SC2218 Lecture 3 Films & Readings

7/23/2019 SC2218 Lecture 3 Films & Readings

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SC2218 Lecture 3

Films & Readings: Culture, Cultures & the Human Condition

Film: "Strange elie!s" #$ans%ritchard'

o (hin)ing *uestions

> How did Evans-Pritchards view of magic and witchcraft differ from some of his predecessors?

> How were Azande granaries important in Evans-Pritchards research?

> What does it mean to say that Azande thinking has a different point of departure?

Why was Evans-Pritchard interested in !uer catt"e?

Summar+

#n Strange Beliefs$ written and produced %y &ruce 'akowski$ (ir Edward Evan Evans-Pritchards)E*P*+ contri%ution to

the fie"d of Anthropo"ogy is documented* He is said to have revo"utionized Anthropo"ogy %y turning it away from the

search for universa" ways of human %ehaviour* Anthropo"ogists rather$ were to %e seen as interpreters rather than

scientists$ and their task was the trans"ation of cu"ture*

E*P*s de%ut work Witchcraft$ ,rac"es$ and agic among the Azande$ was produced from his interaction with the

Azande %ack in ./01* E*P*s study stemmed from his interest in how the Azandes ideas cou"d %e pieced together to

form their system of %e"ief$ and how it compared to his own* He found that the Azandes under"ying assumptions weredifferent$ e2emp"ified %y a rice granary* !ow a granary$ supported %y wooden posts wou"d %e e2pected %e worn down

%y termites and eventua""y co""apse* Why it fa""s at a particu"ar time on a particu"ar person is something his cu"ture

ca""ed %ad "uck$ or %y chance* However$ to the Azande$ that sort of misfortune is %e"ieved to %e caused %y

witchcraft* 3he Azande attri%uted any misfortune$ particu"ar"y those fata" ones$ to witchcraft* #n E*P*s words$ #t is death

that answers the ridd"e to mystica" %e"iefs* 3he witchdoctor is high"y regarded in Azande "and$ and he is integra" to

their society %ecause he is supposed %e com%at witchcraft$ with his ceremonies of spe""s$ su%stances and procedures*

3he Azandes faith in witchcraft is so inherent that it is unshaken and not disproved %y its fai"ures*

3hrough his study of the Azande$ E*P* sought to raise the 4uestion of what can %e considered 5rationa" thinking in any

cu"ture* Professor 'avid Pocock of the 6niversity of (usse2$ who was a student of E*P*$ comments that Azande

e2press and manage envy$ hate and spite through the concept of witchcraft* Witchcraft then$ was a practica" way oforganizing "ife for the Azande*&efore E*P*$ witchcraft and magic were "oose"y-used terms %y the Western wor"d$ and

meant to imp"y primitive and misguided thinking and %ehaviour* 3here were no study of African re"igions and were

simp"y c"assified as mysticisim and odd %e"iefs* E*P*s record of the Azande society$ has "ed African re"igions to %e

treated with the same seriousness and phi"osophica" thinking as wor"d re"igions*

3he second part of Strange Beliefs fo""owed E*P* to 7airo$ Egypt in ./80 where he ac4uired a university post* #t was

there he studied Primitive enta"ity$ particu"ar"y focused on human thought* #n addition$ he stressed the importance

of history in Anthropo"ogy$ much to the disp"easure of his former teacher a"inoswki* E*P*$ wanted to "earn more a%out

the history of ideas and sought to uti"ise anthropo"ogy in a historica" conte2t* 3his is where E*P* was made famous %y

his conviction of Anthropo"ogy as not a natura" science$ %ut something that "ies %etween humanities and the socia"

science* &ecause it is not understanda%"e at face va"ue$ anthropo"ogists are to aid %y %eing trans"ators of the foreign

cu"ture$ as how interpreters trans"ate "anguage*

(hort"y after$ E*P* was sent %y his government to the "and of !uers$ which "ed him to produce an ethnography of their

society* 3he !uer$ were seen as pro%"ematic %y his government$ %ecause there were a war-"ike tri%e prone to

aggressiveness and disp"ayed strong resistance to %eing governed* E*P* discovered from his stay with the !uers$ that

this was due to their ega"itarian up%ringing* 3he !uers are descri%ed to %e deep"y democratic$ easi"y prone to vio"ence

and find any sort of restraint irksome* Every !uer considered himse"f as good as his neigh%our and wou"d strut

around "ike "ords of the Earth$ which they considered themse"ves to %e*

As fundamenta" as witchcraft is to the Azande$ were catt"es to the !uers* 9oung %oys wou"d take the name of their

favourite %u""s$ songs were composed a%out the %eauty of the %east$ and its presence in !uers fo"k"ore a%ounded*

7att"es were a"so used in socia" processes such as payment and compensation for sett"ing feuds* E*P* descri%ed the

catt"e as the idiom for the way the !uer thinks$ high"ighting its importance to the !uer society* :ather than %eing

organized %y a "ega" institution$ the !uers "ives are centred around the catt"e* E*P* termed the po"itica" structure of the

!uer ordered anarchy$ in which it is not ru"ed %y any officer* 3his finding derived from the !uer tri%e$ was another

great contri%ution of E*P* as it cha""enged western po"itica" views of African societies$ which stereotyped them as

s"aves*


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:ather than accepting widespread %e"ief of what is considered ;irrationa"; and ;primitive;$ E*P* managed to contest

those notions$ convincing his fe""ow anthropo"ogists that those terms were irre"evant %ecause the societies of the

Azande and the !uer$ functioned no poorer than their own* What does not make sense in their cu"ture$ is actua""y they

know as ;common sense; to the Azande or the !uer* Hence there can %e no universa" theory of human %ehaviour*

A common 4uestion often raised to anthropo"ogists is$ why go out of their way to study other cu"tures when they can

study their own? #n response$ E*P* cites two reasons< ,%=ectivity and 'istinction* 3he former is deve"oped and

achieved through the study of other peop"e$ as it is easier to make corre"ations and o%servations in societies un"ikeones own* Whi"e the "atter$ distinction$ is necessary for these remote societies to %e studied in their entirety$ and for

their who"e socia" "ife to %e eva"uated* &y "etting the peop"e ta"k$ the authority is shifted from the anthropo"ogist to the

peop"e* 3he anthropo"ogist then takes on the idea" position of %eing a trans"ator$ interpreting what he o%serves to the

rest of the wor"d*

#n conc"usion$ the ro"e of an anthropo"ogist is %est i""ustrated in E*P*s ana"ogy of one who is not =ust mem%er of the

audience$ %ut a"so on the stage* 3his high"ights the imperative re4uirement for the anthropo"ogist to %e active

participants$ rather than passive o%servers in order to effective"y trans"ate anothers cu"ture*

Commentar+

Commentar+ on Similarities Strange elie!s'

#n the documentary fi"m$ (trange &e"iefs$ Edward Evans Pritchard$ is commemorated for his unpre=udiced

o%servations of the Azande peop"e$ the !ua peop"e and the &edouins* y commentary is main"y focused on part . of

the documentary$ and the Azande peop"e* Here are some of my views*

#n my view$ anthropo"ogy has come a "ong way$ as detai"ed in the "ecture$ from %io"ogica" determinism$ geographica"

determinism$ to cu"tura" re"ativism* Here$ Pritchard is "auded for %eing one of the pioneers in practising cu"tura"

re"ativism$ and fo""owing a"inowski$ making discip"ined o%servations* What Pritchard did in his o%servations was not

on"y to make an un%iased view$ %ut a"so to respect the entire system of their humanity )their cu"ture$ norms$ va"ue

propositions$ kinship structures$ etc*+ as e4ua" to his own %ackground of Western civi"isation*

#n the documentary fi"m$ what # noticed was how simi"ar the Azande peop"es %e"iefs were to the 7hinese cu"ture here

in (ingapore* 3he wichdoctors and poison orac"es ro"e in the Azande society is somewhat simi"ar to our own* #f one

had %een e2periencing a spate of %ad "uck$ it cou"d %e attri%uted to ones having %een cursed %y enemies$ or it cou"d

%e that the feng shuiof the house or office is not good$ or it cou"d %e that not enough good deeds were done* 3hat is

simi"ar to the Azande peop"es %e"ief that if someone has encountered an accident or an i""ness$ one must have %een

cursed %y someone e"se* 3o counter the spate of %ad "uck$ the 7hinese in (ingapore seek out fortune te""ers$ popu"ar

monks$ or mediums to try to counter and correct the source of %ad "uck and misfortune* #n the documentary$ a young

man en4uired with the poison orac"e a%out the hea"th of his mother$ who was i""* And he a"so approached the

witchdoctor for certain medicines and a hea"ing ceremony to cure his mother* #n (ingapore$ some 7hinese sti"" seek

mediums and the "ike for i""nesses$ %e"ieving that %ad spirits are harming them*

>urther$ there are a"so simi"arities in many other cu"tures around the wor"d* oodoo hea"ing practices are a"so

practised in !ew ,r"eans in the 6(A* >aith hea"ing is a"so practised in 7hristian churches and has 4uite significant"y

spread throughout the g"o%e* 3here are a"so cases of e2orcism practised %y 7atho"ic priests* 7atho"ics have a"so

made pi"grimages to @ourdes$ >rance$ to seek out the spring of hea"ing waters* And as Professor 3hompson

mentioned$ the a"ays in the kampong he studied in a"aysia sought out their "oca" bomohas we""* #t seems "ike no

matter how modern our cu"ture is$ there wi"" a"ways %e peop"e seeking answers for 4uestions that cannot %e answered

%y rationa" thinking$ such as "uck$ "ongevity$ i""ness$ and perhaps$ chi"d-%earing*

Another issue # noticed was that the poison orac"e of the Azande$ featured in the documentary$ mentioned a sentiment

of %etraya" %y the 5white man* He a"so mentioned if the fi"m crew was here to take their "and or to %e their true friends*3he deve"opment of anthropo"ogy as a study$ independent of %iases and e2terna" interests$ has$ in my opinion$ in its

ear"y years$ %een hampered %y co"onia" interests* &etraya" must have %een harsh$ in that the tri%e we"comes the

anthropo"ogist$ accepts him or her as one of them$ and a""ows the anthropo"ogist to stay$ eat and s"eep amongst them*


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And these tri%es$ might$ "ike the Azande$ remem%er the in=ustices perpetrated against them$ and they might not %e as

accepting of foreign eyes as they were %efore*

7an Any &e"ief (ystem :ea""y &e 7onsidered :ationa"#rrationa"? )(trange &e"iefs+

# =ust wanted to write a post a%out the fi"m (trange &e"iefs$ in particu"ar a%out how it he"ps us "earn to not =udge other

cu"turesB %e"iefs as irrationa" or ridicu"ous "ike how many co"onia"ists in the past viewed the Azande %e"ief system* #naddition$ # think it is a"so interesting how comparing our %e"ief systems to those of the Azande might cause us to

