Scientific Research in Medecine

8/14/2019 Scientific Research in Medecine

1/42

ScientificResearch in Medecine

.


2/42

1. STAGES AND ELEMENTS WITHIN THE

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH- GENERALCONSIDERATIONS

1.1. Choosing the topic

1.2. Defining the work theory

1.3. Elaborating the plan

1.4. Bibliographical documentation

1.5. The development of the research

plan

1.6. The analysis of the results


3/42

1.1. Choosing the topic

- the interest for a specific field - individual

motivation

- the amount of general theoretical knowledge - the amount of theoretical knowledge in the

field (to inquire into the field individually)

- documentation possibilities

- prior knowledge

- practical aptitudes


4/42

1.2. Defining the work theory

Consideration points: - defining aspects on the subject

- the existence of former concerns - suggestions of solutions - the existing unknown quantity

- possible difficulties On the bases of this, there can be

formulated at least one theory of work


5/42

1.3. Elaborating the plan

- setting out the manner for planned research:experiment, direct observation, inquiry,comparative analysis

- estimating the period of time necessary forthe development of the research

- identifying some intermediary stages/phases-allow the periodical evaluation of the results andthe acomplished progress

- estimating the necessary material andequipement, in accordance with the

organization on intermediary stages/phases


6/42

1.4. Bibliographical

documentation

- knowledge of the preocupations and recent

results on the themes approached

- access to the bibliographic sources specific tothe themes, known as international scientific

authorities (high reputation magazines, recent

editions of some monographs, volumes of

works presented within some congresses, sitesthat belong to institutions with programs of

research on the subject )


7/42

1.5. The development of the research

plan

The Experiment

- a phenomenon created in experimental

conditions which are known, by eliminating as

many outside influences as possible - it is created under strit observation to

emphasize the relations between phenomena

- it requires knowing in detail the technical

methods used in order to be able to estimatethe limits and the precision degree that can be

achieved.


8/42

Fundamental rules in the organization

and development of experiments

- the variability of one agent ( modern statistic methods allow the

testing of a larger nomber of variables at the same time)

- the systematic elimination of various alternatives in the

interpretation of the relation cause- effect thus obtaining a limitedarea upon which the research can be concentrated

- the possibility of repetition - hard to achieve in the case of

the biological experiment

- registering every detail

- objectivity in the interpretation and evaluation of results - disregarding these fundamental rules > the stoppage of the

research


9/42

The reproduction of an

experiment

- the results vary in the case of the

constant maintenance of known agents

> one or more than one unknownagents alter the results > interesting

discovery

> technical error > examination ofthe technical details is very important


10/42

The "controlled" experiment - the

basis of experimental studies

- uses similar groups (randomly chosen, as similar as possible onall accounts, except for the variable agent on study)

- group "controll", "witness" - standard - group "test", "experimental" - subjected to a procedure which has

an effect that is expected to be known - selecting the groups: - logic, common sense - statistic methods to decide the criteria > distribution - random selection - one group = a sample from a

hypothetical population, infinetely large (special techniques tochoose a random sample and estimate the necessary size for it tobe representative)

- the variability of the biological material - limited controllover the subjects, mathematic techniques of correcting the

differences


11/42

A classification of

experiments a) the crucial experiment - verifies if the main hypothesis is true or not b) the preliminary experiment - economic nature - achieves a partial evaluation

- subtypes: - the pilot experiment- provides information about the opportunity of a field experiment on

a large scale - the acknoledgement experiment- offers the necessary data to orientate the planning of

the main experiment - the selection experiment- tests a large nomber of substances to discover which of them

can be later on selected for a purpose.

c) the simple, one- variable experiment - tests a single variable d) the complex, multi- variable experiment - includes more than one variable in the same experiment - economy of time and effort

- offers a larger amount of information in comparison to the information received if every

variable would be treated separately.


