Session 1-Intro to IOP

8/11/2019 Session 1-Intro to IOP

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ORGANIZATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION


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WHAT'S PSYCHOLOGY TO

YOU!!

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PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAYLIFE

Get motivated

Improve leadership skills

Be a better communicator

Learn to understand others

Make more accurate decisions

Improve your memory

Become more productive

Be healthier

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What is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and

how they are affected by an organisms physical, state,

mental state, and external environment.


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What is Psychology?




Scientific study requires several things:

1. Theoretical framework

2. Testable Hypotheses

3. Empirical evidence


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What is Psychology?




Behavior and mental processes include overt,

observable instancesbut also include subtle kinds

of instances, like brain activity.


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What is Psychology?


how they are affected by an organismsphysical, state,


Humans and many other creatures included in the

scientific study of behavior and mental processes


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What is Psychology?


how they are affected by an organismsphysical state,


Physical state relates primarily to the organisms

biology- most especially the state of thebrainand

central nervous system


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What is Psychology?


how they are affected by an organisms physical state,


Mental state does not have to be conscious- can

study mental states in many creatures without their

conscious awareness - and can be studied in terms ofbrain activity.


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What is Psychology?




All organisms function in an environment that is

constantly presenting them with problems and

challenges that must be solved.


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What is Psychology?




Most people think of psychology as the study of

differences between people, but it also includes the

study of similaritiesbetween people.


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Sub-fields of Psychology

Clinical Psychology

Counseling

Educational Psychology

Environmental Psychology

Forensic Psychology

Experimental Psychology

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Social Psychology

Sports Psychology

Health Psychology

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Goals of Psychology

Four basic goals:

To describehow people & living being behave.

To understand(explain) the causes of each behavior.

To predicthow people will behave under certain conditions.

To controlor influence behavior through knowledge & control of

its causes.

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Goals of Psychology

Four basic goals: examples

A child throwing tantrums in mall.

A consumer buying a specific brand of tea/shampoo

A mother taking care of her children

A manager being bossy!!

A shy person!!

An employee being disobedient

An advertising person making an ad strategy.

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BASIC and APPLIED

RESEARCH Basic Research: research conducted for the

purpose of advancing knowledge rather than

for practical application (typically threegoals: description, explanation, prediction)

Applied Research: research for the purpose

of solving practical problems (typically thefourth goal: to control behavior)


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Difference between Psychologists &

PsychiatristsPsychiatrists:They are physicians who

specialize in the treatment of psychological

disorders. Not all psychiatrists have extensivetraining in psychotherapy, but as MDs they

can prescribe medications

Clinical psychologists:They have PhDs

mostly. They are experts in research,

assessment, and therapy, all of which is

verified through a supervised internship.


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Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Introduction to the World of Work


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Organizational Psychology (OP)

OP is the science of human behavior at work

Efficiency/productivity of organizations

Health/well-being of employees Development/discovery of scientific psychological

principles at work


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SPECIFIC AREAS OF CONCERN

Recruiting and selecting employees for jobs Training employees

Assessing performance

Defining and analyzing jobs

Determining people feel about work Determining why people act as they do at work

Effects work has on people

Effects people have on one another

How organizations are structured and function Designing work

Designing tools and equipment

Employee Health and Safety


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History of I/O

Began early 1900s

World War I first mass testing

Between wars psychology helping business: I side

Hawthorne studies impact of social aspects: O side World War II: Psychology and the war effort

Civil rights movement: Job relevance

Technological change


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Significant Psychologists

Hugo Munsterbergdevelopment of vocational tests for

selection.

James Cattelldeveloped a measurethe mental test

meant to assess a variety of intellectual capacities and to

highlight the differences in a group.

Walter D. Scottfather of I/O psychology his work

on psychology of advertising. (rational or emotional

buyers)


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Development of the field Army Alpha & Army Betatwo intelligence tests

developed in World War I. (placement and selection

purpose)

Hawthorne Studies (1920s)

World War IImental health assessment, counseling and

engaged with engineers to design military equipment

Engineering Psychology.

The Human Relations Movementstudy of job training,supervision, working conditions etc.

Civil Rights Act (1964)selection processes challenged

and discrimination was addressed.