4uestion the va"idity of our own %e"ief systems which #Bm 4uite certain many of us might intuitive"y think is a rationa"

one*

@etBs "ook at how the Azande peop"e dea" with i""ness versus how we )i*e* peop"e in contemporary societies+ do*

>irst"y$ the Azande consu"t various orac"es )ru%%ing %oard orac"e$ poison orac"e etc*+$ which they believe to %e

authorities on the su%=ect matter due to the orac"es know"edge* 3hey do so to find out a%out the nature of i""nesses*

3his can %e "ikened to how many of us "ook to medica" doctors to diagnose our i""nesses* #n contemporary societies$

doctors p"ay the same ro"e as the orac"es do for the Azande in that they are the authorities on the nature of i""ness*

However$ this is %ecause we too believe doctors possess a much higher "eve" of know"edge than ourse"ves withregards to i""nesses* 'o we rea""y know for a fact that the diagnoses provided %y doctors are accurate? 3he answer is

pro%a%"y !o* #t is =ust that a"most every one that grows up in contemporary societies "ike (ingapore is taught and

conditioned to %e"ieve in the wisdom of doctors when it comes to i""nesses and diseases* (imi"ar"y$ the Azande peop"e

grow up %eing taught a%out witchcraft and orac"es* As such$ through this comparison$ it can %e seen that there is a

sort of symmetry %etween Azande %e"iefs and those of contemporary societies*

!e2t$ "et us "ook at the efficacy of the hea"ing dances of the Azande witchdoctors and that of western medicine*Whi"e

some peop"e might think that our %e"ief in germ theory is more rationa" than the AzandeBs witchcraft %e"iefs$ there isnBt

actua""y much %asis for such a conc"usion* 3he fai"ure of the witchdoctors hea"ing to save CugudaBs mother as seen in

the fi"m did not cause his %e"ief in witchcraft to waver at a""* 3hat may seem odd$ %ut it is no different from the way

many of us %e"ieve in western medicine* Even in western medicine$ sometimes peop"e sti"" do not recover from

supposed"y cura%"e i""nesses despite taking the appropriate medicine* 3hese cases are mere"y dismissed as rare

anoma"ies and do not affect our %e"ief in the system* As such$ if we app"y this "ogic to the Azande peop"es %ehaviour$

we can see why they continue to %e"ieve in their own methods of hea"ing* 3his point is further emphasized %y what

:ichard @ee mentioned in his %ook$ 3he 'o%e DuBhoansi$ that %oth western doctors and African witchdoctors operate

on simi"ar success odds$ as humans recover from over /F of i""nesses natura""y regard"ess of what treatment they

use* 3hus$ there is no rea" %asis to re=ect the Azande %e"ief system and their practices as irrationa"*

# guess my main point here is that # "ike how this fi"m causes us to 4uestion if any%e"iefs can tru"y %e considered

rationa" or irrationa"* At the end of the day$ as "ong as a %e"ief system he"ps peop"e make sense of things$ %e it in

answering metaphysica" 4uestions or e2p"aining uncertainties$ there is no reason why it shou"dcou"d %e considered

irrationa"* ,n"y through participant o%servation and anthropo"ogica" studies can we tru"y understand these strange

%e"ief systems and accept them*

&eing an interpretor of cu"ture and the threat of going native

#n the fi"m (trange &e"iefs$ Evans-Pritchard )E*P+ repeated"y emphasized on and demonstrated the importance of

immersing onese"f in the cu"ture that one is studying in order to tru"y understand the significance of its practices from

within instead of mere"y conducting arm-chair theorizing in the comforts of ones home country* 3he video set E*P up

as though he was a human microscope$ %eing inserted into the Azande cu"ture to e2amine it$ withdrawn %ack to his

home cu"ture$ and "ater inserted into the !uer cu"ture to carry out anthropo"ogica" study again* 3he necessity of

assimi"ation into a cu"ture in order to tru"y understand it is taken as a given$ in order for the anthropo"ogist to offer a

comprehensive ana"ysis of the cu"ture*

However$ this route of ana"ysis seems to neg"ect the fact that anthropo"ogists are thinking and fee"ing creatures and

their assimi"ation into the cu"ture they are studying can "ead to them going native* What # mean %y going native is


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that these anthropo"ogists might %ecome so incu"cated into viewing the wor"d through the eyes of his su%=ects of study

that heshe "oses hisher o%=ectivity as an anthropo"ogist* ,%=ectivity is supposed"y deve"oped and achieved through

the study of other peop"e$ as it is easier to make corre"ations and o%servations in societies un"ike ones own$ yet the

need for assimi"ation into the tri%es in order to gain insider access to tri%a" "ife may taint the anthropo"ogists "enses as

the tri%es "ifesty"es grows to %e fami"iar to himher*

Another 4uestion that comes to mind is the re"ia%i"ity of the o%servations made %y the anthropo"ogist* Civen the c"ose

re"ationship forged %etween the anthropo"ogist and the natives )eg* :ichard @ees %eing adopted %y the Gung (an

peop"e in the 'o%eDu Hoansi te2t+$ the anthropo"ogists may choose to not report some of the facts that are high"yun"ike"y to %e accepted %y peop"e outside of the tri%es )even if it is emphasized that one shou"d not use hisher own

cu"tura" yardstick to measure another cu"ture+ in order to protect his friends in the tri%e from %eing persecuted %y

outsiders*

(o my 4uestion is$ how can an anthropo"ogist o%=ective"y study a foreign cu"ture whi"e avoiding the possi%i"ities of

going native?

7ommentary on ;(trange &e"iefs;

#n the fi"m (trange &e"iefs$ we are introduced to a &ritish anthropo"ogist %y the name of Evans-Pritchard and his

contri%utions to anthropo"ogy especia""y with regards to his study of the Azande and the !uer* His aim was to produce

a finer understanding of 5irrationa" %ehaviour and cu"ture* Evans-Pritchard emphasized that anthropo"ogists shou"d %e

seen as interpreters of cu"ture$ not =ust an o%server* 3hus$ in his study of the Azande$ he e2amined their cu"ture$

%e"iefs$ system of thoughts and he immersed himse"f in their cu"ture %y sharing in their way of "ife and cu"ture* Evans-

Pritchard a"so emphasized that anthropo"ogists shou"d %e active participants in order to trans"ate and e2p"ain the

cu"ture of the society that one is studying*

Hence$ seeing this fi"m made me think of what e2act"y is cu"ture$ its importance and functions in society* @ike what we

have studied in "ecture that the form is fi2edI and cu"ture takes off$ thus$ it means that human %io"ogica" change is

on"y "arge"y and "itera""y superficia" in the past J$ years$ thus our %io"ogica" changes are on"y skin-deep$however$ human diversity is main"y cu"tura" and human society and cu"ture have changed significant"y* 3hus$ this

makes me think that cu"tures are dynamic systems that react to changes and actions within and around them* And as

Havi"and$ Prins$ c&ride and Wa"rath )0..+ have stated )in their %ook< 7u"tura" Anthropo"ogy$ the Human 7ha""enge+

that when one e"ement within the system shifts or changes$ the entire system strives to ad=ust$ =ust as it does when

an outside force app"ies pressure )p* 81+$ hence$ a cu"ture needs to %e f"e2i%"e enough in order to permit such

ad=ustments under changing conditions so as to function ade4uate"y sufficient"y* However$ =ust as a"" cu"tures are

dynamic$ the degree as to how dynamic they are differs* (ome cu"tures are rather rigid and static that it is una%"e to

endure %ecause it fai"s to provide its peop"e with the means for "ong-term surviva" when changes occur whi"e some

cu"tures are so f"uid that they are too adaptive to changes and hence$ they "ose their distinctive character )Havi"and

et* a"$ 0..$ p* 81+ in the process*

3here are many definitions which e2p"ain what cu"ture is$ %ut the main idea is that cu"ture is a genera" capacity and

process and it is "ike second nature to us* 3hrough reading this %ook on 7u"tura" Anthropo"ogy$ the Human

7ha""enge$ # have come across this interesting mode" on cu"ture which gives an in-depth e2p"anation on what cu"ture

is and how it functions* Havi"and et* a" )0..+ e2p"ained that anthropo"ogists usua""y think of cu"ture as a we""-

structured system consisting of distinctive parts that function as a who"e* However$ Havi"and et* a" )0..+ a"so added

that even though anthropo"ogists may distinguish each part as a c"ear"y defined unit consisting of its own

characteristics and specia" p"ace within a "arger system$ they noted that socia" rea"ity is comp"e2 and changea%"e and

that divisions among cu"tura" units are often %"urry )p* 8J+* Hence$ Havi"and et* a" came up with the %arre" mode" of

cu"ture in which a societys cu"tura" features fa"" into three main categories$ i*e* socia"

structure$ infrastructure and superstructure* (ocia" structure is the ru"e-governed re"ationships )with a"" their rights and

o%"igations+ that promotes group cohesion and ho"d a"" the mem%ers of the society together* #t inc"udes power re"ations

)po"itics+$ househo"ds$ fami"ies and associations* #t a""ows for the mem%ers within a society to survive %ecause %asicneeds such as food and she"ter are o%tained through work* Hence$ there is a direct re"ation %etween a groups socia"

structure and its economic foundation which inc"udes materia"s$ too"s and e4uipment for the mem%ers to make a

"iving* 3he ne2t aspect of cu"ture is the infrastructure which is the economic foundation of a society$ i*e* su%sistence

practices$ too"s$ materia"s and other e4uipment to make a "iving* #t invo"ves making use of the avai"a%"e resources to


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survive and meet societys %asic needs* 3he "ast aspect is the superstructure which is the shared and co""ective sense

of identity and wor"dview that a society has* #t invo"ves the shared %e"iefs$ ideas and va"ues that he"p mem%ers of

society to understand the wor"d and their p"ace in it$ thus giving security$ meaning and direction to their "ives* #t

inc"udes re"igious and nationa" identity* And this is c"ear"y shown in the Azandes co""ective %e"iefs and ideas in

witchcraft and how they attri%ute everything that happens to them to witchcraft* And hence$ through constant and

continua" adaptation$ reinforcement and inf"uence$ Havi"and et* a" )0..+ stated that these three interdependent

structures together form a cu"tura" system*

And we can see the "ink %etween the %arre" mode" of cu"ture to E*&* 3ay"ors definition of cu"ture which states thatcu"ture or civi"ization Iis that comp"e2 who"e which inc"udes know"edge$ %e"ief$ art$ mora"s$ "aw$ customs$ and any

other capa%i"ities and ha%its ac4uired %y man as a mem%er of society and a"so the "ink to 7"ifford Ceertzs definition

of cu"ture which states that cu"ture is our mode"s for and of the wor"d$ mode"s of categories$ ideas through which we

make sense of the wor"d and mode"s for categories and ideas through which we act in the wor"d*

