LANDMINE and EXPLOSIVEREMNANTS of WARS A F E T Y H A N D B O O K

United Nations

United Nations Mine Action ServiceNew York, NY 10017 USATel: 1.212.963.1875 • Fax: 1.212.963.2498E-mail: MineAction@un.orgWebsite: www.mineaction.org United Nations

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A manual for people working

in environments

contaminated by landmines and otherexplosive remnants

of war

InformationCountry-Specific

Landmine and Explosive Remnants of War

Safety Handbook

A manual for people working in environments contaminated by landmines and other explosive remnants of war

FUNDING FOR THIS PROJECT WAS PROVIDED BY THE UNITED

NATIONS FOUNDATION THROUGH THE UNITED NATIONS FUND

FOR INTERNATIONAL PARTNERSHIPS (UNFIP), AND BY THE

GOVERNMENTS OF CANADA, JAPAN, THE NETHERLANDS, NORWAY,

SWITZERLAND, AND THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN

AND NORTHERN IRELAND.

THE UNITED NATIONS AND CONTRIBUTING ORGANIZATIONS

SHALL NOT BE HELD RESPONSIBLE FOR DEATHS OR INJURIES

TO PERSONNEL AND/OR DAMAGE TO PROPERT Y THAT MAY BE

CAUSED AS A RESULT OF THE USE OF THIS HANDBOOK.

Any comments or questions concerning

this handbook may be addressed to:

United Nations Mine Action Service

New York, NY 10017 USA

Tel: +1 212 963 1875

Fax: +1 212 963 2498

E-mail: mineaction@un.org

Web site: www.mineaction.org

© United Nations 2005 (2nd Edition)

All rights reserved

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s 5

I n t r o d u c t i o n 7

S E C T I O N 1 9The Threat 9Landmines 9

Anti-Personnel Landmines 11

Anti-Vehicle Landmines 16

Unexploded Ordnance 17

Abandoned Ordnance 28

Improvised Explosive Devices and Booby-Traps 30

S E C T I O N 2 33Recognizing Dangerous Areas 33Warning Signs 33

Warning Clues 37

S E C T I O N 3 49Basic Safety Advice 49Risk-Taking Behaviour 50

Common Myths about Mines and Explosive Remnants of War 53

Safety Advice For Organizations 56

Safety Advice For Individuals 57

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Ta b l e o f Co n t e n t s

S E C T I O N 4 67Emergency Procedures In A Minefield 67Emergency Procedures On Foot 67

Emergency Procedures In A Vehicle 71

S E C T I O N 5 73Assisting A Victim 73

A N N E X E S 77A1 Use of Route Cards 77

A2 Measures to Provide Additional Protection to a Vehicle 85

A3 Other Threats 87

A3.1 Depleted Uranium 87

A3.2 Biological and Chemical Weapons Threats 89

A4 Glossary 92

E m e r g e n c y C o n t a c t s 96

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Ac k n ow l e d g e m e n t s

This handbook is the 2nd edition of the Landmine andUnexploded Ordnance Safety Handbook produced by theUnited Nations in 2000, which was originally based on theLand Mine Safety Handbook developed and published by CARE in 1997. The handbook has been substantiallyrevised including its title to reflect latest terminology.The Landmine and Explosive Remnants of War SafetyHandbook draws upon information found in InternationalGuidelines for Landmine and Unexploded OrdnanceAwareness Education developed by the United NationsChildren’s Fund (UNICEF) in 1999 and International MineAction Standards published by the United Nations(www.mineactionstandards.org). The Landmine andExplosive Remnants of War Safety Handbook is part of theLandmine Safety Project of the United Nations Mine ActionService (UNMAS).

The handbook has been revised by UNMAS and UNICEFwith the valued input and technical support of various peo-ple from United Nations entities, international organiza-tions, and non-governmental organizations. Special thanksgo to the Geneva International Centre for HumanitarianDemining,Handicap International, International Committeeof the Red Cross (ICRC), INTERSOS, Mines Advisory Group,Trauma Care Foundation, United Nations Office for ProjectServices (UNOPS), and the United Nations Department ofSafety and Security (UNDSS).

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Landmine survivors are an obvious indicator for the presence of mines. These Afghan men arenow working as bicycle couriers in Kabul; Afghanistan

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Landmines,abandoned munitions and military equipment,unexploded ordnance and other explosive remnants of war (ERW) pose a hazard to people in more than 82countries around the world.

This handbook is not an instruction manual for workingwith landmines or ERW, or for working with landmine-affected communities. Rather, its aim is to raise awarenessand provide basic safety information concerning the threatof landmines and other ERW to organizations and individuals working in war-torn areas, and to help them:

■ Establish appropriate safety procedures;

■ Avoid contact with mines and ERW;

■ Take appropriate action in emergency situations.

Proximity to mines and ERW is always dangerous andshould be avoided. Only trained specialists should seek outor handle landmines or ERW.

The information contained in this handbook is general innature and some of it may not be applicable in all situations.Accordingly, it should be complemented by country-specificinformation and an analysis of the nature and extent of thelocal threat. In addition, this handbook is not designed as astand-alone document, but should be used in support of alandmine and ERW safety briefing by qualified instructors.Whenever possible, readers should seek the guidance andadvice of specialists working in their area of operations.

I n t r o d u c t i o nD I D Y O U K N O W ? As of September 2005, 147states parties have signed the anti-personnel Mine-Ban Treaty (known as the OttawaConvention). In doing so,they have accepted to stopusing, stockpiling, producingand transferring anti-personnel mines and also agree to their destruction.The convention also has provisions for landmine victims to receive assistance.

Since the Convention came intoforce in 1999, the use of anti-personnel (AP) mines hasdecreased. However, a fewstates (non-signatories to thetreaty) continue to use andstockpile AP landmines, andmore than 82 countries havesome form of widespread landmine contamination frompast and ongoing conflicts.AP mines represent some ofthe most serious threats topeople working in post-conflictareas, even decades after a conflict.

The handbook is divided into five main sections and annexes.

■ Section 1 provides information on the nature of the threat from mines and ERW;

■ Section 2 provides advice on recognizing the threat;

■ Section 3 provides general safety advice and information on avoiding the threat;

■ Section 4 explains what to do if you find yourself in a mined area;

■ Section 5 provides basic information on what to do in case of an accident.

The annexes provide examples of travel procedures andinformation on other threats such as chemical and biologi-cal weapons.

Throughout the handbook, coloured text boxes are used toprovide additional information: orange for case studies;yellow for interesting but non-essential information; blue fordefinitions of key terms.

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1S E C T I O N

People who work in areas that have experi-enced armed conflict may be confronted with thethreat posed by landmines, unexploded or abandonedordnance, abandoned military vehicles and equipment,and other explosive remnants of war (ERW). (Note that the term ERW includes UXO and abandoned ordnance butexcludes landmines, see definition in the glossary,Annex 4). Landmines may block access to project sites orpose a direct threat to safety – even years after a conflicthas officially ended.When working in such areas, organiza-tions and individuals must be aware of the physical threatsposed by a huge variety of armaments left during and afterarmed conflict.

To protect yourself, you need to be aware of the threat andtake appropriate preventive action. This section aims tohelp identify mines and ERW, and explains how they workand their effects. It is impossible to describe all types ofmines and ERW in this handbook, so common sense mustbe applied; as a general rule, always regard unusual objectswith suspicion.A description of some of the more commonthreats follows.

LandminesA landmine is an explosive device designed to destroy ordamage vehicles, or to wound, kill, or otherwise incapaci-tate people. Mines can be victim activated, that is detonat-

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T h e T h r e at

D I D Y O U K N O W ?The word ‘mine’ is derivedfrom the Latin word minawhich means ‘vein of ore’and was originally appliedto the excavation of miner-als from the earth. The termwas then borrowed by military engineers whosejob it was to dig mines inthe ground during sieges of forts and castles, oftenunder walls to collapsethem. Modern landminesare explosive traps, butthey also trace their lineagefrom non-explosive prede-cessors such as spikes andstakes used by ancientarmies as far back as 2,500years ago. (Croll, M. Historyof Landmines. 1998)

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ed by the action of their target by being stepped on orstruck or can be triggered by direct pressure, tripwires, tiltrods, command detonation,or by some combination of thesemethods. They can also be booby-trapped by using, forexample, anti-handling devices, to make their removal moredifficult.They may also go off with the passage of time.

Mines are used as defensive weapons: they provide protec-tion for important military positions or hinder the move-ment of troops by causing casualties to an enemy anddestroying equipment. They are also used offensively: in particular during civil conflicts they are used to destroy ordamage infrastructure and cause terror by denying civilianpopulations access to their homes, agricultural land, water,roads, schools, health care facilities and other resources.

Landmines are almost always hidden and camouflaged tomatch their surroundings, making them seldom seen anddifficult to locate.They are usually buried or hidden in grassor buildings, fixed on stakes or to trees. According to conventional and ‘disciplined’ warfare, landmines are usual-

Angola: 13 passengers were in this vehicle when it hit ananti-vehicle mine; 7 died and 6 were injured.

Command ActivatedA process where a secondperson detonates a mineor improvised explosivedevice by remote control.

