rock .........................assignament

7/28/2019 rock .........................assignament

1/31

CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere

(d). Composition of RocksArockcan be defined as a solid substance that occurs naturally because of theeffects of three basic geological processes:magmasolidification;sedimentation

ofweatheredrock debris; andmetamorphism. As a result of these processes,three main types of rock occur:

Igneous Rocks- produced by solidification of molten magma from the mantle.Magma that solidifies at the Earth's surface conceivesextrusiveorvolcanicigneous rocks. When magma cools and solidifies beneath the surface of the Earthintrusiveorplutonic igneousrocks are formed.

Sedimentary Rocks- formed by burial, compression, and chemical modificationof deposited weathered rock debris or sediments at the Earth's surface.

Metamorphic Rocks- created when existing rock is chemically or physicallymodified by intense heat or pressure.

Mostrocksare composed ofminerals.Mineralsare defined by geologists asnaturally occurringinorganicsolids that have a crystalline structure and a distinctchemical composition. Of course, the minerals found in the Earth's rocks are

produced by a variety of different arrangements of chemicalelements. A list of theeight most common elements making up the minerals found in the Earth's rocks isdescribed in Table 10d-1.

Table 10d-1: Common elements found in the Earth's rocks.

ElementChemical

SymbolPercent Weight in Earth's

Crust

Oxygen O 46.60

Silicon Si 27.72

Aluminum Al 8.13

Iron Fe 5.00Calcium Ca 3.63

Sodium Na 2.83

Potassium K 2.59

Magnesium Mg 2.09

Over 2000mineralshave been identified by earth scientists. Table 10d-2describes some of the important minerals, their chemical composition, and

classifies them in one of nine groups. The Elements Groupincludes over onehundred known minerals. Many of the minerals in this class are composed of only
http://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/r.html#rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/r.html#rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/r.html#rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#magmahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#magmahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#magmahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/s.html#sedimentary_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/s.html#sedimentary_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/s.html#sedimentary_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/w.html#weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/w.html#weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/w.html#weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#metamorphismhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#metamorphismhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#metamorphismhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#extrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#extrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#extrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#extrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#extrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#extrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#intrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#intrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#intrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#intrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#intrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/s.html#sedimentary_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/s.html#sedimentary_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#metamorphic_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#metamorphic_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/r.html#rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/r.html#rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/r.html#rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#mineralhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#mineralhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#mineralhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#inorganichttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#inorganichttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#inorganichttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#elementhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#elementhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#elementhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#mineralhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#mineralhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#mineralhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#mineralhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#elementhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#inorganichttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#mineralhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/r.html#rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#metamorphic_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/s.html#sedimentary_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#intrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#intrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#extrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#extrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/e.html#extrusive_igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/i.html#igneous_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#metamorphismhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/w.html#weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/s.html#sedimentary_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/m.html#magmahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/r.html#rock


2/31

one element. Geologists sometimes subdivide this group into metal and nonmetalcategories. Gold, silver, and copperare examples of metals. The elements sulfurand carbon produce the minerals sulfur, diamonds, and graphitewhich arenonmetallic.

Figure 10d-1: Silver.

Figure 10d-2: Copper.


3/31

Figure 10d-3: Graphite.

The Sul fide Groupare an economically important class of minerals. Many of theseminerals consist of metallic elements in chemical combination with the elementsulfur. Most ores of important metals such as mercury (cinnabar- HgS), iron(pyrite- FeS2 ), and lead (galena- PbS) are extracted from sulfides. Many of thesulfide minerals are recognized by their metallic luster.

Figure 10d-4: Pyrite.


4/31

Figure 10d-5: Galena.

The Halidesare a group of minerals whose principle chemical constituents arefluorine, chlorine, iodine, and bromine. Many of them are very soluble in water.Halides also tend to have a highly ordered molecular structure and a high degree ofsymmetry. The most well-known mineral of this group is halite(NaCl) or rocksalt.

Figure 10d-6: Halite or rock salt.

The Oxidesare a group of minerals that are compounds of one or more metallicelements combined with oxygen, water, or hydroxyl (OH). The minerals in this

mineral group show the greatest variations of physical properties. Some are hard,others soft. Some have a metallic luster, some are clear and transparent. Some


5/31

representative oxide minerals include corundum, cuprite, and hematite.

Figure 10d-7: Corundum

Figure 10d-8: Hematite

The CarbonatesGroupconsists of minerals which contain one or more metallicelements chemically associated with the compound CO3 . Most carbonates arelightly colored and transparent when relatively pure. All carbonates are soft and

brittle. Carbonates also effervesce when exposed to warm hydrochloric acid. Mostgeologists considered the Nitratesand Boratesas subcategories of the carbonates.Some common carbonate minerals include calcite, dolomite, and malachite.


6/31

Figure 10d-9: Calcite.

Figure 10d-10: Dolomite.The Sulfatesare a mineral group that contain one or more metallic element incombination with the sulfate compound SO4 . All sulfates are transparent totranslucent and soft. Most are heavy and some are soluble in water. Rarer sulfatesexist containing substitutions for the sulfate compound. For example, in thechromatesSO4 is replaced by the compound CrO4 . Two common sulfates areanhydriteand gypsum.