(eeing this fi"m a"so made me think a%out and high"ight the importance and functions of cu"ture* 3hrough his

anthropo"ogica" fie"dwork on the 3ro%riands$ Po"ish-%orn anthropo"ogist &ronis"aw a"inowski said that there are three

%asic "eve"s and functions of cu"ture$ i*e* .* 7u"ture must provide for %io"ogica" needs )e*g$ the need for food and

procreation+$ 0* 7u"ture must provide for instrumenta" needs )e*g*$ the need for "aw and education+ and 8* 7u"ture must

provide for integrative needs )e*g*$ the need for re"igion and art+ as stated %y )Havi"and et* a"$ 0..$ p* 8K+* Hence$ #

fee" that a cu"ture must support a"" aspects of "ife as indicated %y the %arre" mode" of cu"ture which # had mentionedear"ier* A cu"ture needs to %e a%"e to dea" efficient"y with a"" the %asic cha""enges and pro%"ems )whether %io"ogica" or

psycho"ogica"+ in order to survive and function* 3hus$ # fee" that a cu"ture functions to provide strategies for its peop"e

to dea" with the pro%"ems and cha""enges faced* >or e2amp"e$ with regards to %io"ogica" cha""enges such as

procreation and ensuring the on-going surviva" of its society$ a cu"ture must provide a socia" structure for mutua"

support$ reproduction$ passing down of know"edge and faci"itation of socia" interaction of its mem%ers so as to ensure

that its mem%ers wi"" stay on and contri%ute to its %io"ogica" continuity*

And seeing the Azandes co""ective and shared %e"iefs and ideas a%out witchcraft and how everything revo"ves around

and is e2p"ained through witchcraft$ hence$ this made me ref"ect the importance and the function of cu"ture in

addressing the emotiona" and psycho"ogica" needs of its mem%ers* And Havi"and et* a" )0..+ stated that this function

is met simp"y %y the measure of predicta%i"ity that each cu"ture$ as a shared design for thought and action$ %rings to

everyday "ife )p* 81+* However$ apart from this$ it a"so invo"ves a wor"dview and a co""ective sense of identity that

he"ps each mem%er make sense of the wor"d and understand their p"ace in it* >or e2amp"e$ every cu"ture provides its

mem%ers with certain routine ritua"s and ideas that he"p them think a%out "ife and death$ and even after"ife so as to

he"p its mem%ers imagine a%out such ideas and conceptions which in turn wou"d he"p them to cope with the "oss that

death has %rought* And this is c"ear"y seen in the Azandes co""ective %e"ief in witchcraft where%y a young Azande$

%e"ieving his mother to %e %ewitched$ seeks the hierarchy of orac"es* 3he first one he visits feeds poison to the

chicken$ %e"ieving that if the chicken dies after ingesting the poison$ then it means that his mother wi"" die if she gets

the medicine$ %ut if the chicken "ives$ then his mother wi"" "ive* 3he ne2t one he visits is the witchdoctor )who is he"d in

very high regard among the Azande+ so as to o%tain the right kind of medicine for his mother* And even though his

mother died eventua""y$ his %e"ief in the orac"es and in witchcraft is not shaken$ he sti"" %e"ieves strong"y in them* And

this is %ecause the %e"ief in witchcraft he"ps him to think a%out "ife and death$ to account for such conceptions thus

giving him a sense of security and to cope with the "oss that he has*

3his fi"m has a"so made me think a%out this concept of cu"tura" adaption* We$ humans have %ecome increasing"y

dependent on cu"tura" adaptation which Havi"and et* a" )0..+ e2p"ain that it is the comp"e2ity of ideas$ techno"ogies

and activities which a""ow us to survive and even thrive in our environment* And %io"ogy has "itt"e to do with it* &io"ogy

has not provided us with in-%ui"t speed to run as fast as anima"s$ for e*g*$ a cheetah %ut through cu"ture and its many

constructions )Havi"and et* a"$ 0..$ p* 8L+$ we are a%"e to %ui"d and create vehic"es that can transport us and make

us trave" even faster and "onger than any anima"* &io"ogy has not given us in-%ui"t =ackets and sweaters to cope with

the co"d weather or co"d c"imate %ut through cu"ture and its many constructions$ we are a%"e to make our own

sweaters$ coats and %ui"d fire to keep ourse"ves warm* And hence$ cu"tura" adaption has a""owed humans to survive

and e2pand as we""$ from moving into a wide range of different environments )environments with a very co"d c"imate

to environments with a very hot c"imate+*

@ast"y$ Evans-Pritchard emphasized that anthropo"ogists shou"d immerse themse"ves in the cu"ture that they are

studying in order to accurate"y trans"ate and e2p"ain the cu"ture* Hence$ cu"tura" re"ativism is %eing used throughout his

research$ as an essentia" research too"* However$ the 4uestion that arises is$ how much is cu"tura" re"ativism too


6/25

much? #n the case of the Azande and the !uer$ Evans-Pritchard is a%"e to appreciate their way of "ife and cu"ture with

regards to the Azandes %e"ief in witchcraft and the !uers deep connection with their catt"es* However$ how shou"d we

react then$ for e2amp"e$ to a cu"ture that engages in canni%a"ism as their way of "ife? Are we then supposed to defend

their right to engage in that cu"tura" practice$ even though it is destructive and goes against our own mora"s?

Persona""y$ # agree that cu"tura" re"ativism is essentia" as a research too" in order to appreciate and understand the

cu"ture that we are studying* However$ using cu"tura" re"ativism for research does not mean that we suspend and

cease to make any comments =udgements when we see a cu"tura" practice that is destructive or that is mora""y wrong

and it does not a"so mean that we have to defend the peop"es right to participate in any cu"tura" practice$ no matterhow mora""y wrong or destructive it is* And # agree with what Havi"and et* a" )0..+ stated that it u"timate"y re4uires us

to avoid making premature and impu"sive =udgements unti" weve fu""y come to understand the cu"ture that we are

studying* We shou"dnt =ump to conc"usions %efore taking an informed and critica" stance attitude in understanding

the advantages and disadvantages as we"" as the purposes that particu"ar cu"tura" practices$ %e"iefs and %ehaviours

have for its mem%ers and its society* And on"y then can we make informed and reasona%"y o%=ective comments

=udgements a%out those particu"ar cu"tura" practices*

#n addition to my previous commentary$ viewing this fi"m has a"so made me 4uestion a%out how we"" does a cu"ture

satisfy the %io"ogica"$ psycho"ogica"$ socia" and emotiona" needs of its mem%ers whose %ehaviours are guided %y it?

And interesting"y$ Havi"and et* a" )0..+ stated that specific indicators of this can %e found in the genera" physica" and

menta" hea"th as we"" as nutritiona" status of its mem%ers popu"ation< the occurrence of crime$ de"in4uency$ vio"ence$

the demographic structure$ sta%i"ity and tran4ui""ity of domestic "ifeM and the groups re"ationship to its resource %ase

)p* N8+* Hence$ the cu"ture of a peop"e who e2perience and suffer from high incidence and rates of vio"ence$ crime$

de"i4uency$ ma"nutrition$ psycho"ogica" and emotiona" disorders and diseases$ and environmenta" ruin may %e

suggested to %e functioning "ess we"" and successfu" than those cu"tures that e2perience "itt"e of such pro%"ems* And a

cu"tura" %reakdown is said to happen when peop"e are not a%"e to cope and start fee"ing he"p"ess and worth"ess

regarding shaping and determining their own "ives within their own society* 3hus$ # fee" that a cu"tura" system is "ike a

maintenance system$ it he"ps to ensure the we""-%eing of its mem%ers* And # agree with what Havi"and et* a" )0..+

noted that a cu"tura" system may %e deemed as successfu" if it ensures the surviva" and continuity of its mem%ers in a

way that they find it rationa""y fu"fi""ing* And hence$ the !uer can %e deemed as a successfu" cu"tura" system %ecause it

functions we"" even without the presence of a government )5ordered anarchy+ and a"so %ecause the peop"e there have

respect for one another$ thus there are no s"aves or masters* As a resu"t$ Evans-Pritchard was rather impressed with

the po"itica" organization and way of "ife of the !uer as it contradicts and cha""enges the contemporary notions ofpeop"e %eing governed* 3his is %ecause the cu"tura" systems in stratified$ hierarchica" and modern societies tend to

favour and %enefit the e"ites whi"e the groups that are at the %ottom tend to suffer the most* And this difference is

usua""y in terms of materia" wea"th* However$ such ine4ua"ities were not seen among the cu"ture of the !uer*

Hence$ Havi"and et* a" )0..+ stated that anthropo"ogists must a"ways ask whose needs and whose surviva" are %est

served %y the cu"ture in 4uestion* And # fee" that this is %ecause one can on"y make reasona%"y informed and o%=ective

=udgements a%out how we"" a cu"ture is functioning on"y %y "ooking and understanding the overa"" situation*

&eing BwhiteB- power$ prestige and wea"th

Credi-ilit+ o! #$ans%ritchard.s ethnogra/h+

>irst of a""$ what interests me the most is that in Evans-PritchardBs fi"m$ Evans-Pritchard was seen sitting on a chair

whereas the tri%e mem%ers surround him* 3his %rings into 4uestion whether the method he intended to emp"oy was

indeed ;going native;* Especia""y since it was mentioned that white co"onia"ism was taking p"ace at that time$ the

constructed hierarchy of the co"onia" whites and the re"egated African %"acks wou"d have %een high"y pervasive then*

3he picture of Evans sitting on a chair gives off the fee" of superiority- as though the Azande tri%e mem%ers were his

su%=ects whi"e he is the BkingB* # wonder then if the treatment Evans-Pritchard received was %ias* #ndeed$ whi"e how

others perceive him cou"d not %e contro""ed$ his own everyday interactions to minimize specia" treatment cou"d*

Hence$ to me$ a"though EvansB ethnography on the Azandes shou"d not %e discounted tota""y$ the type of re"ation

%etween himse"f and the tri%e mem%ers might sti"" %e that of a superior and an inferior* 3his might have skewed his

"ived e2periences and interpretations of the AzandesB cu"ture*

ositi$e meaning ascri-ed to -eing 0hite and its conseuences

3he corre"ation of %eing BwhiteB and prestige )and with prestige comes high socio-economic status+ is noteworthy* #n a