12/42

1.6. The analysis of the

results

- objective quantitative determinations - mathematical statistis methods: - utilizable in the examination of a hypothesis - limited significance, does not initiate a discovery - the medium value of the results offers a small

amount of information - more useful: the curve of the frequence

distributions, concrete numerical values with referenceto individual cases

- the error degree tolerated in the result -correlated with the precision imposed by the purpose of

the research


13/42

2. THE MOTIVATIONSAND THEQUALITIES OF

THE RESEARCH WORKER

- the challenge of the unknown (personal,

intelectual)

- ambition - the professional schooling (as a future

practitioner medical examiner, for the didactic

carrier, for the CV)

- the education of the way of thinking

- to achieve a name in the medical community


14/42

2. THE MOTIVATIONS AND THEQUALITIESOF

THE RESEARCHWORKER

- open, curious mind, independent thought - logical thinking - objectivity - imagination - close analysis of the documentation with a certain degree of skepticism

- solid knowledge, in order to be able to understand the existing information in the specializedliterature

- discipline - tenacity, perseverance - ambition - ingenuity - self-evaluation, knowing one's limits

- perceptive faculty - adventureous spirit - initiative - patience (whole years of waiting) - taking chances - personal sacrifices - power to work


15/42

3. THEORIES AND OBSERVATIONS AS

ORIGIN OF THE RESEARCH APPROACH

3.1. The hypothesis - assumption, temporary explanation, stated on the basis of some facts,

connections or known laws regarding some connections betweenphenomena, at the cause or the intern mechanism which produces it

- mental technique is the most important device the researcher can use - every scientific theory appears at the beginning under the shape of a

hypothesis (the natural selection theory) - objective thinking is to be kept at all times ( attachment, modification or

elimination; avoiding the misinterpretation of the observations and thepersonal interpretations in favour of the hypothesis)

- the purposes of the hypothesis: - (i) to descipher the meaning of a phenomenon/ event that is

insufficiently known; - (ii) to lead to new observations and new experiments

- types of hypothesis: a) correct; b) incorrect; c) personal; d) taken over.


16/42

Objective thinking

a) abandoning or modifying an incorrect hypothesis - the facts must be interpreted objectively and not in accordance

with the hypothesis - the value of the visible proof (negative) - avoiding the auxiliary hypotheses, complicated or improbable

(saving device) - the difference between: - maintaining a hypothesis contradicted by evidence

- maintaining a hypothesis (difficult to demontrate) againstwhich there is no evidence

- the hypothesis goes beyond the technical/ data level of theauxiliary domains (necessary for verification) existing at a certain

point


17/42

Objective thinking

b) objectivity - hypothesis = assumption

- personal opinions > subordinated to theobjective evidence - the respect for the truth - not altering the results

- the principle of the multiple hypotheses - the principle of the successive order of the

hypotheses - the value of the information that is not in

accordance with the hypothesis


18/42

Objective thinking

c) estimating an idea - not every idea can become a hypothesis - the grounds on which an idea can become a scientific

hypothesis are: - it has to be in accordance with the factual

material for the explanation of which it was formulated - verifiable on principle

- it has to be explainatory for a sphere as large aspossible of phenomena, not only for the restricted groupon the basis of which it was initially formulated

- the danger of the "clear" ideas


19/42

Correct/ incorrect hypothesis

( correctness)

a) Correct hypothesis - verified through experiment > concordant results > necessary

other experimental evidence for certitude

- veracity - established for those particular circumstances whichprevale in the achieved experimental conditions - an immediate solution of the problem under study is obtained - the arrival to a different hypothesis > different directions > new

directions of investigation, available in as many as possibleparticular cases

- the work hypothesis ( temporary aspect, formulated on the basisof the experimental data existing at a certain point, orientates thedevelopment of new directions in research)

- validity in any given conditions > theory > law


20/42

Correct/ incorrect hypothesis

( correctness)

b) Incorret hypothesis - can be productive > descoveries

- verified through experiment >nonconcordant results > renounciation? - the contradictory results can be brought into

unison with another auxiliary hypothesis,

playing an explanatory part - the main hypothesis > the new hypothesis

( synthesizes the added data)


