ROME

Geography and Early Roman Peoples• Lots of rich farm land and mild climate, able to support

a large population• Rome is based on the Italian Peninsula, which is

surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea– Protected in the north by the mountains of the Alps– Protected in the south, east, and west by the

Mediterranean Sea• Founding of Rome based on the legend of twin brothers

Romulus and Remus• The people who built Rome were members of an Indo-

European tribe called the Latins around 1000 BC– The city prospered due to its location on the Tiber

• In 616 BC a group named the Etruscans arrived and started to rule Rome

• Influences of the Etruscans – heavily influenced by the Greeks– The toga, gladiator games, and Chariot races– Introduced the alphabet and number system, also

built Rome’s first walls and sewer • The last Etruscan king was driven out of Rome in

509 BC

Roman Republic• Since the Romans had been ruled by kings under the

Etruscans, they distrusted monarchy and decided it to replace it with a new form of gov’t– Republic = a form of gov’t in which the leader is not a

monarch, elected officials governed the state, and certain citizens have the right to vote

• Early Rome was divided into two groups:– Patricians = rich landowners who controlled the gov’t

and society– Plebeians = commoners, mostly farmers and

merchants• Men in both groups were citizens who could vote

• In the beginning, however, only patricians could be elected to governmental offices

• Plebeians eventually got more rights, and formed their own assembly called the Plebeian Council– Even had the right to elect officials called tribunes– It was the job of the tribunes to protect the plebeians

against unjust treatment by patrician officials• Tribunes could even veto, or ban, laws that the

patricians made that they felt were harmful• The plebeians also forced the patricians to have all laws

written down– The Law of the Twelve Tables = Rome’s first written

law code, was displayed in the Roman Forum (central square)

• The patricians and plebeians created an unwritten and flexible constitution– Constitution = framework for gov’t or political

structure• The government consisted of three parts:– The Senate = a select group of 300 hundred patricians

who served for life• Advised elected officials, handled all foreign

relations, and controlled public finances• By the third century it had the force of law

– Various popular assemblies• All citizens voted on laws and elected officials

– Officials called magistrates = put laws into practice and governed in the name of the Senate and the people

• Chief executive officers of the Republic– Consuls – two elected each year, one to run the gov’t

and one to lead the army– Praetors – magistrates that could act as consuls when

the consuls were away at war • Also in charge of enforcing civil law

– Censors – recorded the city’s population and how much property people owned

• System of checks and balances that stopped one group from becoming too powerful

The Republic Expands• Military might– All men between the ages of 17 and 46 with a

minimum amount of property were required to serve in the army during times of war

– Army was organized into units called legions• The backbone of the legions were centurions• Centurions = commissioned officers who usually

commanded a century of a 100 men• Conquests– Romans defeated the Etruscans and the Greek cities

in southern Italy by 256 BC

– Rome fought and defeated the Hellenistic kingdoms of Macedonia and Persia, making them Roman provinces

– Rome also annexed Greece as another province • Annex = incorporate territory into an existing

country• Adopted many elements of Greek culture,

especially religion• Why was Rome successful– Romans were good diplomats• Extended Roman citizenship and allowed states to

run their own internal affairs• Only had the conquered people supply troops

– Romans excelled at military matters• Accomplished and persistent soldiers• Fortified towns and built roads• Defeated the enemies surrounding Rome

• Roman Law– One of the greatest achievements was its system of

law• First code of laws adopted was the Twelve Tables• Later a more sophisticated system of civil law was

developed• As Rome expanded, legal questions arose that

involved both Romans and non-Romans, needed special rules

• Gave rise to a body of law known as the Law of Nations

– Law of Nations• Used natural law (universal law) based on reason• Established standards of justice that applied to all

people:– Innocent until proven guilty–Accused allowed to defend themselves before a

judge– This law system greatly influenced the law system of

the United States

The Punic Wars• Due to the conquest of Italy, the Romans now faced the

powerful city and empire of Carthage located in North Africa– Both wanted to control the Mediterranean