7/31

Figure 10d-11: Gypsum.

The Phosphatesare a group of minerals of one or more metallic elementschemically associated with the phosphate compound PO4 . The phosphates areoften classified together with the arsenate, vanadate, tungstate, and molybdateminerals. One common phosphate mineral is apatite. Most phosphates are heavy

but soft. They are usually brittle and occur in small crystals or compact aggregates.

The Silicatesare by far the largest group of minerals. Chemically, these mineralscontain varying amounts of silicon and oxygen. It is easy to distinguish silicateminerals from other groups, but difficult to identify individual minerals within thisgroup. None are completely opaque. Most are light in weight. The constructioncomponent of all silicates is thetetrahedron. A tetrahedon is a chemical structurewhere a siliconatomis joined by four oxygen atoms (SiO4). Some representativeminerals include albite, augite, beryl, biotite, hornblende, microcline, muscovite,olivine, othoclase, and quartz.
http://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/t.html#tetrahedronhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/t.html#tetrahedronhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/t.html#tetrahedronhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atomhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atomhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atomhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atomhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/t.html#tetrahedron


8/31

Figure 10d-12: Albite.

Figure 10d-12: Biotite.


9/31

Figure 10d-13: Hornblende.

Figure 10d-14: Olivine.


10/31

Figure 10d-15: Orthoclase.

Figure 10d-16: Quartz.The Organicminerals are a rare group of minerals chemically containinghydrocarbons. Most geologists do not classify these substances as true minerals.

ote that our original definition of a mineral excludes organic substances.However, some organic substances that are found naturally on the Earth that existas crystals that resemble and act like true minerals. These substances are calledorganic minerals. Amberis a good example of an organic mineral.

Table 10d-2: Classification of some of the important minerals found in rocks.

Group Typical M inerals Chemistry
http://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/h.html#hydrocarbonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/h.html#hydrocarbonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/h.html#hydrocarbon


11/31

(and information link)

Elements

Gold Au

Silver Ag

Copper Cu

Carbon (Diamond andGraphite)

C

Sulfur S

Sulfides

Cinnabar HgS

Galena PBS

Pyrite FeS2

HalidesFluorite CaF2

Halite NaCl

Oxides

Corundum Al2O3

Cuprite Cu2O

Hematite Fe2O3

Carbonates

(Nitrates andBorates)

Calcite CaCO3

Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2

Malachite Cu2(CO3)(OH)2

SulfatesAnhydrite CaSO4

Gypsum CaSO4 -2(H2O)

Phosphates

(Arsenates,

Vanadates,Tungstates,

and

Molybdates)

Apatite Ca5(F,Cl,OH)(PO4 )

Silicates

Albite NaAlSi3O8

Augite(Ca, Na)(Mg, Fe,

Al)(Al, Si)2O6

Beryl Be3Al2(SiO3)6

Biotite

K (FE,

Mg)3AlSi3O10(F,OH)2

HornblendeCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Al,

Si)8O22(OH)2

Microcline KAlSi3O8

MuscoviteKAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,

OH)2

Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4

Orthoclase KAlSi3O8

Quartz SiO2
http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/gold/gold.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/silver/silver.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/copper/copper.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/diamond/diamond.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/graphite/graphite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/sulfur/sulfur.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfides/cinnabar/cinnabar.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfides/galena/galena.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfides/pyrite/pyrite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/halides/fluorite/fluorite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/halides/halite/halite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/corundum/corundum.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/cuprite/cuprite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/hematite/hematite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/carbonat/calcite/calcite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/carbonat/dolomite/dolomite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/carbonat/malachit/malachit.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfates/anhydrit/anhydrit.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfates/gypsum/gypsum.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/phosphat/apatite/apatite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/albite/albite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/augite/augite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/beryl/beryl.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/biotite/biotite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/hornblen/hornblen.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/microcli/microcli.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/muscovit/muscovit.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/olivine/olivine.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/orthocla/orthocla.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/quartz/quartz.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/quartz/quartz.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/orthocla/orthocla.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/olivine/olivine.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/muscovit/muscovit.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/microcli/microcli.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/hornblen/hornblen.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/biotite/biotite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/beryl/beryl.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/augite/augite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/albite/albite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/phosphat/apatite/apatite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfates/gypsum/gypsum.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfates/anhydrit/anhydrit.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/carbonat/malachit/malachit.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/carbonat/dolomite/dolomite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/carbonat/calcite/calcite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/hematite/hematite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/cuprite/cuprite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/corundum/corundum.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/halides/halite/halite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/halides/fluorite/fluorite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfides/pyrite/pyrite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfides/galena/galena.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/sulfides/cinnabar/cinnabar.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/sulfur/sulfur.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/graphite/graphite.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/diamond/diamond.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/copper/copper.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/silver/silver.htmhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/gold/gold.htm


12/31

Organics Amber C10H16O

Study Guide

Additional ReadingsInternet WeblinksCitation: Pidwirny, M. (2006). "Composition of Rocks".Fundamentals of PhysicalGeography, 2nd Edition.