Victim Activated Triggered by a personwhen it is stepped on,driven over, struck, or bysome similar action.

Case StudyIn 2002, the vehicle of a non-

governmental organization

hit an anti-vehicle mine on

the road between Mavinga

and Cunjamba in Angola,

killing seven and injuring six

of the passengers. Although

the road had been safely

used for some time prior to

this incident, it was the rainy

season and the wet weather

made it difficult for the driv-

er to stay on well-used

tracks. Driving off the tracks

placed the vehicle in the

path of a deadly mine.

11

ly laid in patterns to create consistent barriers or unseen‘walls’along roads and around strategic points; their locationis sometimes recorded in maps.More often than not,they arelaid indiscriminately by armed parties constantly on themove; some landmines are even scattered by aircraft over a

wide area with no obvious ordiscernable pattern.

There are currently more than600 different types of land-mines, as well as many impro-vised mines made by militaryforces engaged in fighting.They are grouped into twobroad categories: anti-person-nel (AP) mines and anti-vehi-cle (AV) mines, also commonlyreferred to as anti-tank mines.

A N T I - P E R S O N N E LL A N D M I N E SAn anti-personnel landmine is designed to be exploded bythe presence, proximity or contact of a person and is intended to incapacitate,injure or kill one or more people. AP mines are usuallydetonated when they arestepped on or when a tripwireis touched, but they can alsobe set off by the passage oftime or by controlled means.

This small AP-mine cantear off a foot! It is abouthalf the length of a leather-man tool and is almostimpossible to see (top).Same mine uncovered by deminers (bottom);Sri Lanka

Anti-Handling DeviceA device fitted to an anti-vehicle or anti-personnel mine that causes the mine to explodewhen it is handled or dis-turbed. Anti-handlingdevices are intended toprevent the clearing ofmines.

Most landmines areimpossible to see.

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AP mines can be found on the ground,buried or fixed aboveground and are generally small devices that come in manydifferent shapes. Often, they are camouflaged to help themblend into the surroundings and can be fabricated of wood,plastic or metal. Areas suspected of containing AP minesshould be avoided.

Once triggered,AP mines cause death or serious injury by anexplosive blast and/or flying fragments. They are groupedaccording to the manner in which they inflict injury: blastor fragmentation.

BLAST ANTI-PERSONNEL MINESBlast AP mines are often very cheap and are among themost commonly found in the world.They are designed to betriggered by the pressure caused by physical contact withthe mine, mostly by stepping on them. Most mines of thistype are designed to cause serious injury, usually the ampu-tation of one or more limbs, rather than death.

Blast AP mines are generally cylindrical in shape, and rangein size from seven to 16 centimetres in diameter and five to10 cm in height. However, some blast AP mines are rectan-gular or ’shoe box‘–shaped. They then range in size from 10cm x 18 cm to 15 cm x 30 cm. Most AP mines have a rela-tively small explosive charge, often less than 100 grammesof explosive. The concentrated blast of the charge is whatcauses death or injury.

While some blast AP mines are still made of metal or wood,most are manufactured of plastic. This makes them waterresistant or waterproof, and dangerous even when sub-mersed. Following heavy rains, it is not uncommon for somemines to wash out of minefields into previously mine-freeareas, or into waterways where they can be swept kilome-

Self-made AP-minewith chemical explo-sive. Stepping on thesyringe causes it toexplode; Colombia

Box shaped AP-mine;Southern Lebanon

These air-delivered‘butterfly mines’can explode whentouched; Afghanistan

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tres downstream before washing ashore. Blast AP mines areusually tan, olive, green, black, brown, grey, or a combinationof colours.

In addition to buried AP blast mines, a common type of mineis the ‘butterfly’ mine (or similar variants), which is scatteredover the ground by aircraft or artillery fire. If recently deliv-ered, these mines are usually found lying around in largenumbers. After some months or years, single mines may befound. Butterfly mines have a combination of odd shapesand often bright colours that can make them unique andattractive to curious children and adults.

FRAGMENTATION ANTI-PERSONNEL MINESFragmentation AP mines are typically designed to causedeath, often to a large number of people, from fragmentspropelled by the mine’s explosive charge. Most of thesemines have metal casings, or contain ball bearings or metalfragments that are turned into lethal projectiles by the deto-nation of the mine.

There are three basic types of fragmentation AP mines: stakemines, directional fragmentation mines, and bounding frag-mentation mines.

Stake Anti-Personnel Mines

The most commonly found fragmentation AP mines arestake mines, which are designed to fit on wooden or metalstakes hammered into the ground until the mine is restingabout 20 cm above the surface. They are also fixed to trees.Most look like a small club: a wooden stake, topped by asmall metal cylinder and detonator projecting out of the top.They are often painted green, or they may be unpaintedwood and metal.

TripwireA thin, non-reflectivemetal wire or string which can be used as amechanism to trigger amine or a booby-trap.A tripwire is usually butnot always stretched lowabove the ground so thatany passer-by will ‘trip’over it, setting off theexplosive. When tripwiresare used, they can run asfar as 30 m from the mines.

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Stake mines are fitted with one or more tripwires that set themine off when pulled or cut. Tripwires are very hard to see,and may be strung across paths or doorways, and attachedto a solid object such as a tree, or to another mine.

Once set off, metal fragments are projected in a 360-degreeradius, causing lethal injury to anyone within an unobstruct-ed four-meter perimeter and causing death and seriousinjury to people at much greater distances. One commonmine – the Russian POMZ-2M – detonates and shatters tocreate fragments that are likely to be lethal within a 10metre radius. Beyond this, the uneven size and distributionof the fragments makes the effect unpredictable; large frag-ments may injure or kill at a range of 100 m or more.1

Over time,stake mines may fall over or the stake on which theyrest may disintegrate. This does not make them less danger-ous, as the explosive charge remains however their appear-ance can change, which can make tripwires even less visible.

Directional Fragmentation Anti-Personnel Mines

Directional (or ’Claymore‘ type) fragmentation AP mines aredesigned to project a dense pattern of fragments in a speci-fied direction. Most look like a curved rectangular box aboutthe thickness of a paperback book. This box sits on two setsof legs and is generally coloured olive, black or brown.

Directional fragmentation AP mines are usually command-detonated, but they can also be initiated by tripwire. Oncedetonated, most mines of this type project their fragmentswithin a 60-degree horizontal arc and to a height of abouttwo meters. Most are designed to have an ’effective range’(causing serious injury or death) of around 50 m.

1. Source for ranges: Colin King, author of Jane’s Mines and Mine Clearanceand Jane’s Explosive Ordnance Disposal.

‘Claymore’ type mineshoots fragments inone direction–often at a road or path.Note tripwire; Balkans.Several mines may be interlinked; theymay also be mountedin trees!

Stake AP-mine. Youcan see the tripwire.

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Other versions of these mines are large and circular in shape,and project shrapnel in a narrow cone, like a shotgun. Theyare capable of killing people, as well as disabling or destroy-ing passenger vehicles, pickup trucks, utility and four-wheel-drive vehicles.

Bounding Fragmentation Anti-Personnel Mines

Bounding mines are normally buried and often linked to trip-wires. Most bounding mines are cylindrical in shape, with asingle tubular fuse or a number of prongs sticking out fromthe top.They are typically around 15 cm in diameter and 28cm in height. Bounding mines are usually tan, olive green,black, brown, and green, or are left unpainted.

Bounding AP mines are generally triggered by tripwires ordirect pressure. Once triggered, an initial explosion lifts themine out of the ground to about waist height before themain charge detonates. Upon detonation, the explosion

Bounding mines first ‘jump’ when activated and then explode.Very lethal indeed.

Never touch,approach or step-over tripwires!

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shoots out metal fragments in a 360-degree horizontalradius.Design variations mean that the number,size and dis-tribution of fragments vary widely, but a typical boundingmine is likely to be lethal within 25 m and capable of inflict-ing serious injury at ranges up to 100 m.

A N T I - V E H I C L E L A N D M I N E SAnti-vehicle (AV) mines, often referred to as anti-tankmines,are designed to disable or destroy vehicles.Likeanti-personnel (AP) mines, anti-vehicle mines can bedetonated by pressure (though normally muchgreater weight is needed), by remote control, by mag-netic influence or through the disturbance of a tilt rod(a sort of vertical tripwire – see box for definition).

Because AV mines are made to destroyvehicles, they are generally found onroads, roadsides, paths and tracks. Evenroads that have been driven for some-time can contain AV mines.

AV mines are much larger than APmines, and have a far heavier explosivecharge. They are generally round orsquare in shape, and range in size from40 cm in diameter and 16 cm in

height to 23 cm in diameter and 10 cm in height.They canbe made of wood, plastic or metal and come in a range of colours.

It normally takes considerable pressure to detonate a standard AV mine, around 120 kg to 150 kg. This does notnecessarily mean that people weighing less can safely stepon an AV mine. Fuse systems may deteriorate or be deliber-ately adjusted, resulting in a reduction in pressure requiredto detonate AV mines. Sometimes AV mines are booby-

Anti-vehicle mine,uncovered by deminers;Southern Lebanon

If there are AV-minesassume there arealso AP-mines.

