microscopes – electron – can even see inside cells.4. Incubators to keep babies alive.5. Endoscope – cameras can go inside the body to help diagnosis and

treatment.6. Pacemakers7. Dialysis machines8. CAT / MRI scans 9. Use of radioactivity10.Dispensing instruments such as hypodermic needles and intravenous

drips.


How significant has science been as a factor in the development of medicine from 1900‐2000? (or ever!)


Have these developments also been helped by other factors such as war and teamwork. For example blood banks developed in WW1?

Revision Card 21 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = How far did public health improve in the 20th century? Pt 1

Information to revise…Public Health was nowhere near perfect by 1900.1. As a result of this British governments decided to take further action to improve conditions – for

economic and political reasons (get more votes & win more wars!) Also Charles Booth’s investigations made people aware that the Public Health Acts had been improvements but were simply not enough to improve all slums.

2. 40% of people who volunteered to be soldiers in the Boer war in 1902 were suffering from malnutrition and diseases such as Ricketts. The British government were worried they would lose power and wealth if they lost wars like this – they did not want to waste money fighting close run wars, but needed healthier people if they were going to win wars!

3. The Liberal Reforms of 1902‐1919…

1902 ‐Midwives Act ‐ all midwives to be trained1906 ‐ School meals to be provided1907 ‐ School medicals started1908 ‐ Old age pensions started1909 ‐ Town Planning Act ‐ stopped the building of back to back houses1911 ‐ Sickness benefits started & National Insurance to pay for healthcare.1914‐18 ‐WW1 ‐ PM Lloyd George said that the soldiers who suffered and fought in the war deserved to return to a “land fit for heroes”1919 ‐ Schemes looked at to improve workers’ housing.

4. For the first time British governments were co‐ordinating and planning a programme of reforms which would improve conditions and the lives of ordinary people. However, as with all new ideas and laws, there was strong opposition to the plans. In particular, private insurers felt they would lose business with the new National Insurance scheme, and doctors were worried about loss of income if they became more closely linked to the state/government. However, the Liberal governments wanted to make improvements because there were still slums and many people in cities lived in poverty.

5. 2 things which meant more changes were needed =World War OneThe Great Depression of 1929‐1930s – which caused high unemployment and poverty.The problems of the 1920s and 30s led politicians to set up more housing schemes and welfare systems. However, all of these ideas became a bit blurred and confusing – they needed to be co‐ordinated more effectively. The factor which would push governments to do this wasWORLD WAR TWO (1939‐45).


Revision Card 22 – Medicine Through Time. Paper 1 Edexcel GCSE History.Killer Question = How far did public health improve in the 20th century? Pt 2

Information to revise…1. World War Two was a factor for improving Public Health because it led to serious damage to

Britain’s cities which would need re‐building (and planning). Also, as the war ended the LabourParty effectively campaigned to British people to say they deserved a forward looking, and reforming government which would put ordinary people’s needs first. During the war all political parties worked together.

2. Labour politicians in particular came up with ideas and strategies to co‐ordinate welfare & improvements more effectively. In particular 2 individuals; Sir William Beveridge & Anuerin Bevanworked hard to create what became known as THE WELFARE STATE and the NHS.

3. 1948 ‐ Birth of the National Health Service – healthcare free at the point of delivery – hospitals for all!

4. So how did the NHS come into existence? In World War 2 the British government set up an Emergency Medical Service to provide free treatment for casualties.

5. In 1942 the Beveridge Report was published which recommended looking after people “from the cradle to the grave” and this sounded good to people who had been through the misery of war and so Labour were elected in 1945.

6. In 1945, when the Labour Government came into power, it faced opposition from doctors who thought the new National Health Service would tell them where and when to treat people and pay each doctor equally. When the NHS was created in 1948, only 10% of doctors expressed support for it!

7. Labour politicians restored the Doctors’ faith in the NHS, and the Labour Government, by allowing them to treat patients privately as well as on the NHS.