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(outh African "egis"ation$ the Dapanese are viewed as ;honorary white; )Honorary Whites$ ./10+$ c"ear"y depicting

that %eing 5white carries a positive meaning and is high"y esteemed so much so that it wou"d %e a great privi"ege to %e

one* 3his phenomenon can %e e2p"ained %y European co"onia"ism in the ear"y part of the .J-.1s$ which yie"ds the

"ongstanding %e"ief that Eurasians are superior to other communities$ there%y creating a system that va"ues

BwhitenessB over B%"acknessB )@ake$ 08+* 'uring the co"onia" period in #ndia$ "ighter skinned #ndians were more

privi"eged than their darker skinned counterparts* 3hey had %etter =o% prospects and were more socia""y mo%i"e

)&"ackout$ 0L+* 7onse4uent"y$ European co"onia"ism might have %een the spring%oard to which BwhitenessB is %eing

prized up unti" today* 3oday$ societies a"" over the wor"d strive to achieve that BwhitenessB or genera""y "ighter skin

co"our than others* !ota%"y$ record sa"es of whitening cosmetic products in East Asia show how "ighter skin is seen asidea" and %eautifu" )(#! 'EEP< 'ying to %e white$ 00+* 3he B%rown paper %ag testB once imp"emented in certain

African American sororities and dormitories to sieve out those whose skin co"our was darker than the %rown paper

%ag$ ref"ected how %eing "ighter skinned "ed to socia" acceptance and access to greater resources )err$ 01+*

Hence$ throughout societies$ the idea" "ighter skinned form an e2c"usive group in re"ation to the a"ienated dark skinned*

Apart from socia" and psycho"ogica" imp"ications$ the spi""-over on their economic status is a"arming* 'arker skinned

African Americans were found to %e poorer and "ess "ike"y to ho"d e"ective office compared with their "ighter skinned

counterparts )Hochschi"d$ 0K+* >rom this$ it is apparent that the darker skinned may %e effective"y deprived of %etter

"ife chances* #f that is the case$ the seeming"y %enign va"ue p"aced on %eing "ighter skinned may actua""y prove to %e

ma"icious"y otherwise* What is unsett"ing is that$ given the ideo"ogys history and pervasiveness$ it may %e difficu"t to

overcome its high"y entrenched prominence*

"Strange elie!s"

3he fi"m (trange &e"iefs captures the important contri%utions that EE Evans-Pritchard made in the fie"d of

anthropo"ogy* #t recounts Evans-Pritchards study of the Azande in (udan$ which at the time was revo"utionary as he

had "ived among them$ making it the first intensive anthropo"ogica" fie"dwork that was %eing carried out on an African

peop"e*

At a time when the discip"ine of anthropo"ogy was "arge"y inf"uenced %y co"onia"ism$ the conception that the su%=ects of

co"onisation were uncivi"ised and inferior was preva"ent* 3ri%a" peop"es then$ were especia""y considered to %e

primitive and the African tri%es %e"iefs and practices of magic and witchcraft were seen to %e "udicrous$ irrationa" and

misguided* Evans-Pritchard$ however$ %e"ieved that the Azandes %e"ief in witchcraft was a "ogica" system of thought*Evans-Pritchards stand on the Azande and their %e"iefs wou"d %e a c"ear e2amp"e of cu"tura" re"ativism that was

unconventiona" at the point in time* #nstead of =udging the cu"tures of these %ackward peop"es as %eing primitive and

i""ogica" %ased on the standards of the more advanced and sophisticated cu"tures of the civi"ised West$ Evans-

Pritchard respected the different cu"tures he witnessed among the peop"e he so c"ose"y o%served$ recognising their

%e"iefs as %eing uni4ue to these peop"e* #t is apt to point out here that the co"onia" authorities who had co"onised the

"ands of such %ackward peop"es$ in contrast$ fai"ed to understand their su%=ects and their way of "ife*

3he %e"ief in witchcraft was widespread in Azande society and its practices were manifested in everyday "ife* 3he

Azande %e"ieved that serious misfortunes "ike that of death was a resu"t of witchcraft %ecause the mystery surrounding

death was akin to the mystica" notions of witchcraft* 3he Azandes %e"ieved that humans were sources of witchcraft$

whether conscious of it or not$ and took precautions to prevent misfortunes from happening to them at any point intime* 3his was done %y esta%"ishing contact with evi" powers through orac"es and witchdoctors$ who p"ayed an

important ro"e in Azande society and who possessed a "arge repertoire of magic spe""s$ su%stances and procedures*

9et$ even with the fai"ure to prevent deaths and other misfortunes from occurring at times$ the %e"ief in the power of

witchcraft never su%sided among the Azande who p"aced great faith in it* A para""e" cou"d thus %e drawn with the

%e"iefs of astro"ogy and ar2ism and even esta%"ished wor"d re"igions "ike 7hristianity O which cou"d fai" to %ring hope

and sa"vation to peop"e at times$ yet remain "egitimate rationa" %e"ief systems in other cu"tures* Azande re"igion was

never taken serious"y %y the Western wor"d precise"y %ecause of the superior positions that the West took in re"ation to

the rest of the wor"d$ fai"ing to recognise that their own re"igions and ideo"ogies rested on the same princip"es as

Azande witchcraft O a %e"ief system that %rings hope to peop"e and perhaps provides certain answers for "ifes

mysteries )and a"so containing certain practices that are carried out %y adherents+*

3he ne2t ma=or anthropo"ogica" study that Evans-Pritchard took on was the study of the !uer peop"e$ a"so in (udan$

as a re4uest from the &ritish co"onia" government who was having difficu"ties with them* 3he !uer had resisted any

attempts at %eing governed and as Evans-Pritchard soon discovered$ this was due to the !uers practice of

ega"itarianism* 3he !uer did not recognise a superior entity and instead recognised everyone as %eing e4ua"$ hence


8/25

readi"y accepting Evans-Pritchards presence among them - a contrast to their apparent"y hosti"e reception towards

the &ritish co"onia" government* 3he &ritish authoritys view of the !uer as %eing a vio"ent war-"ike tri%e again points to

the "ack of understanding that co"onia" powers had towards their co"onised su%=ects* Apart from the "ack of authority in

!uer society that Evans-Pritchard discovered$ he a"so found out the importance and va"ue that was p"aced on catt"e in

!uer society*

#n conc"usion$ Evans-Pritchards study of the Azande and the !uer peop"es were an important step towards

understanding these foreign peop"es and took on ma=or imp"ications for the study of anthropo"ogy*

;(trange &e"iefs; - additiona" summary and commentary on the !uer

3he summary in the aforementioned "ink ta"ks main"y a%out the first part of the fi"m$ which is the section on E* E*

Evans Pritchards work with the Azande peop"e of (outh (udan* As such$ # wi"" %e concentrating on summarising and

providing a commentary on the second section of the fi"m that was mentioned %ut not touched on in a "ot of detai" in

the origina" summaryM the section on the !uer peop"e$ a"so of (outh (udan*

3he !uer

E* E* Evans Pritchard was introduced to the !uer when the ang"o-egyptian government re4uested his services in

understanding a group of peop"e who were not cooperating with the co"onia" government* 3hey were thought of as

5war"ike peop"es$ who strong"y resisted the imposition of government* 3he re"ations %etween the !uer and the co"onia"

administrators had got so sour that at one point the !uer de"i%erate"y assassinated a co"onia" administrator$ and the

government %om%ed the !uers catt"e in an attempt to discip"ine them*

Evans Pritchard had no dictionary or interpreter with him$ %ut did not "et that deter him* He was accepted %y the !uer

as a guest and in a few months he had "earnt their "anguage we"" enough to communicate with them* He set up his

4uarters in the centre of the !uer vi""age$ which was a great o%servationa" post as he did not miss much of what went

on in !uer society %y "iving$ "itera""y$ in their very midst*

Here are some of his o%servations a%out the !uer in his own wordsM

The Nuer is a product of a hard and egalitarian upbringing, is deeply democratic and is easily roused to violence.

The turbulent spirit finds any restraint irksome and no man recognises a superior.

That every Nuer considers himself as good as his neighbour, is evident in their every movement. They strut about like

lords of the earth, which indeed they consider themselves to be.

There is no master and no servant in their society... only euals.

#n these o%servations we see the va"ue of the anthropo"ogica" perspective$ which comes a%out when societies are

respected and studied on their own terms$ and prefera%"y in their own "anguage* 3his is necessary to rea""y appreciatethe societa" norms$ %e"iefs and practices that have %een produced %y these peop"e for themse"ves$ through their own

e2periences*

Hence$ Evans Pritchards o%servations here te"" us a "ot more a%out the !uer$ how they think and fee"$ than the

o%servations of co"onia" administrators who were not anthropo"ogists and cou"d on"y say that they are 5war"ike and so

trou%"esome* 3hus$ a"though the co"onia" administrators did not understand the !uer$ Evans Pritchard fe"t that he

cou"d re"ate very c"ose"y to the !uer*3hrough Evans Pritchards descriptions$ the !uer are much easier to identify with

than in the portraya" %y the co"onia" administrators as a frightening and fierce group of peop"e* We can thus see how it

is possi%"e for gross misunderstandings and serious conf"icts %etween societies to occur without the anthropo"ogica"

perspectiveG

3hough there are many interesting features of !uer society$ the fi"m focused a "ot on catt"e and the p"ace of catt"e in

!uer society*


9/25

7att"e

A"though the catt"e are an important source of "ivestock$ they mean much more than that to the !uer$ who invest in

their catt"e inte""ectua""y and emotiona""y$ and wou"d %e wi""ing to risk their "ives for the safety of their herd*

Every cow or %u"" has a name and !uer fo"k"ore contains many stories a%out sp"endid catt"e* (ongs are composed for

cows or %u""s a%out their %eauty$ and then sung to the anima" in 4uestion*

A herd of catt"e can %e used to trace the ties of kinship$ where a dead mans herd is sp"it up among his sons$ who then

take care of those anima"s unti" they die* 7att"e is a"so used as a form of payment$ to sett"e socia" feuds or as %ride

wea"th$ paid %y a man to the fami"y of the woman he wants to marry in compensation for their "oss of a daughter*

>or a ma"e$ %eing a%"e to hone a %u"" is a mark of %eing a man$ a freedom from %oyhood* As a man$ he is entit"ed to %e

ki""ed %y his enemies$ and to have a gir"friend or a wife$ in addition to owning a %u""$ or %u""s* #n !uer society$ the %u""s

are tied to ideas of mascu"inity$ where men go parading with their %u""s to disp"ay their manhood and to gain the

attention of the opposite se2 * A man may take on the name of his favourite %u""$ and %e known %y that %u"" from then

on$ which is known as the mans 5%u"" name* A man a"so has a 5%u"" song$ which is the song he composes %y himse"f

that has a persona" meaning to him and is a"so very much re"ated to his %u"" )which encapsu"ates his mascu"inity in!uer society$ and gives him his p"ace in society as a man+*