Tilt RodA thin pole attached to thefuse mechanism on theupper surface of a mine.Pressure exerted on thetilt rod sets off the mine.

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trapped to be detonated when they are disturbed. In somecases AP mines have been laid on top of AV mines which,when initiated, will generally cause the AV mine to detonateas well. Be aware also that AP mines are often used to prevent AV mines from being removed, and the technique oflaying AP mines and AV mines together in clusters is common.

As AV mines are often designed to disable large military vehicles like tanks, their impact on smaller civilian vehicles isusually catastrophic and results in the destruction of thevehicle and death or serious injury to the occupants.

Unexploded Ordnance Unexploded ordnance (UXO) are explosive munitions thathave been fired, thrown, dropped or launched but have failedto detonate as intended.UXO include artillery and tank shells,mortar bombs, fuses, grenades, large and smallbombs including cluster-munitions, sub-muni-tions, rockets and missiles.

Ordnance fails for many reasons: fuses andtime-delay igniters may be defective, incorrect-ly calibrated, or soft soil may absorb the impactrequired for detonation. Whatever the reasons,UXO remain a serious danger to life and healthand the International Campaign to BanLandmines estimates that at least 82 countriesaround the world are affected to some degree by UXO.

In areas that have experienced bombing or protracted bat-tles, large quantities of UXO may contaminate the land. In thecase of cluster munitions for example, as many as 30 percent may have failed to explode on impact, and remain aserious hazard for years after conflict. In many countries, UXO

Never approach, touchor tamper with UXO!

Ordnance may have penetrated theground without going off and can still be dangerous.

Unexploded ordnance;Chad

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are more common than landmines and may be more wide-ly dispersed. Note too, that UXO and their threat can befound in areas previously thought to be cleared,especially incountries that have suffered protracted conflict.

UXO are often extremely unstable and can detonate at theslightest touch. Accidental injuries often occur when peopleare farming or undertaking construction work in a contami-nated area and intentionally touch, move or tamper withthem. Some UXO also contain motion-sensitive fuses ormagnetic sensors; other UXO may have a timed self-destructfeature that may not have functioned properly. Because thestate or condition of UXO cannot easily be determined theymust all be considered extremely dangerous and shouldnever be touched or disturbed by anyone except explosiveordnance disposal professionals. UXO accidents are oftenmore lethal than landmines due to their higher explosiveand fragmentation content.

UXO are usually found in areas where fighting has takenplace or at military firing ranges. UXO can be discoveredinside and outside of buildings.They can be buried beneaththe ground or hidden beneath rubble or collapsed walls.UXO can even be found lodged in trees or hanging frombranches, hedges and fences.

UXO come in various ‘military colours’ – khaki, green, brown,tan, grey – or can be unpainted. They are usually made ofmetal, but can also be made of plastic. If they have been inthe open for a long time, UXO may be rusted and dis-coloured, partially hidden, obscured by dirt and mud anddifficult to recognize. Despite looking like harmless scrap,they remain extremely dangerous.

If you have notdropped it, don’tpick it up!

Be careful ofobjects of interestbeside the road.

Case StudyCambodia is one of the

most mine-affected coun-

tries in the world, but UXO

now kill and injure more

Cambodians each year than

landmines. Children are

particularly vulnerable often

due to their natural curiosity

and tendency to touch.

Accidents involving adults

are also usually a result of

tampering or handling UXO.

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Hand grenade taped to a tree and fitted with a trip wire.

G R E N A D E SGrenades are explosive devices usually thrown by hand orlaunched by small arms such as rifles. Grenades detonateeither on impact or through a time-delay mechanism; bothmechanisms may fail. ’Defensive’ fragmentation grenadesare the most common, but there are also ’offensive’ blastgrenades, incendiary grenades, chemical or gas grenades,and smoke grenades. A typical fragmentation hand or riflegrenade is likely to be lethal within 10 m, with a danger areaextending to 50 m or more.

Hand grenades have a pineapple shape or round bodies thesize of an adult fist, normally about 10 cm long. Grenadescome in various colours. Stick grenades are hand grenadesplaced on a short stick which increases the throwing dis-tance. Metal is the most common material used for makinggrenades but gas and chemical grenades may be made from plastic.

A 40mm grenade.

Hand grenades, newand old-these can beunstable, regardless of how long they have been lying on the ground.

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M O R T A R B O M B SMortar bombs are highly explosive projectiles that arelaunched from tubes of metal about 90 cm to 170 cm inlength,known as mortars.Mortars are set on the ground andaimed into the air in the direction of the target. Mortarbombs are dropped into the tube and launched by theirown propulsive charge. Mortar bombs often have a taperednose at the front and fins at the rear. The metal bodies canrange from 60 millimetres to 240 mm diameter in widthand from around 30 cm to over one metre in length. Due totheir ease of use, relatively low cost and portability, mortarsare an extremely widespread weapon of war.

Mortar bomb

A large rifle grenade that failed to detonate.

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The lethal and hazardous ranges of mortars vary widelydepending upon the calibre of the weapon. A small mortarbomb can destroy a car, while larger mortar bombs candestroy small to medium-sized buildings.

Mortar bombs are usually made of metal and when found,may be rusted and discoloured with age. On impact theymake craters and the site of a detonation is usually obvious.On paved roads they are seen by what look like ‘splash marks’in the concrete or bitumen road surface.

Unexploded mortar bombs may still contain propellantcharge as well as the main explosive charge and must neverbe approached. Mortar bombs are indirect fire weapons inthat the people launching the weapon often cannot seetheir target and the weapon is fired at a high trajectory. As aresult firing patterns can be indiscriminate and unexplodedmortars are found strewn across many battle areas.

C L U S T E R M U N I T I O N SCluster bombs or cluster munitions arecanisters containing many smaller explo-sive devices (sub-munitions), which sep-arate from the larger canister. Clusterbombs may be delivered by aircraft,rocket or by artillery and, after beinglaunched, the canister bursts open inmid-air, scattering sub-munitions over awide area. The sub-munitions come in avariety of shapes and colours, some the shape and size of tennis balls or drink cans; they are also often brightly coloured.

Cluster bomb unit. Some types can con-tain up to 800 individual submunitions.

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Among UXO, cluster bombs represent a particularly danger-ous threat due to their high volatility and dispersal overwide areas. Sub-munitions can fail and may remain haz-ardous for many years. Estimated rates of failure of betweenfive and 30 per cent have been reported in Iraq, Kosovoand Afghanistan. This rate depends on various factors, butgenerally the softer the ground, the higher the failure rate.Unexploded sub-munitions are highly sensitive and candetonate with very little contact. These weapons areextremely dangerous and should never be approached.They can be found above or below the ground, and in andaround buildings.

When an area has been targeted with sub-munitions, therewill sometimes be signs and indicators of this, such as: pack-aging,small parachutes,or very definite ’splash marks’on theground or buildings. In addition, any trees in the vicinity willshow characteristic signs, such as tree-tops stripped ofbranches and foliage. In open areas there will usually benumerous small holes and a considerable amount of debrisleft behind, such as metal and plastic casing or small para-chutes as well as debris from the targets. Cluster munitionsmay sometimes be found hung or caught up in trees or onthe roofs of buildings.

Case StudyThe International

Committee of the Red

Cross (ICRC) found that up

to 30,000 cluster muni-

tions were left in Kosovo

following the war in 1999.

Cluster munitions were

also found to cause a dis-

proportionately high

number of casualties

among children than

other types of UXO or

even landmines.1

Using a conservative fail-

ure rate of five per cent,

Human Rights Watch esti-

mated that some 90,000

unexploded cluster muni-

tions were left

in Iraq over 2003.2

1. ICRC Cluster Munitions & Landmines in

Kosovo, 2001

2.Human Rights Watch, Off Target The

Conduct of War & Civilian Casualties

in Iraq, 2003

Various unexploded sub-munitions. Extremely unstable!

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R O C K E T S A N D M I S S I L E SA rocket is an explosive device containing its own means ofpropulsion (the rocket motor) as well as explosives (the war-head). Missiles are similar to rockets although they are more

often guided in their trajectory. Rockets and missiles can befired from vehicle or ground based launchers or from theshoulder. They can also be launched from aircraft, ships andsubmarines. Rockets are used to deliver high explosives atgreater distances and with greater accuracy than just aboutany other type of weapon. The lethal range of the explosionof a rocket varies enormously depending on the size andnature of the warhead, but rockets typically have consider-able destructive power, able to damage and destroy vehicles,buildings and even entire neighbourhoods.

Rockets and missiles come in many shapes and sizes, fromthe relatively small rocket propelled grenades (RPGs),around

122mm rockets (length 2.87 m, diameter 122 mm); Chad

Rocket PropelledGrenade. RPGs are avery common item ofUXO.

Unexploded rocketfired from helicopter;Afghanistan

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46 cm long, to very large missiles of more than 15 m inlength. Rockets are made of metal and are normally distin-guishable by their long thin cylindrical shape. A rocket isreferred to according to its diameter or width. For example a122 mm rocket has a diameter of 122 mm but is 2.87 mlong. A rocket may contain chemical and biological materi-als in its warhead.