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Prospects for I/O Field

Rapidly growingNew areas/topics

Attracting more graduate students

More graduate programs

More psychologists in the world Job market strong: Academic and applied

Area of psychology making an impact on the world

Relevant to anyone who works

Interdisciplinary connections Business, engineering, health fields, other areas of psychology


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Organizational Psychological

Perspectives

Five perspectives to understand any behavior

at work
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Biological Perspective

It considers biological factors in the study of behavior

How nerve cells joined together to function biologically

How the inherited characteristics influence behavior

How the functioning of body affects hopes, fears

Which behavior are instinctual

Its contribution is broad in studying work related stress,

fatigue factor, designing machines & tools, work

agronomics, safety & health issues at work place etc

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Psychodynamic Perspective

It believes that behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts over

which we have little or no awareness or control e.g. dreams & slips of

tongue result of unconscious psychic activity

Sigmund Freud was a Viennese physician who laid its foundation in

early 1900s.

Focus was on unconscious determinants of behavior

It application is in the areas of aggressive behavior at work place,

counter productive behaviours, conflicts among employees,

discrimination, etc

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Cognitive Perspective

It focuses on how people think, understand & know about the world.

Emphasis is on learning how people comprehend & representthe

outside world within themselves. How our ways of thinking about

world influence our behavior.

Its OP application is in the areas of group dynamics, conflicts,

thinking, memory, learning, decision making, problem solving, etc

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Behavioral Perspective

John B. Watson (1920s)started behavioral approach.

It focuses on observable behavior that can be measured objectively.

Watson stressed that complete understanding of behavior can be doneby studying & modifying environment in which people operate.

Its areas of influence at work place are job satisfaction, reward system,

perceptions, marketing & advertising etc

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Humanistic Perspective

It suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop and be

in controlof their lives & behavior. Each of us has capacity to seek &

reach fulfillment.

Carl Rogers & Maslow leading humanistic psychologistspeople

will strive to reach their full potential, if given the opportunity.

The emphasis is on free willthe ability to make free decisions about

ones own behavior & life.

Free will is opposed to determinism which sees behavior as caused or

determined by things beyond a persons control.

It is applied in areas of individual differences, biases, etc

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Psychological Perspectivesan

example Behaviour can be viewed from different viewpoints using

these perspectives

Each will have a different explanation for behaviour

Aggression towards supervisor

Consumers behavior
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WHY I/O PSYCHOLOGISTCONDUCT RESEARCH?


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I/O research areas

To study different work place behaviors

To determine the causes/reasons behind certain behaviors

To determine the jobs satisfaction & motivation factors at

work

To determine the problem at work

To bridge the gap between job requirement & performance

To get right people for right job! Restructuring variableshuman, design, job

Planning & strategy in terms of HRM


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RESEARCH METHODS INPSYCHOLOGY


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What is Scientific Thinking?

What is the difference between these two statements?

1. I like Fords better than Hondas.

2. Fords are better than Hondas.

3. Fords are the best in the world and Hondas do not exist; they are

a conspiracy of the Japanese government.

And what about this statement?


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1. Critical thinking - assess claims on the basis of well-supported reasons andevidence- not on emotional or anecdotal reasoning.

2. Involves asking questions - one of the most important is, WHY?

3. Involves defining terms - must be clear and concrete

4. Involves examining evidence - Let me have my opinion! doesnt count

5. Involves analyzing assumptions and biases - scientific thinkers do not take

anything as proven fact and work hard to overcome their own biases in

thinking6. Involves avoiding emotional reasoning - do not let gut feelings replace clear

thinking - emotional conviction does not settle arguments7. Involves avoiding oversimplification - the obvious answer is often wrong and

misleading - do not argue based on own anecdotal evidence

8. Involves consideration of other interpretations - the best interpretations are

supported by the most evidence and explain the most variables


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9. Involves tolerating uncertainty - sometimes evidence is unclear or does not

even exist

10. Involves asking questions that can be tested in this world


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Scientific Attitudes

Understanding behavior rely on scientific methodsof research in psychology.

Three attitudes:

Curiosity - Whys? Skepticism - evidence

Open-mindedness - conclusions may differfrom their beliefs

Scientific method is an approach used bypsychologists to systematically acquire knowledge& understanding about behavior and other areas ofinterest.

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The Scientific Method

Form of critical thinking based on careful

measurement and controlled observation


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The Scientific Method (cont)

Six Basic Elements

Observation

Defining a problem Proposing a hypothesis (an educated

guess that can be tested)

Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis Publishing results

Building a theory


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Some Terms

Hypothesis testing: Scientifically testing the

predicted outcome of an experiment or an

educated guess about the relationshipbetween variables

Operational definition: Defines a scientific

concept by stating specific actions or

procedures used to measure it


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Theory

Theory: A system of ideas that interrelates

facts and concepts, summarizes existing

data, and predicts future observationsA good theory must be falsifiable (i.e.,

operationally defined) so that it can be

disconfirmed


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Some important terms

Sample & Population

Small number of people which represent the

characteristics of the population. Variables

Behaviors, events, or other characteristics

which can change or vary in some way.