3hus$ catt"e and !uer society are intimate"y "inked* According to Evans Pritchard$ 57att"e isQ the idiom through which

!uer think*

Hence we can understand that different societies have different systems of socia" organization* #n the case of the

!uer$ catt"e form the means of this organization* #t is no more 5irrationa" a system of socia" organization than that in

industria"ized and commercia"ized societies$ where peop"e common"y organise their "ives around consumerism or

money*

Covernance

Evans Pritchard was shocked to find no po"itica" or "ega" institutions in the !uer societies$ nor any mem%er of society

that was accorded with authority a%ove the rest* 3here were 5spiritua" e2perts who donned a particu"ar "eopard skin

ro%e that served as an ar%iter for conf"icting groups %ut had no power to sanction any%ody* Evans Pritchard ca""ed this

state of affairs 5ordered anarchy*

3hus$ the !uer are a%"e to organise their "ife such that there is no institution of governance$ or at "east$ easi"y

recogniza%"e institutions of government as we know them*

3his fact$ coup"ed with the high"y ega"itarian and independent ideo"ogy of the !uer where 5no man recognises a

superior %rings "itt"e wonder as to why the !uer resisted so strong"y the imposition of co"onia" governanceG

Aragon$ @iving in #ndonesia without a P"ease or 3hanks )7h* . in Everyday @ife+

Summar+

#n this chapter$ Aragon investigates the "ack of the Eng"ish e4uiva"ents of p"ease and thanks in the #ndonesian"anguage as we"" as recording and making sense of customs and ru"es that stood out to her whi"e staying in the

3o%aku #s"ands of #ndonesia* 3hrough this investigation$ she discovers that the "ack of these terms in the #ndonesian

"anguage and the "oca"s askance of persona" items revea" not on"y theQ technica" "anguage usage and conversationa"

routines$ %ut a"soIthe widespread (outheast Asian cu"tura" practices of economic e2change and hierarchy* (he


10/25

divides her chapter into J %rief segments after an introduction to her study*

14 5ndonesian 6ational and Local Languages

Aragon provides a historica" conte2t for the #ndonesian "anguage as it is used today through this segment$

documenting %rief"y how a"ay and #ndonesian came to %e the dominant "anguages used for communication across

#ndonesia*

&etween a choice of #ndonesian$ 'utch$ Davanese$ and other regiona" "anguages$ a"ay was chosen %y a youth

congress of pro-#ndependence nationa"ists to %e #ndonesias nationa" "anguage in ./L0* 3he other "anguages werere=ected on terms that they tended to emphasize socia"$ economic and po"itica" hierarchies when a nationa" "anguage

shou"d emphasize unity and e4ua"ity* a"ay was wide"y used as the "anguage of trade among the is"ands that made

up the 'utch East #ndies )#ndonesia in its co"onized time+ and was a"ready wide"y used across a"" is"ands* a"ay was

a"so a%"e to %e written in the @atin a"pha%et$ making it the %est choice for a nation that p"anned to "ive a"ongside the

rest of the wor"d*

#ndonesian was introduced as a second "anguage "earned in schoo"s and through mass media as the chi"dren sti""

spoke regiona" "anguages* #ndonesian a"so shares high simi"arity in voca%u"ary and grammatica" structure to a"ay*

#ndonesian and a"ay are therefore used as the dominant "anguages of communication in #ndonesia*

24 7a//ing the man+ 5ndonesian ords !or /lease9

Aragon o%serves that there is no e2act e4uiva"ent in #ndonesian for p"ease and thanks %ut instead there e2ists amu"titude ways of e2pressing these two words and states that many of the #ndonesian terms work rather different"y

than theirQ generic word$ p"ease* (he cites K different words that mean p"ease in #ndonesian* (he notes that each

one of them is to %e used in uni4ue conte2ts in which the user has to consider his re"ation to the addressed party*

6sing this word must a"so %e accompanied with the correct honorifics$ tone of askance$ %ody positioning and even eye

direction*

34 eing as)ed !or the clothes o!! m+ -ac)

3he author refers to the custom of asking for a tanda mata )"it< sign for the eye+$ a souvenir$ from the visitor %y the

3o%aku "oca"s* (he notices that this souvenir a"ways seemed to refer to something that the visitor has used on their

trip to the 3o%aku #s"ands$ "ike the "itera" c"othes off their %ack* #n e2change$ the "oca"s wou"d e2change for these

persona" items "oca""y produced materia"s* (he deduced after o%serving a fe""ow visitor emp"oy the strategy of wearing

her most run down c"othes throughout the visit and thus giving a"" those away e2cept for the c"othes she wou"d need

on the return trip to the city$ that the "oca"s were not asking for their persona" %e"ongings %ecause they were in "ack of

the finery that the visitors owned* (he deduced that the "oca"s attached meaning to the c"othes that the guests have

worn$ taking them to contain some essence of the wearer* 3he "oca"s were asking for persona" items in order to

remem%er the visitors %y and not for the economica" va"ue of the item e2changed*

N* S/ea)ing a-out !amil+, age and gender

Aragon notes that in the 3o%aku is"ands$ peop"e are addressed according to their teknonyms )kinship tit"es in the

form of mother of R or hus%and of 9+* Even the %us unc"e )a new ac4uaintance+ is ca""ed !m)unc"e+$ which

according to Aragon is a way of reminding him that you respect him as authority and yet e2pect him to care for your

we""-%eing on the =ourney as if you were cherished kin*

(he was struck %y the #ndonesians practice of asking for the other persons age$ an act that is considered rude in the6( where she was from* #n investigating this cause$ she finds out that age ranking is more important than gender in

the organization of socia" re"ationships in #ndonesia* (he supports this with the o%servation that the terms showing

age ranking )kakak and adik+ are gender neutra"*

4 ;hen a $er-al e


11/25

% L6>?># S S@C5@C?L(?RL 56A5C(@R

% AR;56> RLL#LS (@ @(H#R R#A56>S

3he a%ove reading is yet another i""ustration of "anguage %eing very much ref"ective of "arger cu"tura" practices and

%e"iefs in societiesM indeed it can %e said that "anguage is em%edded in wider sociocu"tura" practices$ ways of %eing

and conte2ts* 3he very a%sence of the e4uiva"ent of thank you in most regions of #ndonesia )a contrast made even

more pronounced %y the many different #ndonesian e4uiva"ents of p"ease+ is very te""ing of the socia" re"ations and

cu"tura" norms in these societies O that socia" re"ations are sustained and maintained through the creation of fee"ings

of inde%tedness* 3his socia""y recognised re4uisite to reciprocate is seen further in the se"f-deprecatory remarks that areceiver typica""y makes$ which emphasises the need for that person to sustain and deve"op the socia" re"ation %y

responding in kind* Hence$ "anguage$ in this instance$ revea"s the mechanisms and processes %ehind the

esta%"ishment of socia" re"ations$ as we see how e2act"y these re"ationships are esta%"ished$ continua""y maintained

and sustained* Here$ a para""e" to the 'o%e DuBhoansiBs h"aroe2change can %e drawn* A"though h"arois distinct from

this e2amp"e of #ndonesian reciprocity in that it has other functions of socia" redistri%ution and restoring eco"ogica"

%a"ance in times of disaster or other natura" phenomenon$ the articu"ation of the phrase$ ;in h"aro$ you are never

finished;$ revea"s that the two societies foster socia" re"ations %y operating on the same creation of fee"ings of

inde%tedness*

3his a"so %rings to our attention the idea that the very same socia" action has very different

imp"icationsintentionsmeanings that vary according to the given socia" conte2t< whereas a ver%a" e2pression ofthanks in one society is regarded as e2pressing gratitude and respect and serves as acknow"edgement of the other

persons efforts$ in #ndonesian society this is shied away from %ecause it a%so"ves one of hisher o%"igation to

reciprocate$ and in doing so this faci"itates continuous maintenance and fostering of a socia" re"ationship* #t is

significant that the Davanese are noted for practising the same "inguistic property$ for they are typica""y regarded as

notorious"y manners-o%sessed$ which confirms that the apparent "ack of ver%a" e2pressions of thanks has wider

imp"ications in terms of socia" re"ations rather than %eing mere"y a matter of socia" decorum*

@inks can a"so %e made to the chapter Eating @unch and :ecreating the 6niverse%y Avie"i$ in which "inguistic

4ua"ities of a "anguage once again revea" certain cu"tura" traits of a society O that there are very specific terms for the

various sty"es of cooking and ways of en=oying rice shows e2act"y how centra" it is to ietnamese identity and cu"ture*

#ndeed$ the e"a%orate socia" processes surrounding the consumption of rice and the o%servation that ;rice makes the

event of eating Ba mea"B; reinforces its cu"tura" significance* @anguage$ therefore$ shou"d %e e2amined in re"ation to the

respective cu"ture)s+ in which it is spoken$ for the same "anguage can %e used and adapted in a myriad ways to suit

and %etter represent the cu"tura" %e"iefs$ identity and ways of %eing in that particu"ar region* )3hink the Eng"ish

"anguage and how different"y it is spokenadapted in the 6( - which a"so varies from state to state$ Austra"ia$ the 6$

and (ingaporeG+

Cause+, (o-a ata) Sel$es9 Ch4 2 in Everyday Life)

Who are we e2act"y?