Unexploded rockets can be extremely dangerous as distur-bance may initiate unspent rocket fuel and propel the rock-et in an unguided fashion. If the warhead is still intact, theexplosive potential is equal to when the rocket was initiallylaunched and even greater if the rocket does not launch butexplodes with a full load of fuel.

Rocket fuel is also extremely corrosive, volatile and will burnexposed skin and can kill a person if fumes are inhaled.Rocket fuel is also liable to explode if ignited. For these rea-sons alone, rockets must not be approached.

Because of their slender shape, unexploded rockets (oftenbroken into sections) can easily be mistaken for broken pipes;RPGs in particular are a very widespread weapon of war,found in large numbers in battle areas. In certain conflict situ-ations involving heavily armed and technologically advancedpowers, unexploded rockets and missiles can be massive insize, though such cases are relatively few in number.

This is aSA-2 missile asreferred toin the casestudy; Iraq

Case StudyOver 100 old Soviet

surface-to-air missiles

were found abandoned in

Baghdad in 2003. Sitting

on trailers and measuring

nearly 11 m, the missile

trailers had been the sub-

ject of looting by locals

and children were found

playing at the different

sites.The extremely corro-

sive propellant burned

one child.Two missiles

were also reported to

ignite after being continu-

ously tampered with and

one nearly destroyed

three houses and killed a

number of people. Adding

to the destruction was the

fact that the missile was

fully fuelled, leading to an

explosion nearly five times

greater than with the

warhead alone.

Report on SA-2 MissilesIraq, Hess. R., ProgrammeManager

WFP/FSD Mine ActionResponse Teams, Baghdad,Iraq, 2003

25

A R T I L L E R Y A N D T A N K S H E L L SAn artillery shell is an explosive device, designed to be fireda great distance from the target and to explode either in theair above the target or on impact. Artillery shells are firedfrom ground-and sea-based guns. Like mortars, artillery is anindirect fire weapon – users of the weapons may not be ableto directly see their target. The destructive capability of conventional artillery shells largely depends on their size.

Tank shells are also explosive devices designed to destroytanks, bunkers or troops in the open. Tank shells are normallyused as direct fire weapons, but may be used as an indirectweapon that is fired from a great distance from theintended target.

Artillery and tank shells, like very large bullets, are aero-dynamically shaped with a tapered nose, cylindricalbody and flat base. Most are made of metal. Tank shellsmay also have fins at the rear of the shell and/or astraight, protruding fuse at the nose of the shell (seeimage). Unexploded shells can be found above or

Examples of artillery and tank shells.

26

below the ground, in rubble,and like other UXO may be rust-ed or discoloured with age and difficult to identify. Mostshells contain high explosives but some may contain whitephosphorous, or even chemical and biological weapons.

B O M B SA bomb is an explosive device, usually dropped from airplanes.They come in many different shapes and sizes.

Bombs are usually made of metal and have a smoothcurved, normally aerodynamic shape. Air-delivered bombscan range in size from 50 kg to 1,000 kg and can be as longas three-and-a-half meters (around 12 ft).They are typicallygrey, green or brown in colour.

Like other UXO, bombs wear with age and exposure to theelements. They may be rusted, discoloured, partially hiddenby dirt or debris.

Typical signs of bombing activity include large craters in theground. Unexploded bombs can also penetrate deeply intothe ground without exploding so unexploded bombs maybe found above or below the ground.

Case StudyUnexploded bombs are

still being uncovered in

Berlin and other European

cities 60 years after the

end of World War II. Often

the bombs are up to 500

lb and have penetrated

the ground so deeply as

to remain undiscovered

for years. Many new finds

in Germany are a result of

construction along the old

Berlin Wall.

Unexploded air-delivered bomb; Chad

27

F U S E SA fuse is a device that starts the detonationprocess, oftenmade of highly explosive material contained in a small partof a larger munition.

Fuses are fitted to bombs, rockets, mortars, landmines andartillery shells, forming the tip or ‘nose’ of an artillery shell ormortar, resembling a cone. In the case of landmines, it may bea small circular ‘cap’ that sits on top or inside a landmine.Fuses may have visible springs or pins.

A fuse may become detached from its main explosive deviceor munition and may simply be left lying around. A fuse canbe very small, but is nonetheless potentially dangerous andcan even be lethal.

Fuses can be large or small and work on a number of differ-ent principles – pressure, pressure-release, mechanical rotation or deflection, light sensitivity, heat sensitivity, and soon. They do not immediately appear dangerous but manyare recognizable as a piece of military equipment. They arenormally metal and of a metallic colour, but may also begreen, brown and other military colours.

Fuses are UXO as well.

Bomb found ina farmer’s gar-den in QuangTri Province,Vietnam

28

Abandoned Ordnance Post conflict settings can be the site of arms caches andweapons depots or dumps full of abandoned ordnance(AO).AO is ordnance that has not been used,but is no longerin the control of any particular force.AO could include mortars,grenades, bombs, rockets, bullets, artillery shells and so on.

Caches of abandoned ordnance and poorly secured ormaintained stockpiled munitions, sometimes located in ornear communities, in military buildings, public buildings,school houses and so on, can produce catastrophic explo-sions. Poorly stored or maintained munitions may becomemore sensitive and suddenly explode. Intense heat fromfires can also cause abandoned ordnance to detonate.

Abandoned Ordnance found in Iraq

A ‘storage room’; Chad

29

Small caches of abandoned ordnance may continue to bediscovered years after a conflict has ended. In Cambodia forexample, small caches of ordnance that have been aban-doned, forgotten or lost continue to be discovered.

Getting authorities to secure these sites is essential but maybe difficult to achieve in the short term. Disposing or secur-ing large quantities of abandoned ordnance is also complexand is usually the responsibility of security forces. This maybe outside the responsibility of a standard mine action programme.

Abandoned military vehicles,weapons (such as artillery gunsand tanks), and buildings may also contain abandoned ordnance, extremely volatile rocket fuels, shell residue suchas chemicals and depleted uranium and possibly evenbooby-traps.

Abandoned ammunition next to a football field; Iraq

© J

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Improvised Explosive Devicesand Booby-TrapsAn improvised explosive device or IED is a manually placedexplosive device, normally home-made and adapted insome way to kill, injure, damage property or create terror.Often UXO or abandoned munitions are modified to con-struct IEDs,which can then be detonated accidentally by the victim, by remote means (radio controlled, command wire,etc) or automatically after a period of time.

A booby-trap is an explosive or non-explosive device,deliberately placed to cause casualties when an apparentlyharmless object is disturbed or a normally safe act is performed, like opening a door or turning on a television.Booby-traps – most often victim-activated – are usuallycommon objects found in unusual settings – in other words,they are out of place. Booby-traps that use explosives are considered IEDs.

IEDs and booby-traps are often developed by forces whohave relatively limited access to new weapons or who wantto better disguise their attacks. Sometimes they are placed

30

D I D Y O U K N O W ?The use of booby-traps isregulated by internationalhumanitarian law. ProtocolII of the Convention onCertain ConventionalWeapons outlines situationswhen such devices cannotbe used and obliges users to record where they usebooby-traps and to ensurethat such devices areremoved immediately afterhostilities have ended.

Roadside bomb made from an artillery shell; Iraq

If you have notdropped it, don’tpick it up!

Be careful ofobjects of interestbeside the road.

with the intention of causing harm or injury to combatantsand non-combatants alike, being hidden in vehicles and onroadsides, in private homes and so forth.

Almost any object can be made into an innocent-lookingbooby-trap.The most common are those that appear attrac-tive or curious, such as a packet of cigarettes, a television, ora toy. Mines can be booby-trapped to make their removalmore difficult. Booby-traps can be found just about anywhere and can look like any object.Even dead bodies canbe booby-trapped with the intention of inflicting injury onthose who attempt to remove the body. Booby-traps andIEDs are normally intended to be undetectable. They aredesigned to catch the helpful, the unwary and the curious.

31

Anti-handling device:A grenade was placedunder the stick of thisfragmentation mine. Hadthe soldier or deminersimply defused the mineand pulled the stick hewould have activated thegrenade.

A person entering this room through the dooron the left will activate the mine connected witha tripwire; Balkans

32

Learn to identify mine fields undergoing clearance and the meaningof various stakes, tape and stones being used locally to mark hazardous areas – and stay away from them! (Angola)

© L

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Mined areas are often not visibly differentfrom mine free areas, as they may not bemarked with any particular warning signs. As a rule,mines are often impossible to see – they are usuallyburied, or concealed in undergrowth.1 Areas contaminatedwith other explosive remnants of war (ERW) may be moreobvious, as there may be visible ammunition casings onthe ground, unexploded ordnance, and so on. This sectionis intended to help readers recognize warning signs andclues – constant vigilance will help you identify and steerclear of potentially dangerous areas.

Warning SignsNormally people who lay mines do not leave clear signs toindicate the presence of mines, but someone else mayleave a temporary sign as a warning to others, or mineclearance agencies may erect official signs.

You should be aware of the most common types of warn-ing signs used in areas where you live and work,and alwayskeep an eye out for these signs. But note, the lack of clearwarning signs does not mean an area is safe. People some-times remove warning signs, signs may be temporary, mayhave not been maintained or may never have been erected.