P h y s i c a l G e o g r ap h y . n e t | CHAPTER 10 - STUDY GUIDE

HOME

F U N D A MEN T A

L S

eBOOK

U N D ER ST A N

D I N G

eBOOK

GEOGRA

PHY

G A MES

GLOSS

AR Y

OF

T ER MS

I N T ER N

ET

WEB L I

N KS

SEA R C

H

SI T E

ABOUT

More Sharing ServicesShare|Share on facebookShare on myspaceShare on googleShare on twitter

STUDY GUIDE

CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere

Summary of the Chapter

All landforms are composed of rocks or their weathered by products. Threemain types of rocks can be identified on the Earth's surface: igneous,sedimentary and metamorphic. The rock cycle is a model that describes howvarious geological processes create, modify and influence rocks. The rock cyclesuggests that all rocks originated from magma. This model also suggests that allrock types can be melted back into magma by tectonic forces that return rock tothe mantle.

Time has a unique meaning to geoscientists. To a geoscientist time is notmeasured in seconds, minutes or days, but in eons, eras, periods, and epochs.Each one of these units measures time according to major geologic events thathave occurred over the 4.6 billion years of Earth history. When a geoscientistmentions the Cretaceous we know that this is a time period that occurred

between 65 to 144 million years ago.
http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/mineralo/amber/amber.htmhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/studyguide_ch10.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/readings_ch10.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/readings_ch10.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks_ch10.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks_ch10.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/http://www.physicalgeography.net/http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/understanding/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/understanding/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/understanding/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/understanding/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/visualizations.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/visualizations.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/visualizations.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/visualizations.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/glossary.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/glossary.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/glossary.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/glossary.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/glossary.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/search.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/search.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/search.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/search.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/about.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/about.htmlhttp://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=250&username=sji2671http://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=250&username=sji2671http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/studyguide_ch10.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/studyguide_ch10.htmlhttp://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=250&winname=addthis&pub=sji2671&source=tbx-250&lng=en-in&s=google&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2Fstudyguide_ch10.html&title=CHAPTER%2010%20-%20STUDY%20GUIDE&ate=AT-sji2671/-/-/50ed9a197cb1c1e6/3&frommenu=1&uid=50ed9a19c6019d5c&ct=1&pre=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2F10d.html&tt=0&captcha_provider=recaptchahttp://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=250&winname=addthis&pub=sji2671&source=tbx-250&lng=en-in&s=google&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2Fstudyguide_ch10.html&title=CHAPTER%2010%20-%20STUDY%20GUIDE&ate=AT-sji2671/-/-/50ed9a197cb1c1e6/3&frommenu=1&uid=50ed9a19c6019d5c&ct=1&pre=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2F10d.html&tt=0&captcha_provider=recaptchahttp://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=250&winname=addthis&pub=sji2671&source=tbx-250&lng=en-in&s=google&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2Fstudyguide_ch10.html&title=CHAPTER%2010%20-%20STUDY%20GUIDE&ate=AT-sji2671/-/-/50ed9a197cb1c1e6/3&frommenu=1&uid=50ed9a19c6019d5c&ct=1&pre=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2F10d.html&tt=0&captcha_provider=recaptchahttp://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=250&winname=addthis&pub=sji2671&source=tbx-250&lng=en-in&s=google&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2Fstudyguide_ch10.html&title=CHAPTER%2010%20-%20STUDY%20GUIDE&ate=AT-sji2671/-/-/50ed9a197cb1c1e6/3&frommenu=1&uid=50ed9a19c6019d5c&ct=1&pre=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2F10d.html&tt=0&captcha_provider=recaptchahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/studyguide_ch10.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/studyguide_ch10.htmlhttp://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=250&username=sji2671http://www.physicalgeography.net/about.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/search.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/search.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/search.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/glossary.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/glossary.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/glossary.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/glossary.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/visualizations.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/visualizations.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/visualizations.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/understanding/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/understanding/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/understanding/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/http://www.physicalgeography.net/weblinks_ch10.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/readings_ch10.htmlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/studyguide_ch10.htmlhttp://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/mineralo/amber/amber.htm


13/31

Uniformitarianism is an important theory central to understanding in geologyand geomorphology. This theory suggests that the continuing uniformity ofexisting geomorphic and geologic processes should be used as the intellectualframework for understanding the geologic history of the Earth. It rejects the

idea that the landscape of the Earth is the result of catastrophic processes (e.g.,the biblical flood).

Three types of rocks are recognized by geologists: igneous, sedimentary, andmetamorphic. Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of magma. Thissolidification can occur at or beneath the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocksdevelop from the lithification of sediments or weather rock debris. Two generalcategories of sedimentary rocks exist: clastic and non-clastic. Metamorphicrocks are created by the alteration of existing rocks by intense heat or pressure.

Most rocks are composed of one or more minerals. The minerals that make up arock can be produced by magma solidification (igneous rocks), sedimentationof weather rock debris (sedimentary rocks), or metamorphism (metamorphicrocks). Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids that have a crystallineand a unique chemical make-up. Geologists have discovered more than 2000different types of minerals. The various types of minerals have been classifiedinto nine groups.

Igneous rocks are produced by the crystallization of magma. This process canoccur at the Earth's surface or beneath the ground. The type of igneous rocks

that forms from solidification is controlled primarily by magma chemistry,temperature of crystallization, and rate of cooling. Four basic types of magmahave been classified by geologists. This classification is based on chemistry.