Toba Batak Selves: Personal, Spiritual, Collective

3he 3o%a &atak peop"e of #ndonesia have three senses of se"f$ or identities O an individua" persona"ity$ a spirit and a

uni4ue position in a co""ective group* 3hese three senses of se"f do not co-e2ist with each other in comp"ete harmony*

#n the everyday "ife of &ataks$ a man or woman makes decisions$ and this may prove to %e cha""enging as the three

identities come into inevita%"e conf"ict* #t is re4uired$ of &ataks$ to constant"y %a"ance O you might even say =ugg"e O a

num%er different notions of 5se"f that were %oth constructed %oth %y themse"ves and the socio-cu"tura" wor"d around

them*

Batak Notion of the #ndividual $%ersonhood&

&ataks va"ue su%=ectivity$ a 4ua"ity within peop"e that makes them e2c"usive as compared to the rest of the wor"d* A

persons idiosyncrasies constitute this individua"ity$ which is a"so known as sifat)character+* Sifatis %e"ieved to %e
http://sc2218.wikifoundry.com/page/Chapter+17+Eating+Lunch+and+Recreating+the+Universe%3A+Food+and+Cosmology+in+Hoi+An%2C+Vietnamhttp://sc2218.wikifoundry.com/page/Chapter+17+Eating+Lunch+and+Recreating+the+Universe%3A+Food+and+Cosmology+in+Hoi+An%2C+Vietnamhttp://sc2218.wikifoundry.com/page/Chapter+17+Eating+Lunch+and+Recreating+the+Universe%3A+Food+and+Cosmology+in+Hoi+An%2C+Vietnam


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inherited and therefore not ma""ea%"e %y any form of persona" agency*

Batak Notion of the Spiritual Self 'Tondi

Tondi is conceptua"ized as an autonomous 5"ife-force that e2ists within an individua"* 3here are two characteristics

of tondi* >irst$ tondi isine2trica%"y intertwined with the we""-%eing of the physica" %ody* (econd"y$ this mystica" 5"ife-

force possesses an e2a"ted status simi"ar to that of an omnipotent god* 3hese two 4ua"ities c"ear"y e2p"ain the

imperative for tondi to e2ercise its prerogative over sifatwhen the individua"ity comes into opposition with the spiritua"

se"f*

#t is interesting to note that &ataks reify tondi, descri%ing it as if it had human-"ike 4ua"ities$ with an autonomous mind

to make preferences and god"y a%i"ities to coerce the materia" %ody into comp"iance*

Batak Notion of the (roup $)ollective Self&

em%ership to a "arger co""ective group defines their "ast of the three identities* A high regard for tradition resu"ts in

strict adherence to the hegemony of cu"tura" ru"es imp"emented %y the ancestors* ,ne of them is the idea of

communitarianism* 3he &ataks see themse"ves as a co""ective where 5ones actions are guided %y the communitys

"aw and regu"ations*

3hrough the "ens of functiona"-structura"ism$ it is not difficu"t to recognize the way this notion of co""ective se"f serves

as an ordered cu"tura" script put forth to organize the &atak society in a way in which persona" needs are kept in

%a"ance with that of the socia" group$ advocating so"idarity within the community*

#dentities in Singapore

'o we face the same identity crisis in (ingapore? Here$ the state e"ite disseminate its top-down discourse a%out

nationa"ity* (choo"s serve as potent agents of socia"ization$ enforcing the dai"y ritua" of the nationa" p"edge and

anthem* Every year$ on the /th of August$ the !ationa" 'ay Parade sweeps its citizens into a tempora" fervor of

patriotism through performances that aim to remind them of their tumu"tuous past and their common =ourney to

present-day success$ underscoring the paramount importance of nationa" so"idarity in ensuring future success* 3hese

are %ut non-e2haustive e2amp"es of the materia" aspects of nationa"ist discourse* #n essence$ the point that # am trying

to put forth is that we are simi"ar to the &ataks %ecause we %oth are constrained in a sense that we have to consider

the we""-%eing of the "arger socia" group$ which is the nation$ in the case of (ingapore* ,ur senses of se"f can %e said

to %e em%edded in our sense of nationa" identity*

3he e2tent to which this discourse is %eing interna"ized as guiding princip"es of "ife is difficu"t to ascertain* #t is difficu"t

to genera"ize (ingaporeans attitudes towards their nationa" identity without scrutinizing the significant factors of race

and socia" c"ass* 6n"ike the &ataks$ it can %e argued that (ingaporeans do not face as much pressure to conform to

nationa"istic or communa" idea"s$ %ecause of rising aff"uence and e2posure to Western ideas that apparent"y advocate

individua"ity over communitarianism* A"so$ the authoritarian nature of the government has si"enced po"itica" dissent$

minimizing the citizens participation in the nations affairs to a %are minimum* Without emotiona" engagement in the

nations future$ it is not difficu"t to see why some (ingaporeans are not on"y po"itica""y apathetic$ %ut a"so una%"e to

visua"ize their sense of %e"onging to the nationa" community*

# fee" that the idea of conforming to communa" idea"s su%=ugates individua"ity$ and that itse"f is detrimenta" to a

persons we""-%eing* A"though there is a connotation of a"truism in sacrificing 5for the greater good$ a more pertinent

4uestion is for whom are we sacrificing for? Who stands to gain in these persona" sacrifices? Who may %e covert"y

accruing %enefit under the guise of this a"truistic system? A cynic wou"d say that the &atak system of se"ves is a

cu"tura" conspiracy*

Han)s, 7erit and oer in the (hai Social @rder9 Ch4 B in Everyday Life'

(ummary and 7ommentary of erit and Power in the 3hai (ocia" ,rder


13/25

#n 7hapter K of Everyday @ife in (outheast Asia$ @ucien * Hanks$ Dr*5s erit and Power in the 3hai (ocia" ,rder

provides a %road ana"ysis of the 3hai cu"ture$ with numerous shared va"ues and %e"iefs of the 3hai society drawn from

the re"igious teachings of &uddhism* Civen that over /F of the tota" popu"ation in 3hai"and are &uddhists according

to the 7#A Wor"d >act%ook 3hai"and$ &uddhism is 3hai"ands nationa" re"igion and an essentia" component to the 3hai

identity* Hence$ it can %e seen in Hanks account how the &uddhist %e"ief of a cosmic order and merit is common"y

app"ied and intertwined with a second factor of power in order to make sense of the socia" order and mo%i"ity that e2ist

%etween hierarchies and even within kinship re"ationships for e2amp"e$ in 3hai"and*

erit is viewed as a f"uid form of measure rather than a fi2ed one in the 3hai conte2t$ as merit is constant"y gained or"ost* 3hais %e"ieve that a persons %irth into a particu"ar socia" position within fi2ed hierarchica" stations can %e traced

%ack to past merit earned in their previous "ife* !onethe"ess$ merit can %e gained or "ost throughout ones "ife =ust "ike

one can move up and down the 3hai socia" order ranks through merit and a"so through a"igning with someone who

has greater resources than one a"one possesses* An e2amp"e of a young man that went to &angkok from the

countryside to =oin his unc"e was an interesting case mentioned that shed "ight on the construct of kinship as a means

of socia" mo%i"ity and mutua" %enefit* 3he young man was afforded opportunities to c"im% the socia" "adder and ho"d a

manageria" position in his unc"es factory due to the specia" kinship %"ood re"ationship they shared* #n return for that as

we"" as food$ housing and %asica""y an inc"usion into his unc"es fami"y$ there seemed to %e an imp"icit o%"igation of fi"ia"

piety$ to care for his unc"e and his fami"y* 9et$ it was revea"ed that the man a%andoned his %enefactors when his

unc"es %usiness suffered and he no "onger saw a mutua" %enefit and thus$ changed his affi"iation with that unc"e who

no "onger possesses greater resources*

Power possessed due to accumu"ation of specia" know"edge or supernatura" %"essing from amu"ets or guardians is

a"so recognized in the 3hai cu"ture as the other factor %esides merit that is present in the esta%"ishment of the socia"

order* #t he"ps in the e2p"anation of certain discourses %etween merit and socia" rank as moments of perfect =ustice in

an order"y system are rare*

# thought this was an interesting artic"e to ponder as this one ma=or re"igion country whose nationa" identity and cu"ture

was derived so strong"y from &uddhist %e"iefs stood in stark contrast to our mu"ti-re"igious$ mu"ticu"tura" society of

(ingapore* 3he way 3hai society portrays the c"ear distinction of socia" ranks and preaches the acceptance of ones

socia" rank as resu"t of past merit$ fo""owed %y accumu"ated merit and perhaps power as mentioned a%ove strong"y

uti"izes re"igious %e"iefs to account for ones economic$ po"itica" or socia" standing* Hence$ merit is a repeated word$

%ut it is rather far apart from the (ingapores society that practices meritocracy instead* ,ur idea of meritocracy

"eads us to %e"ieve in e4ua"ity of opportunities$ especia""y in terms of education$ with success going to those who work

hard and perform the %est* Hanks addresses education as an important new %arrier to socia" movement in 3hai"and

and it is interesting to see how education and its "eading to socia" c"osure of certain groups and professions for

e2amp"e$ can %e inc"uded into 3hai"ands perception of factors that affect socia" order*

$ieli, #ating Lunch and Recreating the ?ni$erse9 Ch4 1B in Everyday Life'

A former postdoctora" fe""ow at the !ationa" 6niversity of (ingapore$ !ir Aivie"i uses the ietnamese dai"y home-eaten

mea" as a mode" to he"p us understand how the peop"e of Hoi An$ ietnam$ view the wor"d they "ive in* Ana"yzing a

mea" might appear radica"$ %ut Avie"is ana"ysis dri""s deep into the cu"tura" significance of the dishes used in the mea"$

how these dishes are prepared$ the ingredients that are used$ and how these dishes actua""y re"ate to 3aoistprincip"es*

First, $ieli suggests that it is instructi$e to understand the Hoianese meal as a structure that com/rises to

core elements4

3his structure might not %e fo""owed re"igious"y %y Hoianese fami"ies$ %ut most peop"e wi"" recognize and

acknow"edge that it is a representation of the ways things shou"d %eish sauce$ nuoc mam$ is a traditiona" type of sauce made from the fermentation of "ong-=awed anchovy* #t can %e

used to marinate food$ as condiment during the cooking process or as a dip whi"e eating* >ish sauce is a"so another

compu"sory item to have on the dining ta%"e* !ot on"y does it taste good with food$ it aids in the ad=ustment of food

taste* As such$ fish sauce acts as a more po"ite way of modifying the taste of the food if it is too %"and* A"though fish

sauce is avai"a%"e in grocery stores in (ingapore$ not many peop"e use them* ost of us wou"d use soy sauce or sa"t

to ad=ust the taste of the dish* ,ther than that$ one can a"so find sam%a" or %e"acan as a dip for the chi"i "overs* )#n

fact$ # know of some peop"e who need chi"i in a"" their mea"s+

We have compared the main parts of a Hoianese mea" in ietnam and a 7hinese mea" in (ingapore* As (ingapore is

a mu"ticu"tura" country$ many types of food can %e found here* As the country continues to deve"op$ peop"e are getting%usier with their careers and other commitments* As such$ many fami"ies do not cook on weekdays %ut often opt to eat

out* 3he food they consumed dai"y can range from restaurant mea"s$ fast food to convenience mea" made ready %y a

microwave*


17/25

Cron), Lee 1' Rigting Culture, //41%1

Summar+

3his reading is apt"y named 5:ighting 7u"ture$ %ecause 7ronk seeks to define$ a"ter and correct the meaning and

definition of the term 5cu"ture* 3hrough an active discussion of many case studies of peop"e a"" over the wor"d$ he

cha""enges the readers own f"awed perceptions and misunderstanding of cu"ture* 3hrough his e2p"ication on the

deve"opment of the evo"utionary and cu"tura" science of human %ehaviour$ he hopes that readers wi"" o%tain a %etter

understanding of who they are$ %eyond the individua" "eve" to encompass cu"tura" groups and humanity as a who"e*