33

2S E C T I O NR e c o g n i z i n g Dangerous A r e a s

D I D Y O U K N O W ?Armed forces are requiredto record all minefields,mined areas, mines andbooby-traps under ProtocolII of the Convention onCertain ConventionalWeapons (CCW). The MineBan Convention andProtocol V of the CCW alsooutline measures for recording and markingmined areas prior to clearance taking place.

1 Sections 2-3 are adapted from United Nations Training Modules for MineAwareness Community Facilitators and Programme Managers, UNICEF 1999.

34

O F F I C I A L W A R N I N G S I G N SSometimes you will come across official signs, erected by agovernment, a non-governmental organization (NGO), aUnited Nations agency or by some other organization, towarn you that mines or other explosive hazards are in thearea. These warning signs may differ from one country toanother, but are normally bright red, square or triangular inshape, and made of metal, concrete, wood or plastic. Themost common ways of marking a mined- or ERW-affectedarea with official signs are:

■ Skull and crossbones sign in red and white, rarely yellow andblack – often with the words ‘DANGER MINES’ in English and/orthe local language

■ The word ‘MINE’ or ‘EXPLOSIVES’ in English and/or the local language

Never go into areasmarked by minewarning signs,wires or tapes!

Always respect minewarning signs!

35

■ Rope or tape – usually coloured either yellow, red or blue

■ A red triangle, sometimes with a black dot or the word ‘mine’ in the centre

■ A concrete or wooden post, painted red on one side and white onthe other – the red side indicates the side that is dangerous

A conventional army or mine action programme sometimesuses barbed wire or high fences to section off a minefield,especially around permanently strategic points like airports.

In addition to signs designed to warn people, mine actionagencies will also use signs to indicate areas they have sur-veyed as dangerous and which they plan to clear or are in theprocess of clearing. In Afghanistan, such areas are markedwith rocks painted red to indicate uncleared areas and paint-ed white to show areas which are clear. Also buildings, roads

36

and trees may be painted red or white with map coordi-nates and minefield numbers, indicating that the area maybe dangerous and has been surveyed.

All warning signs are subject to deterioration over time,meaning you must be observant. Signs may have fallendown,rusted away or become covered in vegetation or (sea-sonally) by snow.Poor construction materials along with lowquality paint often result in signs becoming dislodged, bro-ken or badly faded. Signs are also often stolen or not prop-erly maintained or replaced.

U N O F F I C I A L W A R N I N G S I G N SIn the absence of official signs, local people often developtheir own techniques and signs for marking dangerousareas. Such techniques vary from one country to the nextand even vary in different parts of the same country. Withlocal signs there are no hard and fast rules and they areoften only obvious to local people. Such signs nonethelesshave some common characteristics to represent dangerahead, and may include:

■ A piece of cloth or plastic bag tied to a fence or tree;

■ A can on a post;

■ Small piles or circles of rocks;

Do not attemptmarking if you havenot received propertraining throughpractical exercises!

37

■ Rocks laid across a path;

■ A clump of grass that has been tied in the middle;

■ Sticks which have been tied to form a cross, then placed across a path or placed in the ground next to a path;

■ Signs which have been cut into the bark of a tree;

■ A shorn-off branch.

Because of their improvised nature, local signs often do notgive a clue as to the precise location or particular nature ofthe threat. Imagine coming along a road or a path where youencounter a barrier. How will you know whether you are infront of the threat or already inside the hazardous area? Lookfor other indicators and consult with local people. Oftenthese signs can also be used to represent other types of dan-ger, like a damaged bridge, a pothole in the road and so on.Whatever the meaning, these local signs represent dangerand caution should always be exercised.

Warning CluesMines and ERW may be found in numerous types of areaswhere fighting has taken place or that are of strategic impor-tance to combatants. Because most hazardous areas are notmarked with official warning signs you will often have tolook for other clues to tell you that an area may be haz-

Always be alert forthings that look ‘outof place’!

Don’t take risks! If you are in anydoubt, turn back!

38

ardous. The following are some telltale signs to identify adangerous area:

■ Visible mines and ERW;

■ Signs of fighting or military activity;

■ Signs in the environment, dead animals and unusual objects;

■ Local behaviour.

V I S I B L E M I N E S A N D E X P L O S I V ER E M N A N T S O F W A R

THE EDGE OF A BURIED MINE, PROTRUDING METALAND WOODEN STAKESIn addition to being extremely difficult (if not impossible) tosee, mines are almost always purposely camouflaged and, tocompound the problem, their location is often obscured bylong grass or thick brush. However, certain landmines thatare laid above ground may be visible after careful scrutiny ofthe area. Erosion or natural forces also sometimes uncoveror partially uncover landmines. Snow, which hides even sur-face-laid mines, has obvious implications, as does the subse-quent snow-melt. If you are in an area you suspect could be

Update your mine/ERW information ona regular basis.

Stake AP-mines are sometimes visible, see left corner; Balkans

AV-mine with a tilt rodmounted to a tree.

39

contaminated and you can see anyportion of an object that appears tobe made of plastic or metal andcannot be identified as safe, youshould assume the area ismine/unexploded ordnance (UXO)-contaminated. Wooden and metalstakes about 30 cm in lengthwould also indicate the potentialpresence of certain types of aboveground mines.

Landmines are seldom planted in isolation, so evidence ofone mine would indicate the potential presence of others inthe area.

ABANDONED AND UNEXPLODED ORDNANCEAreas contaminated with abandoned and unexploded ord-nance may be more obvious than those affected by mines,but the presence of such devices will often indicate the pres-ence of mines as well. You may see ammunition casings onthe ground, unexploded mortars, shells and grenades, boxescontaining unused ammunition and weapons. These aresigns that fighting has taken place and are an indication thatmines and ERW may be in the area.

PIECES OF WIRE OR TAPE STREWN ABOUTCertain types of mines require the use of tripwires or electri-cal wires. If you see pieces of wire lying about in an areaknown to have experienced fighting, it indicates that minesmay have been used. Tripwires are usually strung acrosspaths, trails, roadways, fields and other areas in which foottraffic could be expected. Remember that tripwires areextremely difficult to see and just because they are not visi-ble, does not mean they are not around.

UXO is often visible.The item below ispainted red to alertpassers-by.

Never approach, touchor tamper with explo-sive remnants of war!

40

TILT RODS AND FUSESSometimes you may see tilt rods or fuses above ground.Thisusually indicates the presence of anti-vehicle mines, butmay also indicate anti-personnel mines in the area.

Fuses can become detached from an explosive device ormunition or may simply be left lying on the ground withoutbeing fitted. A fuse can be very small, but is nonethelesspotentially dangerous and can even be deadly. They indicate fighting, the presence of mines and ERW.

DISCARDED PACKAGING, WRAPPING AND MILITARY DEBRISOccasionally, forces lay mines in a hurry and leave the pack-aging, tripwire spools and safety pins from the mines. If yousee wooden, plastic or metal containers that have militarymarkings lying around, always be suspicious of mines in thearea. Also, any small metal rings with a metal pin attachedshould be viewed as a sign of possible mine activity in thearea. Empty cluster bomb containers found in a conflict areaalso indicate danger.

Discarded ammunitionbox; DR Congo

Deserted trench. Note stake fragmentation mine with tripwire; Balkans

This is an arming pinfrom an anti-person-nel blast mine. Thispin is a small metalring with a blunt pinhanging off it.

@G

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This is a tripwire spool.

@G

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tion

41

S I G N S O F F I G H T I N G O R M I L I T A R Y A C T I V I T Y

TRENCHES, DYKES, BUNKERS OR BATTLE POSITIONSAny areas occupied by combatants, especially trenches,bunkers or battle positions,would likely have been mined asa protection from attack.There would also be a strong possi-bility for the presence of UXO and abandoned munitions.

DAMAGED, ABANDONED OR DESTROYED CIVILIANAND MILITARY VEHICLESA damaged, abandoned or destroyed civilian or militaryvehicle could indicate UXO, an anti-vehicle or even anti-personnel mine. Where there is one mine, there are usuallyseveral others. You might also encounter pieces of metal ordebris that look like they are the results of an explosion.Abandoned vehicles may also be booby-trapped, containabandoned ordnance, toxic fuels, chemical residueor depleted uranium. These are clear indications ofdanger and should be avoided.

DISCARDED AND ABANDONED WEAPONSSimilarly discarded weapons indicate recent fightingin the area. Do not approach such weapons as theymay be booby-trapped.

MILITARY CHECKPOINTS AND BORDER AREASThe longer combatants occupy any area, the more likely theyhave protected themselves by laying mines in the immediatesurrounding areas. In many countries, minefields are placedalong international and sometimes internal administrativeborders (such as provinces and district borders) to preventinfiltration. These areas are often the last to be cleared of

Stay away from abandoned militaryequipment!

This checkpoint is enforcedby AV-mines on the road–you can spot them.

42

landmines, especially if tension exists between neigh-bouring countries or internal conflicts are not com-pletely resolved.