• First Punic War– War started in 246 BC when the Romans sent an

army to help some allies in Sicily• Carthage considered this an act of war because

they believed Sicily to be part of their empire– Carthage’s powerful navy dominated the fighting

early on

• The Romans were a land power and had to create their own navy

– The war ended when the Roman navy defeated the Carthaginian navy off the coast of Sicily

– Carthage gave up all rights to Sicily and vowed revenge

• Second Punic War– Rome encouraged one of Carthage’s Spanish allies to

revolt and Carthage struck back with the greatest Carthaginian general, Hannibal• Hannibal decided to bring war home to the

Romans

• 218 BC Hannibal led a well-trained army of 46,000 men and a force of 37 war elephants across the Pyrenees and the Alps to invade Italy

– 216 BC Romans decided to meet Hannibal head on• Was a disaster for Rome – lost an army of 40,000• Refused to surrender and raised another army

– For many years Hannibal dominated the Italian countryside• Defeated one Roman army after another• Battle of Trasimene – 15,000 Romans killed,

15,000 captured, Hannibal only lost 1,500 and an eye• In another battle 50,000 Romans died or were

wounded

–Unable to defeat Hannibal in Italy, the Romans decided on a new strategy• The Roman army sailed across the

Mediterranean and attacked Carthage• Carthage was forced to recall Hannibal

– Battle of Zama (202 BC) – Romans defeat Hannibal’s army• Carthage lost Spain, which became part of

Rome• Carthage was stripped of its navy• Rome is now the dominant power on the

Mediterranean

• Third Punic War– Romans decide in favor of the complete destruction

of Carthage– After a siege of three years, Carthage finally fell in

146 BC• Roman soldiers spent ten days burning and

demolishing buildings• The entire population was sold into slavery• Carthage became a Roman province called Africa

Collapse of the Republic• Social unrest– Growing tension among the various classes– Soldier-farmers were returning home from years of

service and finding that their land had either been sold or was in bad shape• Two brothers, the Gracchi, tried to redistribute

public land and were quite popular• The Roman elite, especially the Senate, were

unhappy about this– The Senate urged mobs to kill the two brothers– For the first time, the blood of Roman citizens was

intentionally shed in the Forum• Violence had become a political tool

• The Social War– Rome’s allies in Italy wanted Roman citizenship– The Senate refused and war broke out– The Italian rebels were defeated, but only after the

Senate promised them citizenship• The military in politics– Gaius Marius, a talented young military leader was

elected consul and he decided to improve recruitment for the army• Eliminated property requirements• Poor people began to join and swore an oath of

loyalty to the general, not to the Roman state, in hopes of sharing the plunder from war

– Result was that armies largely became private forces devoted to a general and placed much power in the hands of individual generals• Generals could use loyalty of troops as a political

tool– New type of army that was not under gov’t control

• The Civil War– General Sulla became consul following the Social

War– Marius and his supporters defied Roman custom by

trying to prevent Sulla from taking a military command• Sulla responded by marching on Rome with his

legions

– Sulla emerged victorious and became a dictator• Dictator = an absolute ruler• Executed all who had opposed him• Carried out reforms aimed at protecting the power

of the Senate and preserving the Republic– Legacy of Sulla = using an army to seize power

Rise of the Roman Empire• The old Republic was mostly gone within a generation

of Sulla– Was the result of the ambitions of just a few men

• The First Triumvirate– Triumvirate = rule by three people with equal power– The first Triumvirate was composed of Julius Caesar,

Pompey, and Crassus• Caesar added Gaul – modern France• Pompey added Syria and parts of Asia Minor• Crassus was one of the wealthiest men in Rome

– Took over Rome in 60 BC

• Crassus died and Caesar and Pompey faced off in a civil war – Caesar was victorious

– Senate declared Caesar dictator for life in 44 BC• Gave citizenship to people in the provinces and

gave public land to veterans• Was popular with the people, but many senators

thought he meant to destroy the Republic– Ides of March (March 15) – a group of senators

murder Julius Caesar

• Second Triumvirate– Established in 43 BC – composed of Octavian

(Caesar’s adopted son and heir), Marc Antony, and Lepidus

• Lepidus was pushed aside and Octavian and Antony each decide to govern half the empire