Felsic magma contains relatively high quantities of sodium, aluminum,potassium, and silica. Its solidification produces granite, dacite, rhyolite, andgranodiorite. Each of these rocks has a unique mineral composition and grainsize.

Mafic magma is rich in calcium, iron, magnesium, and relatively poor in silica(between 45 to 52%). The rocks that are created from this magma include basaltand gabbro. These rocks are dominated by the minerals pyroxene, amphibole,and olivine.

Intermediate magma produces andesite and diorite. These rocks contain lesssilica (between 53 to 65%) and have a chemistry that is between felsic andmafic. Dominant minerals in these rocks include pyroxene, amphibole, and

plagioclase feldspars.

Ultramafic igneous rocks contain relative low amounts of silica (< 45 %) andare dominated by the minerals olivine, calcium-rich plagioclase feldspars, and


14/31

pyroxene. Peridotite is the most common ultramafic rock.

The Bowen reaction series is a model that suggests that the type of igneousrocks that form from felsic and mafic magma relies on the temperature ofcrystallization and the chemical composition of the originating magma. In thismodel, the formation of minerals starts with two different chemical sequencesat high temperatures that eventually merge into a single series at coolertemperatures.

Three different types of sedimentary rocks exist. Most sedimentary rocks are ofthe clastic type. These rocks are formed by the lithification of weathered rockdebris. Examples of clastic sedimentary rocks include sandstone, shale, andconglomerate. Identification of clastic sedimentary rocks is based on sediment

particle type.

The other two types of sedimentary rocks are termed non-clastic. The firstgroup of non-clastic sedimentary rocks form through the chemical precipitationand re-crystallization of elements and compounds in solution. Common

precipitated sedimentary rocks include halite, gypsum, silcretes, ferricretes,limestone, and dolomite. The second group of non-clastic sedimentary rocks arecreated from the lithification of once living organisms. Some examples of theserocks are limestone, chalk, coal, and lignite.

Metamorphic rocks are created by the alteration of existing igneous or

sedimentary rocks by heat, pressure, or through the chemical action of fluids.This alteration may cause simple chemical changes or structural modificationsto the minerals found in the rock. Some common metamorphic rocks includeslate, schist, gneiss, marble, and quartzite.

Heat begins to metamorphically change at a temperature of about 200 degreesCelsius. Heat can be applied to rocks through two processes: tectonicsubduction and the intrusion of magma. Another name for this process is calledthermal metamorphism.

Pressure alters rocks primarily by reorienting mineral crystals. Pressure usuallyacts in concert with heat. Pressure can be exerted on rocks through two

processes: weight of overlying materials or through a variety of tectonicprocesses. Another name for this process is called dynamic metamorphism.

The alteration of rocks via the chemical action of fluids requires the presence ofwater and carbon dioxide. When water and carbon dioxide are mixed the fluidthat is produced can alter rocks chemically by dissolving ions and causingchemical reactions. Another name for this process is called metosomatic

metamorphism.


15/31

Internally the Earth is made up of several different layers. Above the outer coreis the mantle. A number of different layers have been discovered in the mantle.On top of the mantle is the lithosphere. The surface of this layer is called thecrust.

Through deep drilling and seismic evidence scientists have learned about thestructure of the Earth. Structurally, the Earth is composed of a number ofdifferent layers. The outer most layer is called the crust and it sits on top of themantle. The crust is a cool, rigid, and brittle layer. Two types of crust areclassified: oceanic and continental. At the center of the Earth is the core, whichis approximately 7000 kilometers in diameter. One interesting property of thecrust is that it has the ability to float up and down. This process is calledisostacy.

The core consists of two sub-layers: the solid inner core and the liquid outercore. These two layers are made of the same materials but exhibit slightlydifferent physical properties. The inner core composed of nickel and iron andapproximately 1220 kilometers in diameter. Surrounding the solid inner core isthe outer core which is liquid in nature. This layer has a thickness of about 2250kilometers.

Sitting on top of the core is the mantle. It is also composed of several differentsub-layers. The upper mantle exists from the base of the crust downward to adepth of about 670 kilometers. It is thought to be composed of peridotite.

Below the upper mantle is the lower mantle that extends from 670 to 2900kilometers below the Earth's surface. This layer is hot and plastic. The top 100to 200 kilometers of the upper mantle is called the asthenosphere.

One other layer often described by geologists is the lithosphere. The lithosphereconsists of the crust and upper portion of the asthenosphere. This layer glidesover the rest of the upper mantle.

The theory of plate tectonics is another important unifying idea in geology.Essentially, the theory suggests that the Earth's outer crust is composed of anumber of plates that float on the mantle. This idea has been around for morethan a century. However, scientists before 1960 could not explain themechanism that moved the Earth's plates. This all changed when scientistsdiscovered alternating patterns of rock magnetism in sea floor rocks. The

patterns also correlated to an increasing age of the sea floor as a one movedaway from mid-oceanic ridges. This discovery indicated that new oceanic crustwas created at the mid-oceanic ridges. It was also discovered that oceanic crustwas destroyed at the oceanic trenches. Many of these trenches are found in thePacific Ocean basin bordering continental crust. Scientists have theorized that

convection currents in the Earth's mantle cause the movement of the plates.This lecture concludes by showing how plate tectonics explains earthquakes,


16/31

mountain building, volcanoes, and oceanic trenches.

