SC2218: Anthropology and the SC2218: Anthropology and the Human ConditionHuman Condition

Lecture 3: Human DiversityLecture 3: Human Diversity((It’s Not in Our GenesIt’s Not in Our Genes))

Eric C. ThompsonEric C. Thompson

Semester 1, 2011/2012Semester 1, 2011/2012

Where Are We Going?Where Are We Going?

• Part 1: What is Anthropology?– Strangers Abroad– Race– Culture

• Part 2: What do Anthropologists Study?– Kinship, Gender, Economy, Community

• Part 3: Current Debates and Trends– Representing Others– The Poetry of Culture– World Anthropologies

YOU AREHERE

Today’s Lecture…Today’s Lecture…

• Rethinking “Race”– What is Race? Do Races really exist?

• The Journey of Man… and Woman– How did we all get here?– Our common African ancestry.

• “The Form is Fixed and Culture Takes Off”– What is the “Big Bang” of Culture?

• What is Evolution?

From Last Week:From Last Week:Boas’ Basic Questions for Boas’ Basic Questions for

Anthropology:Anthropology:“Why are the tribes and the nations of the

world different and how have the present differences developed?”

Anthropology, 1907

Understanding Diversity remains Understanding Diversity remains at the core of Anthropologyat the core of Anthropology

• “Diversity Is Our Business”… “I think it is a valid claim that this is what the discipline (of anthropology) is all about… a focus on diversity identifies (anthropology’s) important contribution to knowledge.”

• Ulf Hannerz (2010) Anthropology’s World: Life in a Twenty-First-Century Discipline, p.48-49.

Why are People Different?Why are People Different?Three General TheoriesThree General Theories

• Geography (“Environmental Determinism”)– 19th century idea; uncommon now

• Race (“Biological Determinism”)– 19th century idea; still common

• Culture (“Cultural Relativism”)– 19th to 20th century idea; popular now

What is Race?What is Race?

• We have many words, in many languages to refer to groups of people.

• Race, Ethnic Group, Nation, Tribe…

• Bangsa, Sukubangsa, Kaum…

• Minzu…

What is Race?What is Race?

• “Race does not have a biological reality, but is a mere social construct. … However, critical issues still remain. The statement alone that race does not have a biological reality does little to help us understand the ways we experience or ‘feel’ race as ‘real’ in our everyday lives.”

• Yasuko Takezawa (2011) Racial Representations in Asia, p.1

• “Old fashioned concepts of race are not only socially divisive but scientifically wrong…”

• Spencer Wells, The Journey of Man (Film).

• Why?

How the Idea of Race DevelopedHow the Idea of Race Developed• 18th to 19th Centuries

– Race, Nation and People (e.g. German Race, German Nation, German People) overlapped.

• 19th to 20th Centuries– Race became a biological idea.– Nation (nationality) became a political idea.

• 20th Century– “Ethnicity” and “Ethnic Group” came to describe

cultural difference; Race came to mean only biological difference

Race: Essentialist CategoriesRace: Essentialist Categories

Ethiopian Malayan Mongoloid American Caucasoid

Blumenbach’s Classification (1775)

“Scientific” Approach

Based on “Coherence” of Traits

Originally included Cultural & Biological Traits

Nations, Races, Peoples

What is Race? (From Biology)What is Race? (From Biology)• Race vs. Species

• Species– Functional Definition: Members of the same

Species can mate and have viable offspring.– Human beings (Homo sapiens) are one species.

• Race (or Sub-species)– Members of the same species, but distinctive in

some way. Racial classifications are arbitrary and non-functional.

Coherence of Traits:Coherence of Traits:Race and EthnicityRace and Ethnicity

• “Race” is interpretation of Biological Traits• “Ethnicity” is interpretation of Cultural Traits• Racial Theory and Primordial Ethnic theory are

based on an assumption of within-group “coherence of traits”.

• Biological and anthropological (sociological) research indicate that traits do not cohere enough to make racial or primordial ethnic theories valid or useful.

Traits Do Not CohereTraits Do Not Cohere

• The Idea of Race is based on “coherence” of traits (esp. biological).

• Traits do not cohere.

• 94% of biological/ genetic variation occurs within human populations

• 6% occurs between populations

http://anthro.palomar.edu/vary/default.htmhttp://anthro.palomar.edu/vary/default.htm

“Incoherent” Traits(Example of Biological and Cultural Traits)

“African” and “European” men wearing “Asian” batik.

Trait 1: Skin Color Trait 2: ABO Blood Group

Trait 1 varies North-SouthTrait 2 varies East-West

“Incoherent” Traits(Example of Biological Traits)

Racial Categories?Racial Categories?