7ronk starts the reading %y stating c"ear"y the universa" significance of cu"ture* He says cu"ture determines %ehavior

far more than any other factor$ %e it race$ c"ass$ economic %ackground$ or ethnicity* He stresses on the importance of

respecting cu"tures that are un"ike ones own$ and that no one cu"ture is superior to another* #n his own words$ A""

cu"tures are e4ua""y va"id and worthy of study and respect* >urthermore$ he c"aims that a severe "ack of know"edge

e2ists of the history of the concept of cu"ture and the effects it has on peop"es %ehavior*

After esta%"ishing these facts$ he goes on to give severa" definitions of the word 5cu"ture$ emphasizing particu"ar"y one

%y Edward 3y"or$ which is that comp"e2 who"e which inc"udes know"edge$ %e"ief$ art$ "aw$ mora"s$ customs$ and any

other capa%i"ities and ha%its ac4uired %y man as a mem%er of society* He e2p"ains that cu"ture is no "onger a "imited

commodity %e"onging to a particu"ar favored group of peop"e$ %ut rather$ something that every mem%er of society has*

A modern day version of this definition of cu"ture wou"d %e Everything that peop"e have$ think$ and do as mem%ers ofsociety O in the other words$ cu"ture is intricate"y intertwined with %ehavior*

He then identifies a "oopho"e in this particu"ar definition$ c"aiming that if %ehavior is inc"uded in the definition of cu"ture$

then it %ecomes impossi%"e to separate the two* #t wou"d then %e high"y difficu"t to e2p"ore how cu"ture affects %ehavior

and vice versa$ which wou"d render the study of cu"ture to understand %ehavior redundant*

7ronk gives a wide array of case studies to e2p"ain the disparities %etween "ingua" and socia"-motor types of

%ehavior O that is$ the inconsistency %etween what is %eing done and what is actua""y said* He cites the ukogodo

peop"e in enya$ who in rea"ity take %etter care of their daughters than sons$ %ut have a stated )said+ preference for

ma"es simp"y to identify themse"ves as part of the "arger aasai tri%e$ where mascu"inity is ce"e%rated and feminity

despised* He a"so mentions a study regarding regarding the acceptance of 7hinese peop"e at restaurants and hote"s

in the 6nited (tates in the ./8s$ where it was discovered that actua" racist %ehavior was significant"y "ess preva"ent

than spoken racist attitudes towards the 7hinese*

He goes on to e"a%orate on this strange phenomenon$ saying a very possi%"e e2p"anation wou"d %e that peop"es

rhetoric has not caught up with their rea"ity$ or vice versa$ where peop"es rhetoric runs ahead of their %ehavior* Hence$

he uses these inconsistencies %etween attitudes and %ehavior to correct the "oopho"e in the definition of cu"ture as

mentioned previous"y* He argues that %ehavior cannot %e inc"uded in the definition of cu"ture$ %ecause$ as proven$

human %ehavior is not definite"y or a%so"ute"y determined %y nature a"one* 7ertain"y$ cu"ture has definite effects and

impacts on ones actions and %ehavior$ %ut they are not the same thing* He wraps up his argument succinct"y %y

"inking to 7"ifford CeertzBs notion of cu"ture as ;patternsfor %ehaviour$ not patterns of%ehaviour;* 3hus$ cu"ture is the

socia""y transmitted information that te""s a person how to %ehave or act$ %ut it is certain"y not the so"e determining

factor$ nor is it the e4uiva"ent*#n conc"usion$ 7ronk ends %y reminding readers of the pervasiveness of cu"ture$ such that we often mistake cu"ture

and %ehavior for the same thing O cha""enging the reader to %e more aware of the distinction %etween the two$ "eading

up to a more fruitfu" and %etter understanding of cu"ture*

Commentaries

7omp"e2ity of 7u"ture

7ronk ).///+ addresses the perennia" de%ate on the definition of human cu"ture$ a concept hard to fu""y grasp in the

anthropo"ogica" fie"d* He critica""y criti4ued 3y"ors usage of the %ehavioura" perspective in e2p"aining cu"ture asredundant$ since a"" %ehaviour is innate"y cu"ture* 3he focus$ in his opinion$ shou"d %e in e2p"aining the ro"e of cu"ture

in shaping %ehaviour and society* He suggested that the "inkages %etween cu"tura" anthropo"ogy and evo"utionary

theory have to %e e2p"ored to %etter understand the concept of cu"ture*


18/25

#n 7ronks enyan fie"dwork on a group of peop"e ca""ed the ukogodo$ the interesting contradiction %etween the

"ingua" and socia"-motor types of %ehaviour was raised* 3he ukogodo speak of the preference towards %oys than

gir"s$ %ut in practice they ironica""y tend to take %etter care of their daughters than sons* 3his surprising dissonance

%etween the "ingua" and socia"-motor simi"ar"y ignited interest in me* #n my opinion$ the dissonance is caused %y the

gap in the cu"ture they live by$ and the cu"ture they live with* 3he cu"ture they live byrefers to the cu"tura" system the

ukogodo perceive that they are inM hence they have "earned to adopt a simi"ar preference to sons to fit into a

co""ective identity with the aasai* 3he cu"ture they live withrepresents the rea"ity peop"e "ive in$ invo"ving the socia"

forces at p"ay in the different cu"tura" system to create differences and diversities even within a same cu"tura" group* As

7ronk succinct"y puts it$ peop"es rhetoric has yet to catch up with their rea"ity*

3he ukogodo$ one of the "ast peop"e on Earth who have "ived in caves$ have evo"ved to %e indistinguisha%"e from the

aasai as they adopted their "anguage$ re"igion$ ritua"s and other dai"y practices* >urthermore$ intermarriages

%etween aasai and ukogodo increased cu"tura" e2changes as know"edge$ ideas and %e"iefs are transferred and

mi2ed %etween the two groups* 3he ukogodo have then adopted the aasais strong"y ma"e %iased perspective in

their spoken attitudes and %e"iefs given their se"f-identification as aasai* 9et$ their socia"-motor %ehaviour appears

otherwise$ possi%"y inf"uenced %y other e2isting socia" structures* 3he favouritism in practice towards daughters is

"arge"y due to the fact that daughters have higher potentia" to e"evate the ukogodos fami"y socia" status when they

are married off to wea"thy men from neigh%ouring tri%es$ whereas the ukogodo men face greater difficu"ties in getting

married due to their "ow socia" status and poor economic power* Hence$ it seems "ogica" and practica" for ukogodo

parents to invest more resources on their daughters* We see how the ine4ua"ity in power structure %etween theukogodo and aasai comes into p"ay and kinship re"ations can %e seen as a means of "everage to %ridge the

ine4ua"ity %etween the two groups* #t is important to note that the interp"ay %etween the various socia" structures

%rought a%out variations within a cu"tura" group*

7ronk suggested a shift in the focus away from %ehaviour and the materia" resu"ts of %ehaviour$ to the ideationa"

e"ements where the socia""y transmitted information may partia""y determine the patterns of human action* #n our

course of study$ we have esta%"ished cu"ture as an iterative process where the interaction %etween the cu"tura"

structures and the agents in the cu"tura" structures constant"y remake cu"ture and cu"ture changes with time* Hence$

understanding cu"ture from an evo"utionary point of view is of importance* #t is thus vita" to note that there is never a

fi2ed cu"ture even in a same cu"tura" group %ecause cu"tures are a"ways evo"ving*

3his is especia""y re"evant in todays society where the notion of 5hy%rid cu"tures is preva"ent* Hy%rid cu"ture is

produced through the interaction %etween two un"ike cu"tures$ and it is o%serva%"e in the (ingapore conte2t*

(ingapore$ an Asian country$ adopts traditiona" Asian va"ues$ yet the way of thinking has increasing"y %een fused with

Western inf"uence* 3his once again high"ights that cu"ture is a"ways evo"ving and change is an on-going process

caused %y the different socia" forces acting on the cu"tura" system*

:E


19/25

this point in time to high"ight that cu"ture is not static* #t evo"ves over time and varies according to conte2ts* &ehaviour

at a co""ective "eve" have the capacity to change some aspect of cu"ture or cu"tura" system* What might seem

unaccepta%"e to a cu"ture at a particu"ar point in time or moment in history might %ecome accepta%"e to that very

cu"ture overtime* Hence cu"ture a"so changes and adapts*

Hence cu"ture inf"uencing %ehaviour is a very top- down kind of an approach in understanding peop"es actions and

%ehaviours* Whereas$ thinking of %ehaviour having an inf"uence and affecting cu"ture is taking the %ottom- up

approach and point of view in understanding and attempting to e2p"ain why peop"e %ehave and act the way they do*

@ast"y$ # wou"d "ike to say that we shou"d avoid "ooking at 7u"ture as traditona"$ o"d- fashioned and constraining*

#nstead we shou"d appreciate cu"ture as ena%"ing$ creating new wor"dviews and possi%i"ities*

And hereBs what # think***

After stating that different groups of peop"e approach cu"ture different"y %ecause of the simp"e reason that cu"ture is

%asic to society and is a powerfu" inf"uence when it comes to peop"es %ehaviour$ 7ronk goes on to te"" us why thedefinitions of cu"ture used in the past are not ade4uate or correct then attempts to provide readers with his version of

what is a correct or accepta%"e definition* According to him$ definitions in the past inc"uded %ehaviour as a factor in

e2p"aining cu"ture and thus it makes it impossi%"e to use cu"ture to e2p"ain anything a%out %ehaviour* 3hroughout the

rest of the reading$ 7ronk attempts to e2p"ain to readers how cu"ture does not e2p"ain human %ehaviour$ drawing from

e2amp"es "ike the ukogodo from enya$ the aasai who are a group of East African herders$ a group of African

pastora"ists the Herero of &otswana$ (outh Asian parents and the Americans*

#n the entire reader$ the author attempts to e2p"ain why %ehaviour is not inf"uenced %y ones cu"ture* 3o put simp"y$

according to 7ronk$ peop"e )%ased on their cu"ture+ say or %e"ieve in one thing and yet they do a different thing$ which

is usua""y contradictory )to a certain e2tent+ to what they %e"ieve in )their cu"ture+* 7ronk %e"ieves that this mismatch in

peop"es attitudes and actions is %ecause peop"es rhetoric has not caught up with their rea"ity and a"so %ecause

sometimes rhetoric runs ahead of %ehaviour*

After reading 7ronks :ighting 7u"ture$ # have to say that # agree with some of his arguments %ut # must add that #

strong"y disagree with his "ine of argument that cu"ture does not affect %ehaviour* #f anything$ # %e"ieve that it is

precise"y %ecause of cu"ture that groups of peop"e act in certain ways that cou"d %e simi"ar or vast"y different from

other groups of peop"e* # do not mean to say that a"" human %ehaviour is %ecause of cu"ture* 7u"ture a"one cannot

e2p"ain a"" our actions$ %ut most of the time # %e"ieve that cu"ture is a key reason and an important consideration to

understanding why peop"e do certain things and act in certain ways* # %e"ieve that human %ehaviour$ to a "arge e2tent$

can %e attri%uted to cu"ture* #n other words$ humans act the way they do most"y %ecause of their cu"ture*