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Fig. 1-2, p. 20


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Scientific method

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Identify

Questions

Of

Interest

Carry out

Research

Operationalize

Hypothesis

Select a research

Method

Collect a data

Analyze a data

Formulate an

Explanation

Specify a

theory

Develop a

hypothesis


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The Case In March 1964, a young woman named Kitty was stabbed

repeatedly & raped by a knife-wielding assailant as shereturned from work to her New York City apartment. The3 am attack lasted about 30 minutes, during which herscreams and pleas for help were heard by 38 of her

neighbors. Many went to their windows to find out whatwas happening. Yet nobody helped her and by the timeanyone called the police, she had died.

The incident drew attention from a shocked public andpeople expressed outrage over bystander apathy and

peoples refusal to get involved. In New York Citypeople reacted with disbelief and even shame to thismurder.

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Darley & Latane


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Scientific understanding

Question of interest (observation)

Kitty incident. Why did no one help?

Form hypothesis

If multiple bystanders are present, THEN diffusion ofresponsibility will decrease bystanders likelihood ofintervening.

Test hypothesis

Create emergency in controlled setting

Manipulate number of bystanders

Measure helping

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Scientific understanding

Analyze data

Helping decreases as the perceived number of

bystanders increases. (hypothesis is supported)

Further research & theory building

Additional studies support the hypothesis. Theory of

Social Impact is developed.

New hypothesis derived from the theory The theory is then tested directly by deriving new

hypothesis and conducting new research.

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Observations to Forming

hypothesis Observation 1

Employees who are exposed to highly stressful conditions loseconcentration.

Observation 2

Shoppers pick up new packages more than old ones! Observation 3

A new employee would found to be well dressed and morepunctual than old employees.

Observation 4

Employees who are flexible show quick adjustment to theenvironment.

Observation 5 People avoid bargaining in bigger malls.

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Observations to Forming

hypothesis Hypothesis 1

Employees tend to perform low in highly stressful conditions.

Hypothesis 2 Shoppers prefer new packaging over old ones.

Hypothesis 3Newer employees are more conscious of their outlook than old

ones! (gender).

Hypothesis 4 Employees who are flexible are quick learners hence high

performers. Hypothesis 5

People tend to accept the high prices of products in malls than insmaller stores!

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Psychological Research Methods of data collection:

Qualitative

Gathers information that is not in numerical form. For example, diary

accounts, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews and unstructured

observations.

Data is typically descriptive data and as such is harder to analyze thanquantitative data.

Includes focus groups, in-depth interviews, and reviews of documents for

types of themes

Quantitative

Gathers data in numerical form which can be put into categories, or in

rank order, or measured in units of measurement; used to construct

graphs and tables of raw data.

Surveys, structured interviews & observations, and reviews of records

or documents for numeric information

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Diff


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Difference Qualitative

Primarily inductive process

used to formulate theory or

hypotheses

More subjective. More in-

depth information on a few

cases

Text-based , no statistical tests Unstructured or semi-

structured response options

Can be valid and reliable:

largely depends on skill and

rigor of the researcher

Time expenditure lighter on

the planning end and heavier

during the analysis phase

Less generalizable

Quantitative

Primarily deductive process

used to test pre-specified

concepts/hypotheses that make

up a theory

More objective: provides

observed effects (interpreted

by researchers) on a problemor condition

Number-based, statistical tests

are used.

Fixed response options

Can be valid and reliable:

largely depends on the

measurement /instrument used

Time expenditure heavier on

the planning phase and lighter

on the analysis phase

More generalizable


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Psychological Research

Meta Analysis

Naturalistic Observation

Experimental Research

Survey and interview Research

The Case Study and focus group

Correlational Research

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Meta Analysis/Archival Research

Research in which existing data such as census documents,

college records or newspaper clippings, previous studies

are examined to test a hypothesis.

Advantages:

It is an inexpensive means of testing a hypothesis.

Faster way

Disadvantages:

The data may not be in the form which can be used to

test the hypothesis fully.

The information could be incomplete or haphazard.

