Technological requirements should be taken into account when designing information systems. The important points are as follows:

Information volume : Information technology equipment must be suitable with the volume of information that is to be processed;

Period : Everyday information which arises regularly is repetitive information that requires special care;

Accuracy : Specially high accuracy is required now and then. Accuracy is important but difficult to meet;

Complexity : Issues in information treatment can be processed in principle. However, due to its complexity, the current system fails to resolved the issues that need to be resolved by the new system.

Technical Requirements

SYSTEM SURVEY

The survey process is often divided into 2 main phases:

1. Preliminary survey: define the project’s feasibility.

2. Detailed survey: define what needs to be done and accomplishments that should be achieved.

PRELIMINARY SURVEY

in this phase, important questions to ask are:

1. Do we need to carry it out?2. What do we need to continue to do?3. How long do we need to do it?4. What is the estimated price?5. What are the benefits and difficulties?

DETAILED SURVEY

The objective of detailed survey is to find out the best solution in terms of technology, finance, time etc... The outcome of this phase is a report which clarifies user’s requirements, identifies information current, evaluate and pick up the best solution and gives advice users on the current system and how to utilize it in the future. Surveying is divided into 2 parts:

1. Detailing the objectives set forth; 2. Identifying information sources and information requirements.

To get the best outcome of detailed survey, it’s useful to follow the tips below:

1. Review all paper and reports of preliminary survey in the previous phase; 2. Review all technical terms; 3. Make good plan for the survey; 4. Give assignment to each group member; 5. Supervise closely the implementation of the plan.

INVESTIGATION METHODS

1. Survey Methods

2. Observation Methods

3. Questionnaire Methods

SURVEY METHODS

The contexts in which you make interviews are often different and unpredictable. However, interviews are the main source of information about the future system and the current system. There are 2 main reasons for interview failures:

(i) interviewer fails to understand what users say,

(ii) bad communications between interviewer and interviewee.

The followings are tips for interviewer:

Interviews Questions Communications

Before the interview, you should contact the interviewee directly (or through his/her secretary) to set up an appointment and agree with him/her on time, venue and interview objectives.

During the interview, if you behave professionally, you will receive the same attitude from your interviewee.

Try to attentively listen to the people you’re talking to and take notes of all the necessary information you are provided during the interview.

The interview paper and minute are always useful for you and your successor because it helps you master the origin of the information you have.

It’s important to open and close the interview carefully because this may impact the way your questions are answered.

INTERVIEW

You should carefully choose the kind of question you will ask.

As each kind of question serve a particular context, you will suffer if you choose it wrongly.

Open questions always create more opportunities for the interviewee to answer, but don’t expect too much, not all the answers are good enough.

You should take those questions which show your prediction such as "I feel that...", "I sense that..." and use the words that can help emphasize your idea.

QUESTIONS

The language you use and the way you talk about technical stuff should in some way create a close contact between you and the one you’re interviewing.

COMMUNICATIONS

OBSERVATION METHODS

1. OFFICIAL OBSERVATION

2. UNOFFICIAL OBSERVATION

It’s not a good method to observe every single elements while collecting information to develop the system.

Moreover, those you’re looking at may feel uncomfortable and may behave unusually, which will affect your survey’s quality.

OFFICIAL OBSERVATION

In order to get an overview of an organization, take a look at its pile of paper and document, interruption of work, unreasonable timing and positive reflection of a good working environment... It’s also important to know the quantity and quality of data that need to be processed and predict how they change over the time. Researching through document is the final good method to get important information.

UNOFFICIAL OBSERVATION

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

This method requires your clear instructions to the user. A questionnaire can be designed base on the following points:

Title: describe the objectives and main contents; Data classification: categories of data that will be used; Data: contents of the data in each category.

SURVEY REPORTTheoretically, survey report should be written in user’s language (not necessarily non-technicallanguage).

All reports must have a cover page with name of project, its author, address, contact numbers. Cover page is followed by content pages with the following main items:

• Objectives of the system• Inter-connection between related departments• Details of the current system • Future system and sketchy estimate of costs and benefits• Advice• Time frame and plan for system development• General description (non-technical)• Original document

LIFE CYCLE versus MATHODOLOGY

• A system life cycle divides the life of an information system into two stages, systems development and systems operation and support.

• A system development methodology is a very formal and precise system development process that defines a set of activities, methods, best practices, deliverables, and automated tools that system developers and project managers are to use to develop and maintain information systems and software.

Conversion

Obsolescence

Lifetimeof a

System

LIFE CYCLE STAGE

System Development

usingSystem Development

Methodology

LIFE CYCLE STAGE

System Operationand Support

usingInformation Technology

SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE

REQUIREMENTS DISCOVERYGiven an understand of problems, the systems analyst can start to define requirements.

Fact-finding – the formal process of using research, meetings, interviews, questionnaires, sampling, and other techniques to collect information about system problems, requirements, and preferences. It is also called information gathering or data collection.