– Civil war breaks out and Octavian defeats Antony and his ally Queen Cleopatra of Egypt• Both commit suicide after the defeat

– Octavian now alone controlled Rome• Republic effectively dead

• Senate awards Octavian the title Augustus “the revered one”– continued to control the army and took the name

imperator• Imperator = commander in chief (emperor)• Became the first emperor of Rome

• The Augustan Age– Augustus ruled Rome for more than 40 years– Divided the power to rule Rome between himself

and the Senate• Later emperors took over more and more powers

of the Senate– Augustus did great things for Rome• Created a police force and fire brigades• Vast building program, he restored old temples

and built new ones• Sponsored Latin literature – Vergil, Livy, Horace

• Julio-Claudians – relatives of Caesar ruled for the next 54 years

– Tiberius – adopted son of Augustus– Caligula – brutal and mentally unstable– Nero – killed his own mother and committed suicide

• The Five Good Emperors– Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus

Aurelius– Governed Rome for nearly a century and under them

the empire grew tremendously– Hadrian built defensive fortifications along the

frontiers to guard against invasions• Hadrian’s Wall – built in northern Britain

Pax Romana• Pax Romana = Roman Peace– Age of peace and prosperity– Started off with the reign of Augustus in 27 BC and

ended with the death of the last Good Emperor, Marcus Aurelius, in 180 AD• Stable gov’t, strong legal system, widespread trade• Not much war or invasion

– The Roman gov’t was the strongest unifying force in the empire• Maintained order and enforced the laws

– Extensive road network – 50,000 miles

Rise of Christianity• Some Jews began to revolt against Roman rule, resulting

in all Jews being banned from Jerusalem

• Jesus of Nazareth– Born in the town of Bethlehem– All knowledge about Jesus comes from the Gospels,

the first four books of the New Testament– Traveled around preaching people to repent their sins

and seek God’s forgiveness• People needed to seek forgiveness in preparation

for the coming of Judgment Day• People were to practice humility, mercy, and

charity

– As Jesus traveled, he gathered a small group of disciples, or followers• According to the Bible, Jesus performed miracles

and defended the poor– Roman authorities feared a political uprising and

arrested Jesus and sentenced him to death• Jesus was crucified = nailed to a cross – Some believed he rose from the dead and spent

another 40 days teaching his disciples before ascending into heaven

– As a result, people began to call him Jesus Christ, the Greek word for Messiah

• Spread of Christianity– Jesus’ disciples began to teach that all people could

achieve salvation

• Salvation = forgiveness of sins and the promise of everlasting life in heaven

– The Apostles – the 12 disciples that Jesus had specifically chosen to carry out his message• Were the earliest Christian missionaries• Mostly only taught in Jewish communities

– Paul of Tarsus believed that God had sent him to convert non-Jews• Without him, Christianity might have remained a

branch of Judaism• He helped to make Christianity a broader religion• Established Christian churches throughout the

eastern Mediterranean

– Paul got rid of some Jewish customs, such as food prohibitions, that hindered his missionary work among non-Jews• Emphasized new doctrines that helped distinguish

Christianity from Judaism– The Christian message of eternal life after death

appealed to many– Roman religious toleration contributed to the spread

• Persecution– Some local officials and rulers saw Christians as a

threat and arrested and killed them• Fed to the lions, made them martyrs• Martyrs = people who die for their faith and thus

inspire others to believe

– Christianity survived and triumphed• Imperial approval of Christianity– Emperor Constantine became the first Christian

emperor after he converted after winning a battle• He issued the Edict of Milan, which made

Christianity legal within the empire and declared official tolerance of Christianity

– Emperor Theodosius outlawed public non-Christian sacrifices and ceremonies• As a result, Christianity was adopted as the

Roman religion and polytheism began to disappear

• The Early Christian Church– Development of ceremonies that inspired people’s

faith and made them feel closer to Jesus• Eucharist = held in memory of Jesus’ last supper

with his disciples–Eat bread and drink wine in memory of Jesus’

death and resurrection• Baptism = people admitted into the Christian faith• Mass = Church service