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Naturalistic Observation

Research in which investigator simply observes somenaturally occurring behavior and does not make a changein the situation.

Advantage: We get the first hand knowledge of what people do in

their natural situations but lack of control is the biggestdrawback.

Disadvantages:

Furthermore, if people realize that they are beingobserved, they may change their natural response.

Researcher is passive & simply records whatever ishappening

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Survey Research

Research in which people chosen to represent some larger population

are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts or

attitudes.

Advantages:

Straightforward way of finding out what people think, do, feel by

asking them directly.

Survey methods have become highly sophisticated enabling us to

make inferences.

Quick, easy, cost efficient Disadvantages:

People may not give their true responses.

Accuracy of sample is also very important factor.

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Interviews

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Typically involves a face-to-face meeting in which a researcher

(interviewer) asks an individual a series of questions.

Allows the interviewer to observe verbal & non-verbal behavior

Allows follow-up questions and clarifications

Advantage: Allows for a wider range of responses

Disadvantage:

Time consuming

No cause-and-effect relationships can be inferred


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The Case Study

An in-depth intensive investigation of an individual orsmall group of people.

Case study often involve psychological testinga

procedure in which carefully designed set of questions isused to gain insight into the personality of the individual orgroup being studied.

It is used not only to gain insight about the individual butto understand the general behavioral patterns of people.

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Focus Groups

Focus Group Interviews

A group of people who discuss a subject under

direction of a moderator. Mostly done by marketers and sociologists to learn about the consumer

insights and serious social issues.


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Correlational Research

It examines the relationship between two sets of variables

to determine whether they are associated or correlated

The strength or direction of the relationships between the

two variables are represented by a mathematical scorecorrelation that range from +1.0 to -1.0

Positive, Negative or zero correlation

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Experimental Research It examines the causalrelationship

Investigating the relationship between two (or more) variables

by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a

situation & observing the effects of that change on the other

aspects of the situation.

The change that experimenter deliberately produces in a

situation is called the exper imental manipulation.

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Research MethodsExperimental

(Continued)

Key features of an experiment:

Independent variable (factor that is manipulated)versus dependent variable (factor that is

measured)

Experimental group (receives treatment) versus

control group (receives no treatment)


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Experimental Research The manipulation implemented by the experimenter is called

treatment

Random assignment of participantsparticipantscharacteristics have equal chance to be distributed across thevarious groups

Significant Outcomemeaningful results (statisticalprocedures)

Replicationthe repetition of research using differentprocedures, settings, people in order to increase confidence inprior findings.

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Does TV increase

aggression? Only an

experimentcan

determine cause &

effect.


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(Continued) Potential researcherproblems:

Experimenter bias (researcher influences theresearch results in the expected direction)

Ethnocentrism (believing one's culture is typical ofall cultures)


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Art of Prediction


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(Continued) Potential participantproblems:

Sample bias: research participants are unrepresentative ofthe larger population

Participant bias: research participants are influenced by the

researcher or experimental conditions


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(Continued)


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Separating Fact from Fiction

Be skeptical/doubtful!

Consider the source of information

Ask yourself, Was there a control group? Look for errors in distinguishing between

correlation and causation (are claims based

on correlational results yet passed off as

causations?)


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Separating Fact from Fiction

(cont)

Be sure to distinguish between observation

and inference (e.g., Robert is crying, but do

we know why he is crying?)

Beware of oversimplifications, especially

those motivated by monetary gain

For example is not proof!


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The Barnum Effect

Barnum effect: Tendency to consider

personal descriptions accurate if stated in

general terms

Always have a little something for everyone.

Make sure all palm readings, horoscopes,

etc. are so general that something in them

will always apply to any one person!

The Science of Psychology:


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Ethical Guidelines

Ethical Guidelines for Human ResearchParticipants:

Informed consent

Voluntary participation

Restricted use of deception

Debriefing

Confidentiality

Alternative activities



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Ethical Guidelines (Continued)

Rights of Nonhuman Participants: Advocatesbelieve nonhuman research offers significantscientific benefits. Opponents question these

benefits & suggest nonhuman animals cannotgive informed consent.

General Guidelines: Psychologists mustmaintain high standards for both human &nonhuman animal research.

The Ethics of research


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The Ethics of research

American Psychological Association 1992 developed strictethical guidelines aimed at protecting participants:

Protection of participants from physical ormental harm

The right of privacy

Complete voluntary participationInforming participants about the nature of

procedures prior to their participation

Session 1-Intro to IOP

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