8. Most people were keen on the idea of the NHS to allow free treatment for all. However, in 1950 the government had to pay for their part in the Korean War as well as the rising costs of the NHS. From 1948 to now the cost and funding of the NHS has been a massive political “hot potato” – especially as technological developments, and private development of drugs to treat patients have expanded.

9. Government has continued to play a larger role in public health – eg health campaigns such as anti‐smoking – taxing and statements on packets to ban on public smoking in 2007.

10. Vaccine campaigns eg Polio in 1950s and Clean Air Acts of 50s have also led to improvements in public health.

Questions to have a go at…• Explain the importance of government in improving public health in the 20th C?• What led to the setting up of the NHS by 1948?

Today’s 5 facts to memorise are… Test yourself – cover or fold over the left hand side – write them out off by heart.

1. The Ancient Greek theory of the 4 humours was the first natural theory of the cause of disease.

2. The theory of the 4 humours was used for over 1500 years it was thereforeimportant.

3. Using the 4 Humours for 1500 years had a negative impact on medicine because it focused on the symptoms like phlegm and vomit as the cause of disease.

4. The 4 humours could be affected by seasons, weather, diet and exercise.

5. The ancient Romans continued to use the 4 Humours. Galen adapted it to the theory of the opposites.

Homework – Revision – Medicine Through Time – Paper 1 Memorise these facts…


1. The Romans developed a better system of public health because they had a well organised government which paid for it by collecting taxes.

2. The Roman government could also co‐ordinate big engineering projects such as aqueducts (e.g. at Leicester)

3. The Romans had skilled engineers who could design and construct aqueducts, sewers and Baths – e.g. the sewers at York.

4. The Romans wanted a healthy army. They therefore built special hospitals called valetudinaria to treat soldiers.

5. The army had excellent facilties such as the baths and toilets at Housesteads Fort on Hadrian’s wall.



1. In 46BC Julius Caesar passed a law which made doctors Roman citizens instead of slaves. This made doctors more professional.

2. Most Roman doctors were actually Greeks. They therefore practised Hippocratic ideas. Galen was the most famous Roman doctor – but he was originally Greek.

3. In AD 157 Galen was a doctor to the Gladiators in Pergamum.

4. Galen worked for the Emperor’s son (Commodus) in AD169.

5. Galen encouraged young doctors to visit Alexandria to learn more about the human body. Most of his work was on anatomy (study of the human body)



1. Galen dissected many animals to describe the human body; which meant he made many mistakes.

2. Galen believed there was a layer of vessels called the RETAE MIRABILE. He thought this might explain the soul in our bodies. This is why the Christian Church adopted Galen’s work.

3. Throughout The Dark Ages and Middle Ages the Christian Church in Europe preserved the books of Galen (useful for people later in the Renaissance)

4. The Christian Church in The Middle Ages did not allow anyone to question Galen’s work. If you did it was like questioning God and could lead to imprisonment or death.

5. Galen’s ideas and books were used to train physicians in The Middle Ages.



1. The Roman army left Britain in 410AD.2. The collapse of The Roman Empire had a

big impact on public health (but maybe not medicine)

3. Poorly organised tribal government, too much war and lack of communication meant the facilities built by The Romans fell into disrepair (fell apart – disused)

4. Libraries of medical books were destroyed or lost and people were not interested in the use of trained physicians.

5. Medicine continued to be based on herbs and superstition; the power of the Church grew which led to more focus on supernatural ideas.



1. The Dark Ages is an example of a REGRESSION in medicine – things went backwards.

2. In the Dark Ages public health facilities in cities like Wroxeter and York were abandoned or not looked after.

3. In the West during The Dark Ages people became more superstitious again. For example painting things red was believed to ward off illness.

4. The Saxons and Vikings who took over in the West lived in small villages, had no central government and did not really like Roman ideas.

5. In the East, Islamic doctors continued to use more practical ideas such as the 4 humours.



1. By about 1000AD in Europe things began to settle down and The Church became a very powerful organisation.

2. The Church could be good for medicine because it helped preserve the books of Galen.

3. The Church also helped set up medical schools and libraries – e.g. In 1100 AD the first medical school in Salerno was established.