Scientists have discovered that the Earth's crust consists of two basic types.Continental crust makes up the continents. Continental crust is mainlycomposed of granite, some metamorphic rocks, and sedimentary rocks. The ageof these rocks varies from between 4 billion to 600 million years. Thecontinental crust varies in thickness from between 10 to 70 kilometers. It isthickest under mountain ranges. The continents are actually quite complexgeologic structures. At the center, exists a core of very old igneous andmetamorphic rock that is called the basement of rock. Along and the margin ofthe basement rock are deposits of sedimentary rock that are called platforms.Together the basement rock and the platforms form a craton. Along the edges ofthe cratons are the continental margins and mountain belts. Rock mass is alsoadded to the continents through a variety of intrusive and extrusive igneous

processes.

Oceanic crust is created at the mid-oceanic ridges and destroyed at the oceanictrenches. Oceanic crust is relatively young age and is being created even todayat mid-oceanic rift zones. Maximum age is about 200 million years. On averageof oceanic crust is 7 km thick and mainly composed of the igneous rock basalt.

Mountains can be created by two processes on our planet. Some mountains owetheir origin to vertical movements of rising magma at hot spots and along themargin of subduction zones. These processes produce isolated volcanic

mountains. Many mountains occur as a linear group. The mechanismresponsible for mountain ranges is tectonic plate collision. Colliding plates pushsedimentary materials into an uplifted mass of rock that contains numerousfolds and faults. The Earth has undergone a number of mountain building

periods. For example, the Himalayas began the formation of about 45 millionears ago. This orogeny is still going on today.

Geologists have developed a general model explain how most mountain rangesform. This model suggests that now and building involves three stages. The firststage involves the accumulation of sediments. In the second stage, tectoniccollision causes rock deformation and crustal uplift. In the final stage, isostaticrebound continues to cause uplift despite erosion and causes the development ofnew mountain peaks through block faulting.

The Earth's crust shows evidence that large-scale tensional and compressionalforces have deformed it. This deformation has created a variety of differentfolds and faults. A fold can be defined as a bend in rock that is due tocompressional forces. Folds occur when the stress applied to rock does notexceed its internal strength and plastic deformation occurs. These bends are

most obvious in sedimentary rocks that have beds of strata that were originallylaid down horizontally. The simplest types of folds include monoclines,


17/31

anticlines, and synclines. A recumbent fold is a more complex type of foldwhere one limb of the fold passes the vertical. Faults form when the stressapplied to rock does exceed its internal strength. This condition causes the rockto rupture along a fault plane (area of weakness and fracture). A number of fault

types are defined including normal, reverse, graben, horst, and strike-slip.An earthquake is a sudden vibration of some portion of the lithosphere. It iscaused by the quick release of potential energy through motion. Mostearthquakes are the result of rock moving because of faults, tectonicsubduction, or rifting. The Earth experiences about 150,000 significant tremorsa year. But most of these events are just strong enough to be felt, only a few acause large-scale damage. Earthquakes energy is transmitted to surround rock

by seismic waves. Geologists have discovered that seismic motions actualconsist of three different types waves: P-waves; S-waves, and surface waves. P-

waves (by expansion and contraction of rock as the wave moves away from thefocus) and S-waves (movement of rock perpendicular to the direction ofseismic wave travel) travel through the body of rock. Surface waves produce arolling or swaying motion on the surface of the effected rock.

The strength of earthquakes is usually measured relative to the Richter scale.This scale is logarithmic so each increase in magnitude represents 10 timesmore energy released by the quake.

Earthquakes cause considerable damage to the built environments of humans.

However, the level of damage caused by an earthquake is not always related toits magnitude. The level of damage can be influence by time of occurrence,duration of the event, geology of the effected area, type of buildingconstruction, and population density. Earthquakes can also trigger several otherdamaging phenomena. This includes mass movements, fires, and tsunamis.

Volcanoes are openings on the Earth that release lava, tephra, and volcanic ash.Most of the Earth's volcanoes are located at or near tectonic subduction zonesand the mid-ocean ridges. Some volcanoes are the result of lithospheric hotsspots. Geologists have classified volcanoes into five different types. Thisclassification is based on geomorphic form, magma chemistry, and theexplosiveness of the eruption. The various types include: basalt plateauvolcanoes, shield volcanoes, cinder cones, composite volcanoes, and explosivecalderas.

The Earth's terrestrial surface or continents are made up of three types oflandscapes: cratons; mountain belts, and the continental margins. All of thecontinents have the same construction. In their center is a nucleus very old rock

basement rock that is made up of a mixture of igneous and metamorphic rocks.

The exposed top of this feature is called shield. Large areas of basement rockare covered by relative flat sedimentary strata called the platform. Together the


18/31

platform and basement rock form a craton. Some continental masses haveseveral cratons that are separated from each other by mountain belts. Most ofthe continental mountain belts are found along the edge of the cratons.Mountain belts are formed when tectonic forces squish marine sedimentary

deposits to the edges of the continents. This squishing process causes thesedimentary layers to become folded and faulted and their elevation increases toform mountains. Between the mountain belts and the ocean basins is thecontinental margin. Much of this continental surface is located below sea-level.The continental margin is made up three distinct landform types: the continentalshelf; the continental slope; and the continental rise.