21/42

Personal/ taken over

hypothesis (originality)

- the motivation of confirmation is

stronger for the personal hypothesis;

- the confirmation of a hypothesis thatwas taken over > reward for the actual

author

- the hypothesis that was taken over > byinducing, not imposing


22/42

3.2. The observation

- an active intelectual process, not passsive visualization - a device for the scientific knowledge > the methodical and

deliberate contemplation of an object or process according to apurpose

- very difficult, subjective ( depending on the person that observes- the degree of the observation of details, the direction of theobservation according to personal interests)

- very simple phenomena are difficult to notice and hard todescribe with precision

- depending on the degree of novelty of the element ( it is possibleto see an element more than one time without mentaly registeringit), on the interest of the observer

- the observers:

- attentive, focused ( watching, searching)


23/42

3.2. The observation

- calm, relaxed - prepared ( for the expected elements as well as for the

unforeseen ones) - there still appear errors that they are not aware of - the efficient observation = to signal a certain element, to point out

the meaning connecting it with something that was priorly known - the risk of making a false observation: sensorial, of reason ( the

mind has the involuntary tendency to fill out the gaps in knowledgewith information in accordance with the prior experience or

knowledge, or with some conscious expectations) - elements that are involved: - sensorial - perceptive ( visual, etc. ) - intelectual - partially conscious, partially uncounscious

- the field of observation: selective, without neglecting the whole

and the unexpeted elements


24/42

Types of observation

a) Spontaneous or passive observation - requires the establishment of facts as they happen naturally, without the

intervention of the subject > significant, if related to the memory(theoretical, practical data) or if they trigger the formulation of a hypothesis

- the purpose of the ovservation in the establishment of correlationsbetweeen things apparently not connected

- the accuracy and selection of information depends on: - the experience of the "trained" observer (details, signification) - the capacity to pass judgement

- the level of training - the ditributive attention > the observation of exceptions - intelectual, speculative-contemplative attitude - useful: notes, drawings

- allows the development of the hypothesis from which the observer

started on or the development of other hypotheses


25/42

Types of observation

b) Induced or active observation

- deliberately searched for, usually on the

basis of a hypothesis - the experiment = provoked observation


26/42

4. INTUITION AND IMAGINATION IN

THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

4.1. Intuition - its origin is in the subconscious

- clearing up or quick understanding of a situation

- the moment can be dependent or independent of the pursuit of aproblem

- not every intuitive thought is correct

- circumstances that lead to the emergence of the intuitive thought:

- a period of concentration on one subject - the will to finalize it

- professional discussions, elaborating material in writing or

reading some articles - on different subjects


27/42

INTUITION

- the principle of temporary detachment: a consecutive period ofpause, with the orientation of the attention to some other directionbecause the messages from the subconscious may not bereceived if the conscious thinking is constantly occupied or too tired

- different influences: the interruption, competing interests,personal problems

- the scientific flair - instinctive - "scientific instinct", scientific sense - practical: - the choice for a productive direction in the investigation

- the capacity to anticipate the directions of development ofthe subject, using the imagination for a perspective view

- recognizing the best solutions - eliminating the hypotheses that need too many

modifications

- forming an oppinion concerning some new discoveries


28/42

4.2. Imagination

- mental process of creation of some new ideas orrepresentations, on the basis of the prior perceptive andcognitive experience

- based on reality, essential moment of the creativethinking - types: (I) reproductive( mental representation of some

objects or phenomena which are not directly perceived,on the basis of descriptions), (ii) creative( elaborating

images and original new ideas) - educated, controlled by critical spirit and judgement