AROUND MILITARY BUILDINGS, WAREHOUSESAND INSTALLATIONSMines are most often used as a defensive weapon;therefore, any military installation or building – or anyarea occupied by combatants – may have been minedor booby-trapped as a protective measure againstattack, or mined after occupation so as to prevent use

of the facility by the opposing side. Such facilities may alsocontain large stockpiles of abandoned munitions.

BRIDGES, DAMS AND SURROUNDING AREASMines are also used to stop or alter the movement of oppos-ing forces. Mining bridges, dams and surrounding areas canblock the travel route of opposing soldiers and deny themvaluable resources. It is important not to walk around orunder the entrance of bridges in heavily mined areas.

Why is this obstacle in the road? To force you to drive off thehard track and onto the soft ground, which is easy to mine.Can you see the mine about two meters to your left?

Deminers marking safepaths in close proximitywith the civilian popu-lation; Afghanistan

43

ROADS AND PATHSStrategic roads and tracks are often mined to stop move-ment of troops or commercial traffic. Roads that are dam-aged or blocked often force vehicles off the roadway andonto the shoulders. The edges and shoulders of roads aresometimes mined. Similarly small pathways that traverseconflict areas may be mined.

AIRPORTS AND RAILWAY TRACKSAs is the case with bridges, airports and railway lines are veryimportant means of transportation and key strategic areasfor the military. As such, they are often mined.

AROUND POWER LINES AND ELECTRICALPYLONSElectrical power lines are of great strategicimportance during wartime. Cutting off anenemy’s power supply can seriously affect theability to move and communicate. Therefore,these are often protected using mines.

SHADED AREAS, FRUIT TREES, WATERSOURCES, WELLS AND RIVER BANKS, CAVE ENTRANCESSoldiers in battle will often seek areas that offer shade orshelter from the elements as well as to reduce their visibility.They will also try to secure access to water and food sourcesand often defend such areas with mines.

This hard road, in a former battle area, washollowed out to allowmines to be placed inthe holes.

44

S I G N S I N T H E E N V I R O N M E N T , D E A D A N I M A L S A N D U N U S U A L O B J E C T S

DEPRESSIONS IN THE SOILAND MOUNDS OF EARTHIf a minefield has been in existence for some time, theremight be a visible pattern of slight depressions over themine where the once loosened soil has settled after a rain-fall. In some cases, small mounds of earth may be presentthat could indicate recent digging activity, though such evi-dence will disappear quickly.

DESERTED VILLAGES AND TOWNS AND OVERGROWN AREASVillages and towns which have been abandoned or fields nolonger used indicate the strong likelihood of mines in the area.

ABANDONED AND DESTROYED BUILDINGS AND HOUSESOften soldiers will mine houses for defense or leave behindmines or booby-traps in abandoned houses to trick othersoldiers who are seeking shelter. If a house has clearly beendamaged or destroyed through fighting,and is uninhabited,there is every possibility that UXO or abandoned ordnancemay also remain.

LOGS OR BRANCHES PLACED ACROSS A ROADOR PATH (AN AMBUSH BARRICADE)Sometimes combatants will lay a barricade across a road tostop vehicles or even force them off the road into the sur-rounding area, which may have been mined.

DEAD GRASS AND MOIST SOILIf a mine has been laid recently, there might be patches ofdead grass where the roots have been cut when the mines

A UN-truck hit an AV-mine.You can see the crater butthe damage to the truck isnot visible.

Destroyed or desertedhouses may be mined orbooby-trapped; Kosovo

45

were buried. If a mine was laid very recently, the moist soilused to cover the landmine when it was buried may show updarker than the surrounding area.

EXPLOSION CRATERSCraters from explosions or regular signs ofrepair on tarmac roads may be visible indica-tors, usually for anti-vehicle mines or signs of abattle. Be careful in surrounding areas as othermines may not have been cleared or may havebeen overlooked. In particular, never stray offpavement onto the soft shoulder or adjacentground.

Shelling with mortars, grenades or the use ofcluster bombs also leaves particular signs of damage — onbuildings, on road tarmac, or ’decapitated‘ trees. Sometimesthe impression looks like a splash mark carved into the tar-mac.

Not all explosion craters come with a warning sign... Where onemine exploded you must assume that others are in the vicinity.

‘Splash marks’ (causedby shrapnel impact)typical for a clustermunition strike;Kosovo

46

PATCHES OF GROWTHIn drier areas, some places where mines are buried becomegreener or have grass and plants growing over them.This isbecause metal cased mines form condensation on themduring the night which then gives the plants more waterthan the surrounding soil.

UNUSED OR OVERGROWN PATHS, ROADS OR FIELDSIf an area is clearly unused and overgrown or no one hastravelled over an area in some time, the reason could bebecause of mines or UXO. If an area is not cultivated, in con-trast to other plots around it that are being farmed, assumethe area is mined. When in doubt, use only tracks or roadsthat appear well-travelled.

ANIMAL CARCASSES OR SKELETONSThe skeleton or body of an animal or person which has beenleft to lie could indicate a minefield.Be aware that an injuredanimal or person can move over a long distance after the

accident occurred. Look for additionalclues.

ANY OBJECT THAT APPEARS‘OUT OF PLACE’In an area of ongoing conflict, if you seesomething unusual, of interest or of valueby the side of the road, always rememberthat it may be booby-trapped. Booby-traps are intended to lure and trick some-one into detonating the object. If youdon’t know to whom an object belongs

This horse ran througha minefield whiledeminers were clearing the field.They withdrew safely,the horse was not so fortunate.

If you have notdropped it, don’tpick it up!

47

and you’re travelling through a suspicious area, the smartapproach is to not approach it at all.

Piles of abandoned ordnance have also been known to beimprovised into a single explosive device, which can be det-onated by remote control. Out of curiosity people some-times move closer to investigate these objects; this can beextremely dangerous.

Aftermath of a mine-accident on a roadside in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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48

L O C A L B E H A V I O U R

FORBIDDEN AREAS AND VILLAGE DEMINERSNever go anywhere where the local population refuses togo,whether along a road or path,to villages or to fields.Suchareas will usually appear abandoned, unused or uninhabit-ed. Local populations often (though not always) know whatareas are dangerous because they have witnessed fighting,suffered casualties, observed mines being laid and/orbecause they may have even laid mines themselves.Returning refugees or displaced people may not have thenecessary information in comparison with local populations(who resided in the risk area during the conflict), meaning itis better to seek advice from people who have been in thearea longer.

In certain cases,you may even come across villagers who areundertaking mine clearance without the assistance of mineclearance organizations. It is important to get informationfrom these people about possibly affected areas, but it isalso important to keep away from their demining work.

SCRAP METAL YARDS AND FISHINGIn countries of extreme poverty and where large quantitiesof UXO exist, people will often collect and recycle the metalcasings of UXO or extract the explosive. As a result somescrap metal yards may contain UXO.

You may even hear stories about people fishing with land-mines and UXO. Such stories are a strong indication ofmined land in the area.

A UXO scrap collectoron the beach; Vietnam

Scrap metal collectionyards can contain ERW-a dangerous playground; Vietnam

Once you have seen a landmine, mine warning clues, or indications of battle in your trav-els through the countryside or a particular area, you havealready placed yourself at risk.Preventive actions are essen-tial to maintain safety for you and your staff.

There are some basic strategies to avoid exposure to thesethreats. This section focuses on preventive measures to bepracticed by organizations and individuals working inhigh-risk areas.

To recap, here are some basic pointers from previous sections, which summarize the nature of the threat:

■ All mines, abandoned and unexploded ordnance, booby-trapsand fuses are very powerful explosives, capable of killing orinflicting severe wounds to people and destroying vehicles;

■ They can pose a threat years after a conflict has ended;

■ They can explode at even the slightest touch;

■ Over time, they can change colour and shift position because ofexposure to and the effects of weather;

■ Most affected areas are not marked with official warning signsor even improvised signs;

■ Mines and explosive remnants of war (ERW) are difficult to spot.They can be buried under the ground or hidden in tall grass,trees, along river banks, in buildings and vehicles, and evenunder water;

49

3S E C T I O NBasic Safety Advice

50

■ They are found where fighting has taken place, or at strategicmilitary positions;

■ The fact that someone has moved a mine or ERW, or travelled inan affected area, does not mean it is safe.

Risk-taking BehaviourTo understand safe behaviour in a dangerous area and howto prevent exposure to risk, it is important to have an idea ofsome of the main reasons why accidents happen to peopleworking in war-affected environments. It is not always a sim-ple matter of chance or accident, and among people work-ing in dangerous areas there are a number of common causes of accidents.

INTENTIONAL RISK-TAKERSThis is a group of people who have knowingly entered adangerous area or have attempted to touch an objectknown to be dangerous.There are a number of reasons whyan individual would take such a risk.

Some working in areas affected by armed conflict collectwar souvenirs to show their family and friends. Includedamong the objects collected are mine warning signs, com-

One for the album? The peacekeeper takinga photo is taking anunacceptable risk. Alwaysassume where there isone mine there may bemore in the vicinity.

Top: A tripwire back-lit by the sun.Bottom: The same trip-wire from a differentangle. Note the hangingpiece of brush.