The other major topographic feature of the Earth is the ocean basins. The oceanbasins are made up of relatively young basaltic volcanic rock that was releasedfrom fissures along the mid-ocean ridge. Oceanic crust is returned to the mantle

at the subduction zones found along the continental margins. The ocean basinsare not featureless. Some of features found here include the ocean floor, mid-oceanic ridges, ocean trenches, and numerous volcanoes (many of which formislands).

Geologists and geomorphologists recognize four basic types of landforms:structural landforms; weathering landforms; erosional landforms; anddepositional landforms. Landforms and the geomorphic processes that createthem are uniquely interrelated. Not only do the actions of geomorphological

processes shape the landscape, landscape also determines which processes

occur and at what rates they occur.

Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of rocks and minerals at or near theEarth's surface. The end products of weathering are the breakdown of a singlemass into two or more smaller masses, the removal of atoms or molecules fromthe weathered surface, and the addition of certain atoms and molecules to theweathered surface. The products of weathering are a major source of sedimentsfor the geomorphic processes of erosion and deposition. Rock and mineralweathering can be the result of a number of physical, chemical and biological

processes. Physical weathering involves the disintegration of material bymechanical stress and rupture. Processes that can result in physical weatheringinclude abrasion, crystallization, thermal insolation, wetting and drying and

pressure release. Chemical weathering results from the chemical alteration ofrock and minerals. The most common chemical weathering processes arehydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, hydration, carbonation, and solution. Finally,

biological weathering involves the breakdown or rock and minerals throughchemical and/or physical agents of an organism. A number of processesinvolved in biological weathering are outlined.

The effects of weathering on the nature of the landscape are evident in almostall landforms. On the surface of many landforms we can find layers of soil and


19/31

regolith. Soil and regolith represent the accumulation of small particles of rocksand minerals that were derived from disintegration of much large pieces of

bedrock. The region of the earth with the most active soil formation is thetropics because of high temperatures and an abundance of moisture. In regions

of limestone bedrock, the effects of chemical solution can produce a number ofunique geomorphic features that are the result of the dissolving and depositionof calcium carbonate. High latitude regions of the world also have landformfeatures that are the result of weathering. Freeze-thaw action and frost-shattering along with the action of some other geomorphic processes cause theformation of a number of types of patterned ground.

In the previous lectures we learned that one of the by-products of rockweathering was the development of soils. However, soils are much more thanust an assortment of fine mineral particles. A true soil is composed of 4 things:

mineral particles, air, water, and organic material. A true soil is also the productof the activities of living organisms. There are also a number of features foundin a true soil that distinguish it from simple mineral sediments. True soils areinfluence, modified, and supplemented by living organisms. Living organismsare the source of the organic matter found in soils. They also are responsible fordecomposing organic matter into humus and then finally back into inorganicelements and compounds.

Soils often show the effects of translocation of clay and dissolved substancesbecause of the downward movement of water through the soil profile. The

process of removal of these materials from a horizon within the soil is calledeluviation. The deposition of these material in a deeper layer is calledilluviation. The complete removal of chemical substances from a soil is knownas leaching.

The particles that make up a soil can be three size types: clay; silt; and sand.Some soils are composed of just one particle type. A loam is a soil that hasequal quantity of clay, silt, and sand. Of these particles clay is probably themost important. Because of its large surface area, clay has the ability to hold

onto large quantities of nutrients.A variety of inorganic and organic chemical reactions occur within a soilhorizon. One effect of these reactions is that soils can become acidic or alkalinein pH. Soil pH also influences the fertility of a soil. The most fertile soils have a

pH that is around neutral.

Soil can vary in their color. Color can be used as a indicator of processes actingon a soil or the acumulation of organic matter and other substances.

The last distictive characteristics of a soil is the presence of horizontal layers orhorizons. These layers are the result of a variety of processes. Up to five


20/31

different primary layers can be found: 0 - organic layer; A - topmost mineralthat is rich in organic matter and influence by eluviation; B - Illuviation layer; C- layer not pedogenically developed; and R - unweathered bedrock.

The process of soil development is called pedogenesis. Pedogenesis is the resultof five factors: climate; living organisms; parent material; topography; andtime. Climate influences soils by influencing rates of weathering, organicmatter decomposition, and soil chemical reactions. Living organisms influencesoil development through organic matter accumulation, profile mixing, and

biogeochemical cycling. Parent material influences soil texture, soil chemistry,and nutrient cycling. Pedogenesis is influenced by topographyV,s effect onmicroclimate and drainage. Time influences the temporal consequences of all ofthe factors above.

At the macro-scale we can suggest that there are five main principal pedogenicprocesses. These processes are laterization, podzolization, calcification,salinization, and gleization.

Soil classification systems have been created to provide scientists and resourcemanagers with a system to determine the charateristics of a soil in a particularlocation. Several different classification systems exist. We are interested in twosystems. The United States Soil Classification System recogizes eleven distinctsoil orders: oxisols, aridsols, mollisols, alfisols, ultisols, spodsols, entisols,inceptisols, vertisols, histosols, and andisols. The Canadian System of Soil

Classification was designed to classify soils that develop in Canada's coolclimatic environment. The Canadian System recognizes nine different orders:Brunisols, Chernozems, Cryosols, Gleysols, Luvisols, Organic, Podzols,Regosols, and Solonetzic.