6sing (ym%o"ic #nteractionism framework in understanding the comp"e2ities of the concept of 7u"ture

E*&*3y"ors definition of cu"ture is that comp"e2 who"e which inc"udes know"edge$ %e"iefs $art$ mora"s$ "aw$ customs

and any other capa%i"ities and ha%its ac4uired %y man as a mem%er of society* 3y"or inc"udes %ehaviour in the

category of cu"ture and posits that a"" %ehaviour is cu"tura" %ehaviour %ecause a"" %ehaviour is cu"ture* )7ronk @ee$

.///< N+ As such$ 3y"or tends to use cu"ture to e2p"ain %ehaviour in a deterministic$ unidirectiona" way and hence is

"imited in understanding and e2p"aining why peop"e do what they do*

#n my opinion$ the use of 3y"ors concept of cu"ture to study human %ehaviour comes from the structura"-functiona"ism

paradigm which tends to categorise and 5%o2 peop"e into certain particu"ar patterned ways of %eing and treat as if it is

fi2ed* Human agency is downp"ayed and negated whi"st cu"tura" determinism is reified*7u"ture does indeed havesomething to do with %ehaviour in terms of inf"uencing and guiding human %ehaviour %ut it certain"y does not

necessari"y determine a"" human %ehaviour and is definite"y not the same thing as %ehaviour as high"ighted %y 7"iiford

Ceertz* Ceertz offers a more f"e2i%"e and tena%"e understanding and definition of cu"ture*


20/25

7u"ture can %e understood as those we%s of significance that man himse"f has spun in order to make sense of the

wor"d in which he "ives in and make meanings of things that are significant to us* As Ceertz apt"y puts it $ 7u"ture is

patterns for %ehaviour Mnot of %ehaviour* Here$ the ro"e of human agency is accounted for in making cu"ture as we"" as

the use of cu"ture in rea"ity* Hence Ceertz offers a more comprehensive and ho"istic understanding and framework of

cu"ture* Human agency as we"" as structure is take into account in e2p"aining the human condition which is essentia""y

what anthropo"ogy seeks to e2p"ain and understand*

#n my opinion$ Ceetz definition and understanding if cu"ture as an interpretive one in search of meanings stems from

or can %e viewed from the sym%o"ic- interactionism paradigmperspective which is very usefu" in deconstructing theconcept of cu"ture and high"ighting the comp"e2ities of concept of cu"ture in the rea" wor"d and in rea"ity*

(ym%o"ic #nteractionism was a term coined %y Her%ert &"ummer )./1/+ who put forward that peop"e interacted with

each other %y intrepreting or re-defining each others actions instead of mere"y reacting to them* 3hus human actions

and %ehaviours are %ased on the meanings that they attach to their situations* 3he sym%o"ic interactionism

perspective investigates how peop"e attach and create meanings during the course of socia" interactions$ how they

construct the se"f and how they eventua""y define their own situation in the presence of others* Hence one of sym%o"ic

interactionisms main idea is that the reason peop"e act and %ehave the way the do is %ecause of how they define

situations and not how the situations defines them and contro"s their %ehaviours or actions*

Hence humans are given or ascri%ed with active rather than =ust passive agencies and mere fo""owers as can %eunderstood %y 3y"ors %ehaviorist e2p"anations of human %ehaviour which is "imited as it does not a""ow for

intrepretation %etween stimu"us and response* Hence in my opinion using the (ym%o"ic #nteractionism perspective

rather than the (tructura" functiona" perspective in understanding the concept of cu"ture and Ceertz conceptua"ization

of cu"ture is the way to go in he"ping us understand our the human condition as they tend to see theour socia" wor"d

as dynamic and dia"ectica"*

7ommentary on @ee 7ronkBs B:ighting 7u"tureB

When # read @ee 7ronks artic"e on 5:ighting 7u"ture$ # rea"ized that there is no fi2ed definition of cu"ture* 7u"ture is

something that makes us who we are$ and it is as 5human as our %asic %io"ogica" traits* However$ cu"ture is a

ma""ea%"e concept* Anthropo"ogists themse"ves have different ideas of what the definition of cu"ture shou"d inc"ude$

and 7ronk$ using a "ot of c"ever metaphors$ gives us his own take on this 4uandary* Edward &urnett 3y"or$ the pioneer$

if you wi""$ in this attempt to define cu"ture$ ca""ed it a comp"e2 who"e* 9es$ 7ronk argues$ cu"ture is indeed 5comp"e2$

%ut is it rea""y a 5who"e?

7ronk %e"ieves that the definition of cu"ture shou"d not inc"ude every sing"e %ehaviour that man )or womanG+

e2presses* 7u"ture is more ideationa"$ and "ess %ehavioura"* He i""ustrates this %y giving many instances where

peop"es rhetoric )their cu"ture+ does not coincide with rea"ity )their %ehaviour+* Why wou"d they say one thing$ and do

something e"se? 3his o%vious"y nu""ifies the popu"ar assumption that cu"ture is%ehaviour$ and proves that %ehaviour is

=ust one of the products of cu"ture* ,r does it? When # read these e2amp"es of cognitive dissonance$ # immediate"y

rea"ized that a "arge part of cu"ture is peer pressure* 3his goes %eyond the %ehavioura" or ideationa" definition of

cu"ture* 3o add to 7ronks cake metaphor$ then$ cu"ture is the recipe that he"ps us 5%ake the cake %ut it a"so provides

the heat$ or pressure$ necessary to turn the raw %atter into a we""-cooked dessert*

7ronk ta"ks a%out how some (outh Asian parents now treat their daughters %etter than their sons %ecause women

have entered the workforce in huge num%ers$ and thrived there* However$ they sti"" say that they prefer sons over

daughters* &eing an #ndian$ # know that there is a "ong history of preferring sons over daughters* 3his is changing

rapid"y now$ %ut it something of a socia" norm$ a norm with historica" roots* #f something is em%edded within your

cu"ture$ it %ecomes$ in a way$ a part of you* #f you e2press pu%"ic"y that you are not conforming to the cu"tura" norm$

then you %ecome a kind of an outcast* >or e2amp"e$ a "ot of popu"ar cu"ture invo"ves pressure to conform* 7ricket is a

huge sport in #ndia$ a"most akin to re"igion* #f one e2press distaste for it$ he or she is immediate"y considered an

out"ier*

# am not trying to argue that cu"ture$ pop cu"ture or otherwise$ is entire"y a%out peer pressure* !onethe"ess$ cu"turep"ays a huge ro"e in e2erting pressure on the peop"e who are a part of it* 3his is pro%a%"y why some #ndian parents

fee" compe""ed to say that they prefer sons over daughters$ even though their actua" %ehaviour says otherwise* 3hey

are simp"y conforming to the cu"tura" norm$ mere"y going a"ong with what they have a"ways "earned is right* 3hey do

not want to %e deemed out"iers or cu"tura" misfits* (o why does their %ehaviour not match?#n private$ these parents


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wi"" not fee" the same pressure to conform* #n their own time$ they wi"" do what they fee" is right and what makes

practica" sense* 3o the outside wor"d$ they are adhering to the norm$ %ut in rea"ity$ they are fo""owing their ownnorms*

3he outer "ayers of an onion are e2posed to dirt and other environmenta" pressures$ %ut once we pee" those away$ the

inner "ayers are intact and une2posed to outside inf"uence* #n the same way$ our cu"ture and its norms$ fo"kways and

mores e2ert pressure on what we say$ %ut not so much on what we doG

Which$ then$ is more important? ,ur outer 5cu"ture$ or our inner 5%ehaviour? What we do is far more important than

what we want the wor"d tothinkwe are doing* 9es$ some (outh Asian parents may unfair"y say that they prefer sons

over daughters$ %ut they are treating their daughters more and more as e4ua"s )and even sometimes superior to theirsonsG+ every sing"e day* 3hus$ this union of peer pressure and cu"ture is not that threatening to our u"timate %ehaviour*

# agree that we need to make it more accepta%"e and 5norma" to step outside the norm$ %ut as "ong as the pressure to

fo""ow these cu"tura" norms has on"y minima" inf"uence on our %ehaviour$ there is no reason to worry )yetG+

# want to end this commentary %y going %ack to the tuss"e %etween %ehavioura" and ideationa" definitions of cu"ture*

Why is it that most peop"e wou"d think of cu"ture and %ehaviour as %eing synonymous? 3o answer this$ # %e"ieve$ we

need to go %ack in history to the (cientific :evo"ution* >rom an age where superstition was rampant$ humanity

entered an era where empiricism was sudden"y everything* What was most va"ued was what cou"d %e o%served

empirica""y* 3hree hundred years "ater$ we sti"" ho"d o%serva%"e %ehaviour in high regard* 3hus$ we "ike the %ehavioura"

definition of cu"ture %ecause it gives us something to o%serve direct"y* now"edge$ ideas and concepts are a"" fine$ %ut

how do we measure them? #$ however$ wou"d "ike to agree with 7ronks take on this di"emma* 7u"ture may not %e thedirect"y o%serva%"e$ %ut it can and shou"d study the processes$ mechanics and interactions behindthe direct"y

o%serva%"e* 3hese mechanics may %e concepts$ ideas$ know"edge or$ as # suggested$ even peer pressure* 3hus$

cou"d we suggest that 5cu"ture represents an ama"gamation of the two definitions? 7ou"d there %e an ideationa"-

%ehavioura" definition of cu"ture? # definite"y think that it is possi%"e to =u2tapose %oth definitions$ %ut do you? (ound off

in the comments %e"owG

7u"ture and &ehaviour< the conundrum

7ronk argues that %ehaviour ought not to %e inc"uded in ones definition of cu"ture$ using a cake ana"ogy to argue

a%out %ehaviours re"ation to cu"ture< that cu"ture is %ut a recipe that guides ones %ehaviour$ and is a pattern for

SC2218 Lecture 3 Films & Readings

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