51

Case StudyIn April 2003, a 31-year-old

journalist, travelling with a

cameraman in northern Iraq,

stepped on a landmine,

while being led to an aban-

doned Iraqi trench by a

Kurdish soldier.

The cameraman died

immediately, while the

journalist suffered such

severe injuries, his lower

leg had to be amputated.

Why explore this tank?

ponents of mines and unexploded ordnance (UXO), whichthey believe to be harmless. These people also like to havephotographs taken on abandoned or destroyed tanks, forexample. This behaviour, while alarming, is actually quitecommon among people working in affected environments,particularly staff with little experience in conflict areas. Theyare attracted to the novelty of abandoned and destroyedmilitary equipment.

Others are either careless or adventure seekers. They do nothave a full appreciation for the scope of the threat and arecavalier regarding the possibility that an accident could hap-pen to them.This group often includes:

■ People who may have been exposed to the threat for long periods;

■ People who no longer have a clear perspective of the threat; and

■ People who are overconfident in managing risk.

52

Beware of strange objects along the roadside. Note the protruding wire from the hidden roadside bomb; Iraq

Is it safe to drive on? Have the mines been cleared?Make sure you and your car stay on the tarmac in such a mine-affected environment.

These individuals will often expose themselves to risk with asense of bravado and without clearly considering the dangers.

Another category, though less common among experi-enced workers, are people who claim to know all aboutmines and ERW. Such people are often military enthusiastswho sometimes like to prove or demonstrate to others theextent of their knowledge about mines. Often, such enthusi-asts like to visit and explore ex-military installations and col-lect souvenirs. Note that people with common sense areoften better at preventing accidents than those who claimto know it all.

UNINTENTIONAL RISK-TAKERSPeople who encounter mines and ERW often do so by acci-dent or by necessity. Many do not willingly enter dangerousareas or touch objects that are dangerous.Their work mightrequire them to enter dangerous areas; it might require

Case StudyIn 2003, a journalist return-

ing home after a visit to Iraq

decided to keep two sub-

munitions as a souvenir of

his time there. He found the

sub-munitions near a

bombed vehicle in Baghdad

and kept both with him for

at least 20 days before he

departed the country.While

en route home, security staff

in the international airport in

Jordan detected one of the

devices with an X-ray

machine. During a manual

search of his luggage the

sub-munition exploded. One

airport staff member was

killed instantly as a result of

the accident, while three

others were wounded.The

second device was in pos-

session of his colleague and

was safely defused in a con-

trolled explosion.The jour-

nalist had believed that the

devices were not armed and

were safe.

53

them to undertake construction work for example whichexposes them to the possibility of striking a mine with dig-ging equipment. Unintentional risk takers are the easiest toreach with safety messages and safety planning as they tendto have a greater sense of responsibility, are cautious, and areconcerned about the well-being of themselves and their col-leagues.

While people can be curious about certain areas and objectswithout fully understanding the danger, curiosity can unin-tentionally put many people at risk. Sometimes, people havebeen badly informed and rely on inaccurate informationabout the nature of the threat. Many myths exist regardingmines and ERW that can lead people to practice unsafebehaviour. Some of the more common myths follow.

Common Myths about Mines and Explosive Remnants of War

MYTH: There is a type of mine that will arm when youstep on it and then blow up only when you take your footoff.This can allow you time to find a heavy object to placeon the mine as you remove your foot.

TRUTH IS: This happens only in movies…

MYTH: If you know a mined area has been walked onalready, you can safely walk over it because if a mine didnot go off the first time it will not explode later.

TRUTH IS: Over time, soil can become compacted (especial-ly through the process of freezing/thawing or flooding);therefore, the sensitivity of a mine can change, and undersuch conditions it may require many footfalls to activatea mine.

Although someone triedto burn these munitionsthey did not explode.This renders them evenmore volatile.

Artillery shell (front), mor-tar bomb and other itemsof UXO, rigged as an IED.Usually command deto-nated; Iraq

54

MYTH: One way to avoid injury in a dangerous area is torun or drive as fast as possible. If you run or drive veryquickly, you can avoid the blast of an exploding mine.

TRUTH IS: You cannot outrun a mine.

MYTH: Luckily landmines do not last very long, and after a few years in the ground, they tend to rot and willnot work.

TRUTH IS: Most mines remain dangerous for decades. Manyare made of plastic and are completely waterproof.

MYTH: Cutting a tripwire will disarm the mine

TRUTH IS: Most tripwire activated mines are detonated bythe slightest increase or release of tension in the wire, sothere is no certain way to disarm it unless it is done by a pro-fessional mine clearance expert.

MYTH: Unexploded ordnance pose less of a threatbecause you can see them and simply move them out ofyour way.

TRUTH IS: You should never touch any ordnance. Even if itwas moved once, it may explode from a subsequent distur-bance. Some ordnance is so volatile that it might explode atthe slightest touch.

MYTH: Burning an area will clear mines and UXO.

TRUTH IS: Just because villagers say they have done it doesnot make an area safe. It actually may make any remainingordnance more volatile.Hand grenade, charred

but still intact. Note thering on the top.

Each stick stands for amine. Clearance ofpattern minefields;Southern Lebanon

Stake AP minefieldwith tripwire,patterned minefield;Balkans

55

MYTH: Abandoned ordnance is quite safe asthey have not been primed for use.

TRUTH IS: Abandoned ordnance is oftenleft in environmental conditions whichmake them extremely unstable. Exposure toheat can make a device extremely volatileand liable to explode, or careless handlingcan detonate even packaged ammunition.

MYTH: Livestock in a field makes thefield safe from mines.

TRUTH IS: Although sometimes practisedby villagers to clear mines, this method isnot safe. It may explode some of the minesbut not necessarily all.

MYTH: If you know a road has been used safely for atleast six months, you can assume there is no longer amine risk.

TRUTH IS: Mines may become unearthed from constant useof the travelled surface. The travelled area of a road maybecome unusable in the rainy season, forcing drivers to usethe shoulders of the road where mines may be buried.

MYTH: Mines are always laid in a predictable pattern tocreate a regular barrier.

TRUTH IS: While conventional armies often do lay regular,patterned minefields,many mined areas have no discernablepatterns and it can be impossible to predict where a danger-ous area starts or stops, particularly in countries that haveexperienced civil conflict and where no clear battlelines/fronts existed.

A cluster munition (in themiddle to the right) didnot go off although thearea burnt completely,see white ashes.

56

Safety Advice for OrganizationsIt is important for organizations operating in heavily mineand ERW-affected areas to take the threat of these weaponsseriously when planning and implementing projects thatmay expose staff to risks; this includes the staff of localimplementing partners. This entails the establishment ofand accessibility to effective safety procedures, appropriatetraining, appropriate equipment and up-to-date informa-tion. Avoiding just one accident through safety training andplanning will make the investment well worth it.

Safety measures should be seen as an extension of existingsecurity procedures for operating in a conflict area, even ifthe conflict may have ended some time ago. These meas-ures should be practical and based on an assessment of theextent and nature of the local threat, and could include:

■ Collecting detailed information on the mine/ERW threat in yourarea of operations, and updating this information regularly.Consider keeping a visual brief available (a map or spreadsheetidentifying dangerous areas).

■ Establishing mine/ERW safety procedures in accordance with theinformation contained in this handbook and adapted to yourarea of operations. Establish, in particular, a vehicle and travelreporting system (see Annex 1 on the use of route cards).

■ Maintaining updated and verified contact details of mine actioncentres and agencies, United Nations security officers, local policeand medical facilities.

■ Providing mine/ERW-related information to your staff in a con-venient format, including information on safe routes and danger-ous areas in your areas of operation, as well as emergency con-tact information.

■ Ensuring that all your staff who may be at risk (including drivers,interpreters and guides) receive mine/ERW-awareness trainingand are familiar with mine/ERW safety procedures.

Make sure youknow who to contact for help in case of amine/ERW emergency.

Training of trainers work-shop, Colombia, 2005

57

■ Understanding that levels of alertness to the mine/ERW threatwill decrease over time; and safety refresher training may berequired.

■ Ensuring that your staff receives first-aid training, with specialfocus on trauma care, and that vehicles are equipped with first-aid and trauma care kits.

■ Equipping your vehicles and staff with effective communicationequipment and maps, and providing training in their use.

In areas of high risk and high exposure, consider modifyingvehicles to provide additional protection from an explosion.See Annex 2 on general measures to provide additional protection to a vehicle.

Safety Advice for IndividualsBeing informed, exercising common sense, and maintaininga proper attitude about mines and ERWcan go a long way to help address the safety issues and keep people safe. Somepointers for personal protection and forthe protection of your colleagues follow.

G E N E R A L S A F E T Y M E S S A G E S ■ Do not touch or approach mines or ERW;

■ Prior to travel, obtain information on dangerous areas;

■ Never venture into known dangerous areas,explore military installations or equipment;

■ Never approach or touch mines, unexploded or abandoned ordnance, or suspicious objects for any reason;

■ Never collect mines or UXO or other military hardware;

■ Do not touch anything that appears strange or out of place lyingon the ground or hanging from a tree;

Unsafe transport of alarge rocket. Advice?Better turn left hereimmediately...Iraq

Don’t touch! Record, report.