Erosion is the removal and transport of material from the surface of the Earth.The energy from erosion comes from a variety of sources that generally act

because of gravity. Erosion normally involves three processes: detachment,entrainment and transport. Detachment usually begins the process of erosion.Sometimes it can involve the breaking of bonds that hold particles together.Entrainment is the operation of lifting particles by and into the agent of erosion.Because most particles bond with other particles more erosive energy is requireto lift a particle than to transport it. Transportation of particles can occur in fourdifferent ways: suspension, saltation, traction and solution. The exactmechanism, which moves a particle, is dependent on the weight, size, shape,and surface configuration of the grain of sediment and the viscosity of theerosive agent.

Deposition occurs when the erosive agent can no longer move, dissolve or

suspend eroded particles. In most cases, deposition requires a reduction in theflow velocity of the erosive agent. It can also involve evaporation, as in the case


21/31

of dissolved ions in water, or melting, as in the case of glacial erosion andtransport. For most particles deposition is not a onetime event. Most particlesunder go repeated cycles of erosion and deposition before they come to theirfinal rest.

Most of the terrestrial landscape consists of a mosaic of hillslope types. Anumber of geomorphic processes act on these landforms causing them to beworn and eroded over time. The erosion of hillslopes ends, or reachesequilibrium, when the sediments and rocks that make up hills are redistributedmore evenly on the Earth's surface. Geomorphologists tend to view hillslope

processes a series of system inputs and outputs. Inputs to the hillslope systeminclude sediments from weathering, solar radiation, and water from

precipitation. Outputs occur by way of evapotranspiration, percolation,groundwater flow, runoff, stream flow, and the flow of glacial ice. Some of the

above processes also move sediment from hillslopes. The movement ofsediments through the hillslope system without the help of the erosionalmediums of wind, water and ice is know as mass wasting.

Mass wasting consists of a number of processes whose action causes thedownslope movement of sediments. All of these processes are powered bygravity. The development of hillslope instability and mass wasting depends on anumber of factors that influence the stress exerted on sediments. If thesestresses greatly exceed the internal strength holding slope materials in place theslope failure tends to be large in size and rapid. Slow long-term failures develop

when the stresses acting on the hillslope just exceed the internal strength of theslope materials. We can group the various types of mass wasting into threedifferent groups based on the characteristic of the slope materials. In slopesformed from non-cohesive coarse-grained sediments mass wasting occurs byway of: the sliding and rolling of individual particles; through the chaoticavalanche or many particles; or by the process of shallow sliding of a largenumber of particles along a plane of weakness. Slopes formed on cohesivematerials like clay and silt have different set of processes involved in their masswasting. The main processes of mass wasting on cohesive sediments are

rotational slips, mudflows and soil creep. A number of hillslopes are composedof large masses of rock. Rock normally has strong internal granular bondsallowing slopes made of this material to maintain steep grades. Mass wastingon hard rock slopes generally occurs along bedding planes and joints found inthe rock.

Streams modify the landscape through the movement of water and sediment.Streams are very powerful erosive agents especially during periods of flooding.The sediments removed by streams are usually deposited downstream infloodplains, lakes, and ocean basins. Streams and their floodplains vary in their

characteristics along the typical long profile of a stream. The grade of the longprofile represents a balance between erosion and deposition processes. At the


22/31

headwaters streams flow quickly (because of a steep grade) in narrow v-shapedvalleys. Depositional features are rare. Further down the profile a profoundchange occurs in the stream gradient. This change reduces velocity causing thestream to drop its coarser sediments in a floodplain. The channels of these

streams is braided. The gradient of the stream becomes very shallow in the lastpart of the long profile. Now the stream channel takes on meandering andfloodplain deposits are spread over a larrge area.

The amount water flowing through a stream channel is commonly referred to asstream discharge. Discharge quantity is controlled water velocity, width of thechannel, and the depth of the channel. These variable also change with velocityincreases or decreases over time. Flow within the stream channel is allways at amaximum at the center of the stream. The channel bottom and banks reduceflow velocity because of friction. In three-dimensions, the zone of maximum

flow or thalweg moves from side to side and up and down. A closerexamination of flow indicates that three types of flow occur: laminar flow;turbulent flow; and helical flow.

All streams carry sediment. The actual amount is related to the characteristicsof the materials on which the stream flows. Usually, an increase in dischargeresults in an increase in the amount of sediment that is carried.A sedimentrating curve models the relationship between discharge and the amount ofsediment carried. Now within the stream sediment can be carried in three ways:

bed load; suspended load; and dissolved load.

One of the most obvious landforms created by streams are the channels theyflow in. We can classify stream channels into three types. Channels located inthe upper reach of streams are V-shaped, narrow, and deep with little associatedfloodplain. These channels are often cut into bedrock and limited bed sedimentsconsist loose rocks and boulders. Stream channels become shallow, wide, and

braided when the stream gradient changes from being steep to gently sloping.Shallow braided channels are created by the presence of sand and gravel beds ina floodplain. These sediments are deposited because a sudden change in

gradients causes a reduction in flow velocity. Often a drastic change in gradealso causes the deposition of an alluvial fan. Channels become U-shaped andmeandering with continued reduction in stream gradient. Meandering channelsflow over an extensive floodplain of complex deposits.