30 26 4 3

Type B Type A Type O

Reflectivity of Skin?

ABO Blood Type?

Race and Ethnicity Today:Race and Ethnicity Today:Folk Categories / Scientific CategoriesFolk Categories / Scientific Categories

• More often than not, “folk categories” (used in everyday life) conflate race and ethnicity (i.e. they use biological characteristics and cultural characteristics at the same time).

• Example 1: Americans use mostly (but not only) biological traits to categorize people by “race”.

• Example 2: When Malaysians (and Singaporeans?) use the word “race” they mean something closer to what anthropologists call “ethnicity”

Example 1: American use of “race”Example 1: American use of “race”

• Barak Obama is first “Black” President of the United States of America.

• Some people question if he is “really black”; NOT mainly because of biology, but because of culture (e.g. the schools he went to; the way he talks).

Children have to learn how to Children have to learn how to classify people “correctly”classify people “correctly”

Example 2: Malaysian use of “race”Example 2: Malaysian use of “race”

• Who is “Malay”?

• What counts as “Malay”?

Do Races Exist?Do Races Exist?• People can be classified based on biology.

– Skin color– Blood Type– Y-lineage or mtDNA-lineage– Factor Analysis (see Thompson 2006 reading)– Patrilineage (CMIO in Singapore)

• Does this make Race real?– Race can be an important social reality.– Race is meaningless outside of society.

Conclusions about RaceConclusions about Race• Race is not a scientifically useful scheme

for categorizing human diversity.

• Biological traits do not cohere enough to make race useful.

• Mental & attitudinal traits (e.g. IQ) cohere even less.

• Race is a set of social and cultural categories; Race is “socially constructed”

For a more detailed contemporary view of “race” by professional anthropologists, see the 1998 “Statement on Race” of the American Anthropological Association.

INTERMISSION…INTERMISSION…

Our Common AncestryOur Common Ancestry• All people alive today share common African

ancestry.• We have changed over time genetically and

biologically; but the changes are small, mostly random and literally superficial (e.g. skin pigmentation).

• Culture and social organization have changed tremendously.

• People have developed different cultures; but all have the same capacity for culture.

Journey of Man

• Why does Spencer Wells describe his research as tracing the journey of Man?

• What is meant by the comment in film that “After 50,000 years ago . . . the form is fixed and culture takes off.”?

• What were the major routes taken by humans out of Africa? What are the significance of the Kalahari, Australia, India and Central Asia in understanding the “journey of man”?

• How does Spencer Wells’ interest in and portrayal of San people in the film compare to that of Lee, Wilmsen and others we will read about in this course?

• Why does the Wells argue that “Old fashioned concepts of race are not only socially divisive but scientifically wrong”? If he is correct, what are the implications for societies like Singapore? How do we explain difference without the concept of race?

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/photogalleries/journey_of_man/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/photogalleries/journey_of_man/

Journey of Journey of MANMAN: : Tracing the Y Tracing the Y chromosomechromosome

Tracing Genetic AncestryTracing Genetic Ancestry• Y-chromosome: Paternal (Father) Lineage

– Only Men have Y-Chromosomes (XY vs. XX)– Y-Chromosomes pass down from father to son

without recombining (“NRY”)

• Mitochondrial DNA (“mtDNA”): Maternal (Mother) Lineage– Everyone has mitochondria (a microscopic

organism that lives in our cells)– We inherit our mitochondria from our Mothers– Mutations in mtDNA reveal Maternal Lineages

http://www.mygenetree.com/articles/types-of-dna-tests/mitochondrial-dna.php

Nobuko

Takeshi

Dorothy Charles

BretEricMayumi

Mia Isaac

Yoshio

Race versus Lineage

Recent advances in genetics allow us to trace “Deep Ancestry”But these Lineages are a very different thing than Race

Nobuko

Takeshi

Dorothy Charles

BretEricMayumi

Mia Isaac

Yoshio

Saito-Thompson Family Tree

? ?

Nobuko

Takeshi

Dorothy Charles

BretEricMayumi

Mia Isaac

Yoshio

Race versus Lineage

Japanese European

??Nobuko

Takeshi

Dorothy Charles

BretEricMayumi

Mia Isaac

Yoshio

Race versus Lineage

mtDNAHaplogroup D

mtDNA Haplogroup H

X

X

?

?