4. The Church could also hinder medicine. It controlled dissection and banned the questioning of Galen.

5. The Church preferred people to be blessed by a monk or priest and to go on pilgrimage; rather than being treated by a doctor.



1. The Church did set up hospitals in the Middle Ages. However these were really to care not treat or cure patients.

2. The main focus of Church ran hospitals was prayer for the sick. No‐one else set up hospitals – government was focused way too much on war.

3. In 1123AD St Bartholomew’s Church was set up.

4. The Church also set up almshouses to care for people.

5. In the Middle Ages there were some professional surgeons e.g. Hugh of Lucca. Hugh of Lucca and his son Theodericsuggested and used wine as an antiseptic. This idea did not spread widely due to poor communications.



1. The Black Death struck Britain from 1347‐51.

2. God and superstition dominated medieval medicine. During the Black Death in Barcelona a 7km long candle was placed around the city so God would protect it.

3. People prayed and blamed their sins for the terrible pestilence (disease) Medieval people did not know the cause of disease.

4. Flagellants believed whipping themselves would stop God punishing them with the Black Death.

5. Other Medieval ideas about the causes of the Black Death were the movement of the planets, Jews and the humours being out of balance.



1. Medieval medical training was very limited but there were some positive signs.

2. As society became a little more stable universities and medical schools developed; ran by The Church.

3. BUT ‐ There was no formal professional qualification for doctors.

4. There was no professional organisation to increase the quality of doctors.

5. Physicians and doctors learned from the books of Galen preserved by The Church.



1. Medieval people did use humouraltreatments such as bleeding and purges. However they often mixed these up with superstitious zodiac charts or prayers.

2. Medieval public health was poor. 3. Towns were dirty and full of animals and

waste. The Church had good facilities such as at Canterbury Cathedral –garderobes (toilets), fresh water and baths. However, these were just for monks, the abbott and Church workers.

4. The Church collected taxes and was well organised to build facilities as good as The Romans – but didn’t always share them.

5. The Black Death of 1347‐51 killed over 1/3 of Europe’s population.



1. The Renaissance was from 1450‐1750 and meant re‐birth of ancient ideas – e.g. Galen.

2. During The Renaissance there was some change thanks to the work of individuals such as Pare, Vesalius and Harvey who all worked in anatomy and surgery.

3. Changes during The Renaissance did not improve treatments. For example when Charles II was treated in 1685 he was bled, purged and given laxatives. He was even given Bezoar Stone which had been proved a failure by pare 100 years before!

4. In 1454 Johan Gutenberg introduced the printing press to Europe which helped individuals print and communicate their ideas.

5. 1543 – Vesalius printed a book called “Fabric of The Human Body”.



1. 1628 – William Harvey published “The Motion of the Heart and blood” about circulation.

2. Government supported individuals during the renaissance – e.g. Vesalius was supported and sponsored by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V – this was important when Vesalius began to question Galen. Harvey was supported by King Charles I.

3. Pare developed the use of silk ligatures, false limbs and proved Bezoar Stone was useless. By chance in a war/siege he discovered that eggyolks were a less painful but quite effective way to seal wounds.

4. In 1665 the Great Plague hit London. The superstition, praying and desperation of people was very similar to the Black Death in 1347. This is a good example to prove there had been no progress in treating or explaining the cause of disease from medieval to renaissance times.

5. Lady Grace Mildmay and Dr Sydenham’s treatments in the Renaissance were mostly herbal and humouralwith constant mentioning of God. However some doctors were also starting to use minerals to treat people (although a lot of these were poisonous – e.g. lead and mercury!)



1. Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox and published his work to The Royal Society in 1798.

2. The Royal Society rejected Jenner’s work. There was such strong opposition to vaccination that even when the government funded doctors to vaccinate people, they had to have guns to protect themselves from attacks!

3. After Jenner had published his work over 100 doctors signed a declaration that they were confident in his vaccine.

4. In 1852 the government made it compulsory to be vaccinated.

5. Jenner did not know why his vaccine worked; but his observations and recordings made him confident that James Phipps would not die when he tested it on him.


SFD - The Oakwood Academy

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