- uneducated > false leads, incorrect results


29/42

4.3. Characteristics of the

way of thinking

Inventive thinking

- the information/ unknown elements, difficulties > the stimulus >

the idea ( conscious thinking, unconscious thinking, imagination) >

reason > examining the idea >accepting it/ rejecting it

Productive thinking

- operates with a large nomber of various combinations

Conditioned thinking

- instinctively, the same route is fallowed every time > the risk of

the persistence of error - solution > a different way of approach, relaxing the thinking,

discussion


30/42

5. REASONINGS AND STRATEGIES IN SETTING OUT

THE METHODOLOGY OF WORK AND THE

EVALUATION OF THE RESULTS

- research and actions orienting agent

- logical thinking

- occurs in descoveries, along with theexperimental results, unexpected

observations, intuition


31/42

5.2. Reasoning

- verifies, interprets, develops descoveries,building a general theoretical scheme

- consciously/ subconsciously influenced byfeelings, prejudices, past experiences

- medical sciences > complex phenomena =incompletely defined premise > uncertainargument

- high degree of probability > argument/speculation (upon something)


32/42

Types of reasoning

a) inductive reasoning - from particular cases to general principles,

from facts to theories - more productive > new theories - its value is debatable > uses a series of facts

from which more possible theories result, not all

of these theories can be true - it does not rely on the mecanic application of

logic, but on intuition - personal judgement hasits part


33/42

Types of reasoning

b) deductive reasoning

- from general to particular, applying the

theory to a particular case - does not lead to new general

conclusions


34/42

Types of reasoning

c) reasoning by analogy - similarity appears mostly between the

systems of relations of things, than betweenthings

- gives suggestions about clues andhypotheses for the phenomena and eventswhich we can not directly perceive

- limits: may lead to error; does not giveevidence


35/42

5.3. Strategy

- planning the research: useful or not? - is best elaborated by the researcher commited to that theme - major descoveries are seldomly the result of the systematic

accumulation of data in accordance with some planning - there are no general rules - general strategy: following an objective, but at the same time

having the availability to notice any unexpected favourable event - three distinctive levels of planning: - (i) on short term ( the concrete way of performance;

available only for the experiment it was created for) - (ii) on long term ( perspective approach, on larger

coordinates)

- (iii) planning policy > commitee (investigating problems,

approving projects, supporting researchers)


36/42

Research as teamwork

- the part played by the leader is important, aswell as the personality of every member of theteam

- distribution of responsabilities, without anydetailed and rigid planning of the taskseveryone has to fulfill within the general plan ofthe team, this way not only does every member

have to undestand the problems asigned tohim/her but have a general view of the theme

- the utility of the planning, the flexibility - conditions that contribute to the learning of

the the research technique


37/42

5.4. Types of research

The Applied research - deliberate investigation of a problem of practical importance

- it horizontally passes through many fundamental sciences

- the objective is pre-established, the means to reach it are looked for - after the arrival to a solution of imediat interest, there follows an

understanding of the basic principles > the results will have larger general

applicability

- the "transfer" method: the central idea is given by the application of a

new principle or technique, discovered in a different domain > manydiscoveries have applications in other domains rather than the domains

they were discovered in> once applied, they are instruments with the help

of which other discoveries can be obtained


38/42

Types of research

The Fundamental research

- the objective is the scientific knowledge

per se - it begins with un interesting,

unexpected lead, without trying to obtainresults having a practical value

- first there is the discovery, afterwards autility for the discovery is searched for


39/42

Types of research

The Exploration research

- approaches new theories

- is independant and has its risks - may lead to major discoveries or to

nothing


40/42

Types of research

The Progress research

- approaches a field already won over,

consolidates the progress made, uses inpractice the results obtained through the

exploration research


41/42

Types of research

The Frontier research

- implies a gathering of more than

onesciences, or branches of one science - uses and binds together knowledge

6. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE


42/42

6. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THEDOCUMENTATION IN THE RESEARCH

ACTIVITY

- selecting the bibliographical material inaccordance with the type of research

- the systematization of all the sources

containing the data and existing information - the synthesizing and analysis of the resulted

material from the documantation

- the formulation, as precise as possible, of theresearch theme and the connections that mustbe followed with the results that are reported inliterature

Scientific Research in Medecine

Documents

Transcript of Scientific Research in Medecine