X XNobuko

Takeshi

Dorothy Charles

BretEricMayumi

Mia Isaac

Yoshio

Race versus Lineage

NRY- Haplogroup I170

Eric Charles Thompsonson of Dorothy L. Thompson

mtDNA Deep Ancestry LineageHaplogroup H

Mia Dorothy Saito Thompsondaughter of Mayumi Saito

mtDNA Deep Ancestry LineageHaplogroup D

Isaac Asahi Saito Thompsonson of Eric Charles Thompson

Y-Chromosome Deep Ancestry Lineage

For more information, see the National Geographic Genographic Project:

https://genographic.nationalgeographic.c

om/genographic/index.html

Spencer Wells

Director of Research

Genetic EvolutionGenetic Evolutionof the past 50,000 yearsof the past 50,000 years

• Four sources of genetic evolution (change in allele frequency; DNA sequence over time):– Mutation– Natural Selection– Genetic Drift– Migration and Population Expansion (Gene Flow and

“Founder Effect”)

• Current consensus:– Genetic Drift and Migration (Founder Effect) not Natural

Selection account for most of the biological variation we see in Homo sapiens

“The Form Is Fixed . . .”

http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/physical.htmhttp://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/physical.htm

• 2.5 Million Years Ago – Homo habilis (the “handy man”)

• 1.8 Million Years Ago – Homo erectus (first out of Africa)

• 200,000 to 50,000 years ago – Modern Homo sapiens**Wells calls this “the Great Leap Forward” and “First Big Bang” in modern Human cultural evolution. Marking a qualitative difference between Homo sapiens and others; like Homo erectus. (pp.151)

“. . . and Culture Takes Off”

http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/physical.htmhttp://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/physical.htm

• Biological change in humans has been largely & literally superficial for 50,000 years.

• Human diversity is primarily cultural not physical or racial.

What is Evolution?

• Merriam-Webster Dictionary (http://www.m-w.com/):– a process of change in a certain direction – a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler,

or worse to a higher, more complex, or better state – a process of gradual and relatively peaceful social,

political, and economic advance

• These are all BAD definitions according to contemporary scientific research in the field of evolution!!!

“A Certain Direction”

• Evolution DOES NOT proceed “in a certain direction”. (Error of “teleology” or assuming that because something did happen that it had to happen).

• Mutation• Genetic Drift• Migration, Founder Effects and

Gene Flow• Natural Selection• The “direction” of change is only

apparent ex post facto (after the fact).

Why are marsupials predominant in Australia but not elsewhere?

“Lower, Simpler, Worse… to Higher, More Complex, Better”

• Contemporary evolutionary thought does look at emergence of complex systems out of simpler ones. But…

• “Lower to Higher” and “Worse to Better” are value judgments, NOT science.

• “Complexity” only means “more working parts”; NOT “better”

Progress?

“Gradual and Relatively Peaceful … Advance”

• Much evidence shows that evolution may proceed through “punctuated equilibrium”: periods of relative stability punctuated by relatively rapid change.

• Evolutionary change may be “peaceful” but may be very violent.

• “Advance” is yet another unscientific value-judgement (i.e. “advanced” civilization vs. “primitive” civilization).

Survival of the Fittest…

(Natural Selection; Darwin Revisited)

Which of these is Best?(Which is “FITTEST”?)

“Survival of the Fittest”

• “Survival of the Fittest” does not mean “best” in an abstract way (e.g. strongest, smartest, fastest, etc.)

• Fittest is better thought of as “that which fits the best” (like a puzzle piece)

• Fitness depends on context.

Which of these is Best?(Which is “fittest”?)

“Fitness” is a meaningless concept without a Context

Context (e.g. environment) determines “fitness”

What is “fittest” in one context…

… May be “unfit” in another context

… May be “unfit” in another context

… May be “unfit” in another context

“Survival of the Fittest”versus

“Survival of the Minimally Adequate”

• Both mean the same thing (though the second may be slightly more accurate)

• They have different social implications (the first has been used in justifying eugenics in ways the second might not).

So… What is Evolution?

• Change in a system over time resulting in a qualitatively different system.

• The qualitative difference may or may not entail greater complexity.

Some Examples of Evolved Systems• Biological Species• Language• Bird Songs• Ecosystems• Settlement Patterns• Modes of Production• Kinship Systems

Summing Up…Summing Up…• Race is a social construct with social consequences.• Race – genetically distinctive populations – is not

scientifically valid (not supported by evidence).• Physical (genetic) difference we see today is mostly

based on genetic drift, gene flow (migration), and “founder effects” all of which is random (not selected change based on “fitness” or improvement).

• Cultural, not biological, change over the past 50,000 years is the primary source of human diversity today.