– Hierarchy• Priests ran the ceremonies and instructed a small

local community• Bishops = high-ranking church official who

oversees a group of churches in a particular area

• Bishops were the most important official of the early Christian church• Many Christians believed that Peter the Apostle

founded the Roman Church–Peter had been the bishop of Rome, so later

bishops of Rome were seen as Peter’s spiritual heir–They took the name popes–Popes were seen as the head of the entire

Christian church–This was due to the belief that Jesus gave Peter

the keys to the kingdom of heaven

Roman Society• Rich vs. Poor– The rich usually had a house in the city and one in the

country– The poor (most of the people of Rome) lived in

crowded apartment buildings where fire was a constant hazard

– To keep the poor from rebelling against the bad living conditions, free food and public entertainment became a major feature of city life• “Bread and Circuses”

• Entertainment – provided on a grand scale for Romans– Chariot races– Coliseum - Gladiator fights, animals killing prisoners– Dramatic performances held in theaters

• Slavery– Romans relied the most on slave labor and had the

most slaves– Large numbers of captured peoples brought back as

slaves– Slaves built buildings and roads, were used as tutors,

on farms, and as shop assistants– Conditions for most slaves were bad

– The murder of a master by a slave meant the execution for all the household slaves

– Most of the gladiators were slaves– The most famous slave revolt was led by Spartacus

and involved 70,000 slaves – they managed to defeat several armies before being caught and crucified

• Family– Headed by the paterfamilias – the family father• Was the oldest living male and had extensive

powers over his family– Extended family – included wife, sons with their

wives and children, unmarried daughters, and slaves– Legal age to marry: girls – 12 and boys – 14– Families with no sons could adopt boys to be heirs

• Education– The upper classes placed great importance on

education– The father was the chief figure in providing for the

education of his children 1) teach them himself, 2) hire a tutor, or 3) send them to exclusive schools

• Women– Women could do little without the intervention of a

male guardian– Could own and inherit property– Could attend races, the theater, and events in the

Colosseum, but had to sit in separate female sections

• Achievements– Galen – Roman physician who wrote several volumes

that summarized all the medical knowledge of his time• Was regarded as the greatest authority on

medicine for centuries– Ptolemy – stated that the earth was the center of the

universe– Aqueducts – man-made channels used to bring water

to the cities

Decline and Fall of Rome• Political problems– Weak leaders– Political upheaval – series of civil wars• Military dictatorship – army deposed emperors

and elevated their own leaders• Between 235 to 284 there were 20 emperors, all

but one died violently• Economic problems– Economic crisis – decline in trade and farming– Military needs required emperors to raise taxes– As taxes rose, the value of money declined

• Emperors minted new coins with copper and lead instead of the same amount of silver• People didn’t believe the money was worth the

same– The result was growing inflation = dramatic rise in

prices• Military Problems– Difficult to pay and enlist more soldiers, had to rely

on hiring Germans to fight• Had little loyalty to the Empire

• Plague– Disease weakened the Roman Empire– Not enough soldiers or farmers to harvest crops

• Invaders– Invading Germanic tribes, mostly enter Roman

territory to flee from the Huns• Huns = feared nomadic warriors from Asia• Visigoths – crossed the Danube river into Italy• Vandals – came into Italy from north Africa

– Sacking of Rome• 410 the Visigoths plunder Rome• 455 the Vandals sack Rome–Famous for destroying everything in their path–Vandal = “one who causes senseless

destruction”• The Huns were talked out of attacking Rome by

Pope Leo I

• Fall of Rome– 476 – the last emperor of Rome was deposed by the

Germanic commander Odoacer– Many consider this to be the end of the Western

Roman Empire• Division of the Roman Empire– To slow the empire’s decline, emperors Diocletian and

Constantine divided the empire into two parts– Western Roman Empire – capital at Rome• Destroyed in 476

– Eastern Roman Empire – capital at Byzantium, later renamed Constantinople• Lasted another thousand years, becomes known as

the Byzantine Empire