Fact-Finding Ethics

1. Fact-Finding often brings systems analysts into contact with sensitive information.

• Company plans

• Employee salaries or medical history

• Customer credit card, social security, or other information

2. Ethical behavior includes:• Systems analysts must not misuse that information.

• Systems analysts must protect that information from people who would misuse it.

3. Otherwise:• Systems analyst loses respect, credibility, and confidence of users and

management, impairing ability to do job

• Organization and systems analyst could have legal liability

• Systems analyst could lose job

Fact-Finding Methods

1. Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and databases.

2. Research and site visits.

3. Observation of the work environment.

4. Questionnaires.

5. Interviews.

6. Prototyping.

7. Joint requirements planning (JRP).

Sampling of Existing Documentation, Forms, and Files

The process of collecting a representative sample of

documents, forms, and records.

1. Organization chart

2. Memos and other documents that describe the problem

3. Standard operating procedures for current system

4. Completed forms

5. Manual and computerized screens and reports

6. Samples of databases

7. Flowcharts and other system documentation

8. And more

Observation

A fact-finding technique wherein the systems analyst either participates in or watches a person perform activities to learn about the system.

Advantages?

Disadvantages?

IN BOOK

PAGE 247

Observation Guidelines

1. Determine the who, what, where, when, why, and how of the observation.

2. Obtain permission from appropriate supervisors or managers.

3. Inform those who will be observed of the purpose of the observation.

4. Keep a low profile.

5. Take notes during or immediately following the observation.

6. Review observation notes with appropriate individuals.

7. Don't interrupt the individuals at work.

8. Don't focus heavily on trivial activities.

9. Don't make assumptions.

Observation… (cont)

Questionnaires

A special-purpose document that allows the analyst to collect information and opinions from respondents.

Advantages?

Disadvantages?

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PAGE 248

Free-format questionnaire – a questionnaire designed to offer the respondent greater latitude in the answer. A question is asked, and the respondent records the answer in the space provided after the question.

Fixed-format questionnaire – a questionnaire containing questions that require selecting an answer from predefined available responses

Questionnaires… (cont)

Types of Questionnaires

Types of Fixed-Format Questions

• Multiple-choice questions • Rating questions• Ranking questions

Rank the following transactions according to the amount of time you spend processing them.___ % new customer orders___ % order cancellations___ % order modifications___ % payments

The implementation of quality discounts would cause an increase in customer orders.� Strongly agree� Agree� No opinion� Disagree� Strongly disagree

Is the current accounts receivable report that you receive useful?� Yes� No

Questionnaires… (cont)

InterviewsA fact-finding technique whereby the systems analysts collect information from individuals through face-to-face interaction. Interviews Can be used to:

• Find facts• Verify facts• Clarify facts• Generate enthusiasm• Get the end-user involved• Identify requirements• Solicit ideas and opinions

Advantages?Disadvantages?

IN BOOK

PAGE 251

Types of Interviews and Questions

Unstructured interview – an interview that is conducted with only a general goal or subject in mind and with few, if any, specific questions. The interviewer counts on the interviewee to provide a framework and direct the conversation.

Structured interview – an interview in which the interviewer has a specific set of questions to ask of the interviewee.

Open-ended question – question that allows the interviewee to respond in any way that seems appropriate.

Closed-ended question – a question that restricts answers to either specific choices or short, direct responses.

Interviews… (cont)

Interview Questions

Types of Questions to Avoid– Loaded questions– Leading questions– Biased questions

Interview Question Guidelines– Use clear and concise language. – Don’t include your opinion as part of the question. – Avoid long or complex questions. – Avoid threatening questions. – Don’t use “you” when you mean a group of people.

Interviews… (cont)

Communicating With the User

Guidelines for Communicating– Approach the Session with a Positive Attitude – Set the Other Person at Ease – Let Them Know You Are Listening – Ask Questions – Don’t Assume Anything – Take Notes

Interviews… (cont)

BODY LANGUAGE AND PROXEMICS

Body language – the nonverbal information we communicate. – Facial disclosure– Eye contact– Posture

Proxemics – the relationship between people and the space around them. – Intimate zone—closer than 1.5 feet– Personal zone—from 1.5 feet to 4 feet– Social zone—from 4 feet to 12 feet– Public zone—beyond 12 feet

Interviews… (cont)

Interviewing Do’s and Don’ts

Do

• Be courteous• Listen carefully• Maintain control• Probe• Observe mannerisms and

nonverbal communication• Be patient• Keep interviewee at ease• Maintain self-control

Avoid

• Continuing an interview unnecessarily.

• Assuming an answer is finished or leading nowhere.

• Revealing verbal and nonverbal clues.

• Using jargon• Talking instead of listening.• Assuming anything about the

topic and the interviewee.• Tape recording -- a sign of poor

listening skills.

Prototyping

The act of building a small-scale, representative or working

model of the users’ requirements in order to discover or

verify those requirements.

– Advantages?– Disadvantages?

IN BOOK

PAGE 257

Joint Requirements Planning

A process whereby highly structured group meetings are conducted for the purpose of analyzing problems and defining requirements.