Do not collect war souvenirs!

Never remove minewarning signs for any reason!

58

■ Be aware of local warning signs and always respect them;

■ Always be alert for other clues of possible danger;

■ Provide important safety information to others;

■ Keep others informed about your travel plans.

B E P R E P A R E D

LANDMINE SAFETY AND FIRST-AID TRAININGEnsure that you have received mine/ERW awareness andfirst-aid training, and are familiar with your organization’ssafety procedures. If you haven’t been offered such training,ask for it.

CONTACT INFORMATIONKeep contact details of mine action centres and agencies,United Nations security officers, emergency services andmedical facilities on hand. Verify and update emergencycontacts on a regular basis.

FIRST-AID KITEnsure that a travel pack with a first-aid kit is in your vehicleat all times.Check expiry dates and serviceability of all items,and know how to use them.

COMMUNICATIONDo not travel without a radio or telephone, and know howto use it. Be informed of all the alternative frequencies ortelephone numbers that you may require (e.g. mine actionagencies, United Nations security officers).

DANGEROUS AREA MAPSIf available,carry a map marked with the best available infor-mation about routes known to be free of mines. Update this

Stay away fromabandoned mili-tary equipment!

59

Bridges are strategic points. Beware of mines and UXO.

information by checking with local populations as you travel, and heed their warnings.

A S S E S S T H E L O C A L T H R E A TObtain detailed information on the mine/ERW situation priorto any movement into an area that may contain mines orERW. You will also need to be aware of official and unofficialwarning signs in your area. When available, contact the following for information:

■ Local Mine Action Centres (MAC) and mine action agencies;

■ United Nations Security Officers;

■ United Nations Military Observers or Liaison Officers;

■ Non-governmental organizations and aid agencies working in the area;

■ Local authorities.

Mine Action CentresIn many countries severelyaffected by mines and UXO, governments, UnitedNations agencies and non-governmental organi-zations have helped estab-lish Mine Action Centres.These centres act as thefocal point for the coordi-nation of efforts to clearordnance, mark dangerousareas, provide risk educa-tion and undertake advocacy for survivors of accidents.

These centres are normallyrun by the civilian arm ofgovernment, and supporthumanitarian and devel-opment operations. Theyare often separate frommilitary efforts to clearordnance, or security forces and police that deal with improvisedexplosive devices.

60

Also ask the local population for additional information,being sure to consult with men and women, even children,who will have different knowledge about the local threatbecause of their differing daily activities. Keep in mind, how-ever, that returning populations may not be aware of thelocal threat. If you are travelling in a high risk area,ask organ-izations and locals some of the following questions to com-pile information about the threat:

■ Have there been mine or UXO accidents in this area involving people, animals or vehicles? What caused the accident (mine, UXO or booby-trap)? Where and when did it take place?

■ Where do you suspect or know there are mines or UXO?

■ Has there been any fighting in this area? Where?

■ Have there been any soldiers living/working/passing through this area?

■ Have there been explosions in the area? Where?

■ Are there roads/tracks/crossings/fields/wells/houses you do notuse because of safety concerns?

■ Where are the safe roads?

■ Are there new or old military camps in the area you should avoid?Where?

■ Do you mark dangerous areas, or are there official markers? What do they look like?

The local population often does not differentiate betweenmines or other ordnance.They may simply refer to bombs ingeneral or to mines in general. Determining the type towhich they refer may make a significant difference to yourtravel plans; mine-contaminated areas often pose a greaterhazard to travelling than unexploded ordnance. However, ifin doubt, assume the worst and avoid the area. Even if onlyone source indicates an area is dangerous, avoid it!

Did you know?Although locals are usually

one of the best resources to

assess the mine/ERW threat,

many accidents happen

because local people devel-

op a different sense of risk.

Walking and driving through

their regions everyday with-

out any incident may create

a false impression of the

actual situacion.

Aid workers or foreign jour-

nalists often rely on their

local counterparts such as

drivers, interpreters or

stringers, when it comes to

assess the safety of an area.

Aid workers and journalists

normally do not question

these assessments, because

“everything feels right”or

because they don’t want to

come across as overtly cau-

tious or “fussy.”

Remember: In mine-affected

areas, you are better to be

overly cautious or “fussy”a

hundred times than just

wrong once. Get your mine-

safety briefing and make

sure your local counterparts

have had theirs too!

If you obtain new information regarding the local threat ofmines or ERW,provide it to your head office,the local MAC,mineaction agencies, and United Nations Security Officers so thatthey can share it with other organizations and staff members.

And don’t forget to inform others of your travel plans,whether your trip is private or professional.

E X E R C I S E C O M M O N S E N S E■ Do not enter areas known or suspected to be contaminated,

and use only cleared and approved routes.

■ Don’t touch or approach mines, unexploded or abandoned ordnance or approach military installations or equipment.

■ Do not approach UXO or abandoned ordnance, abandoned guns oritems that appear out of place as they may have been booby-trapped. In conflict situations, it is often better to assume

Stay in the travelled zone.Be prepared to reverse.

61

that all abandoned military vehicles and installations, UXO andabandoned ordnance are booby-trapped. Specialists are requiredto check thoroughly for the presence of booby-traps and impro-vised explosive devices. Beware of anything with unusual wiresleading to it or coming from it.

■ Know who to report to and what to report. Mine action centresand mine action organizations will usually deal with landmineand ERW threats that pose a humanitarian threat or impedimentto development, while the military and police normally deal withabandoned ordnance and improvised explosive devices that posea security threat.

■ Take extreme caution near known or suspected minefields orERW-contaminated areas, whether they are marked or not.During surveys of mined areas smaller hazard areas may havebeen overlooked. Mines or ordnance may also have moved due torains and erosion. If you are around an area being cleared ofmines or ERW, do not approach mine clearance teams unless youare invited by them to do so and then follow their instructions atall times.

■ Radio or cellular phone transmissions emit radio waves thatcould initiate radio controlled devices or certain types of unex-ploded ordnance. Avoid making radio or cellular phone transmis-sions around UXO, booby-traps or improvised explosive devices.

■ If you are undertaking construction activities, digging wells,building roads or canals in areas that have been the subject oflarge scale bombing or protracted land battles be aware that youmay uncover landmines and unexploded ordnance. If so stopdigging immediately, clear the worksite of all people and inform

local authorities. Do not attempt to move unexploded ordnanceor mines.

■ If you plan to establish an office or house in a conflict or post-conflict environment check that the immediate area does nothave weapons depots – abandoned or otherwise. Close proximityto a weapons depot always poses a risk and if actively used, maybe subject to attack.

Use common sense.When in doubt stay out!

Before driving in conflict areas check with localauthorities aboutAV-mines.

Never drive on road verges! Stay inwell-worn tracks.

Stay on well-usedroads or paths andon the asphaltwhenever possible.

Beware of obstaclesin the road or onthe path.

62

63

TRAVELLING IN A VEHICLE■ Inform your office of the dates, times and planned route of your

journey, by filling out a route card. (An example of a route card isgiven in Annex 1, together with a description of its use.) If youchange your route, inform your office. If you cannot communi-cate, it is better not to deviate. Be aware, that if you fail to arriveat your destination at the specified time or to report in, yourorganization will come looking for you.

■ Whenever possible, travel with a companion, preferably one whoknows the area and the route you need to use if you do not.Travelling in two vehicles in most instances is even better. Whentravelling in a convoy, allow a space of 50 m to 100 m betweenvehicles whenever possible, also ensuring that you can maintainvisual contact with other vehicles travelling with you.

■ When starting a journey in the morning, allow sufficient time forlocal traffic to have subsided before undertaking your travel. Stickto well-travelled routes, and stay in the travelled zone of theroad. Plan your trip well and avoid using dangerous roads afterheavy rains and throughout the rainy season: deep flooded pot-holes may tempt you to leave the ‘safe’ zone. Mines may bemoved or exposed by rain.

NEVER drive onto the shoulders or verges. The drivers of thecars in the background are taking an unnecessary risk.

64

■ Do not travel at night. Plan your journey to end two hours beforesunset. This will allow you and your headquarters at least twohours of sunlight to react to an emergency. In addition, minewarning signs and clues cannot be seen at night.

■ Wherever possible, stay on paved roads, even if it means the tripwill be longer. Paved roads are generally less likely to be minedthan unpaved roads. However, potholes and the shoulders (orverges) of paved roads offer opportunities to conceal mines —avoid potholes and avoid driving off paved areas. Do not leavethe main road or track to turn your car. If you have a flat tire oryour car breaks down, don’t pull over to the side, but rather fix iton an area that has obviously been used or is paved.

■ On dirt roads, stay on well travelled tracks. The tracks have to bewide enough for your vehicle. The wheels of a truck, for example,are much wider than those on a four-wheel-drive vehicle. Theymay extend outside existing tracks.

■ Beware of obstacles in the road or on a path. An obstacle in theroad could be a diversion designed to make you step or drive offthe road and into a minefield. Never leave the road to allow avehicle to pass, to overtake, pass an obstruction, or turn around.If necessary, reverse back until a safe area is available. Beware ofpulling off the road into lay-bys as they may be mined.

■ Never drive around roadblocks of former military pos