We can describe a number of features within the stream channel. Streamscarrying coarse loads develop sand and gravel beds when velocity is reducedspatially or temporally. Point bars are common in meandering streamsdevloping on the inside of channel bends. In straight streams, bar deposits formin relation to the thalweg. Some other features associated with the thalweg

include riffles and pools. Some other features common within the streamchannel are dunes and ripples. These features form on the channel bottom when


23/31

the bed is composed of sand and silt.

Floodplains are flat areas adjacent to stream channel that are composedprimarily of deposits put down during episodes of floods. A number of featuresare found on the floodplain. Some of these features are depositional like levees,abandoned point bars, and depressions. Other features like crevasses andOxbow lakes are created by erosion.

When a stream ends its flow into a lake or ocean the sediment it carries will bedeposited to create a delta. Deltas are complex features made up of 3 different

bed types. Deltas also have a variety of different shapes.

Scientists often view streams as being part of a drainage basins. Drainagebasins are arbitrarily defined by topography. Drainage basins are a very useful

geomorphic concept and they are oftem modeled as open systems. Within adrainage basin inputs and factors like topography, soil type, bedrock type,climate, and vegetation influence a number of stream properties. One stream

property that is effected by these factors is the drainage pattern of streams.

Stream morphometry is all about exploring the mathematical relationshipsbetween various stream attributes. Studies have discovered that theserelationships can be view as laws because of their geometric or mathematical

predictability. These measurements can also be used to compare streams andbasins to identify factors that may be causing differences.

Landforms of coastal regions are in most cases shaped by the geomorphicaction of ocean waves. Ocean was can exert a significant amount of energythrough the kinetic energy of wave motion. The energy of ocean waves on theterrestrial landscape of the Earth is concentrated at the shoreline. At theshoreline the energy wave motion causes erosion and the transport of sediment.Erosion along the shoreline is normally greatest at areas where wave refractioncauses the intensification of wave energy. Deposition occurs along the shorelinewhen wave energy is reduced in it intensity and when sediment is transportedinto an area by beach drift and longshore drift

During the last billion years of Earth history there have been several periodswhere global average temperatures were much colder than they are today. Thecolder climates lead to the formation an expansion of extensive continental andalpine glaciers. The last period of glacial advance began about 2 million yearsago. For the past 14,000 years we have been experiencing a warming of theglobal climate which has lead to a retreat of glaciers. Today glaciers coverabout 10 % of the Earth's land surface. During the height of the last glacialadvance about 30% of the Earth's land surface was covered. Geomorphologists

have classified glaciers based on size.


24/31

The growth of glaciers first involves the conversion of snow into glacial ice.This process takes many years and the weight of overlying deposits to covertsnow with a density between 50 to 300 kilograms per cubic meter to ice with adensity of 850 kilograms per cubic meter. For mass of ice to be classified as a

glacier it most have the ablity to move. This occurs when the mass of icebecomes so heavy that it begins to flow by plastic deformation. Masses of ice inmountain valleys begin to flow when accumulations become more than 20meters high. Rates of flows within glaciers is influenced by factors like friction,ice weight, and slope of the valley. Some glaciers are able to move morequickly because they experience basal sliding.

Scientists oftem view glaciers as systems that are influenced by a number ofinputs and outputs. Some of these inputs and outputs influence the glaciersability to surge or retreat. The concept of glacier mass balance suggests that a

glacier is influenced by two processes: accumulation and ablation. Ifaccumulation exceeds ablation the glacier surges forward. If ablation exceedsaccumulation the glacier surges retreats.

Glaciers have played an important role in shaping the landscape of the middleand higher latitudes. The effects of glaciers exist at essentially two scales.Alpine glaciers modify landcapes on a local scale. Many alpine glaciers are stilloperating today in the world's mountainous regions. Continental glaciersinfluenced landscapes on the regional and continental scale. Most of theseglaciers are now gone, but the evidence of their action is still quite obvious.

Glacial landforms that are the result of erosion can once again occur at twoscales. On the local scale, alpine glaciers are responsible for the followingerosional features: U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys, cirques, horns, andaretes. Continential glaciers removed large amount of surface sedments on theareas that they occurred. Sometimes this removal of material left largedepression which are now filled with lakes of all sizes. Both types of glaciersleave the following depositional features: till, moraines, outwash plains, anderratics. The size of these deposits is of course much large for the continental

glaciers. Continental glaciers also produce a number unique deposits like:kame, eskers, and drumlins.

About 25% of the Earth's terrestial surface is influenced by periglacialprocesses. The most important process of periglacial environments is freeze-thaw action. Extreme cold temperatures of periglcial environments often causessurface soils and sediments to freeze. These frozen sediments are called

permafrost. Many types of permafrost have been classified. Permafrost canhave a depth of up to 1500 meters. On its surface, is a layer that is subject toseasonal thawing. This layer is called the active layer. Sheets of permafrost can

have unfrozen layers on top, beneath, or within it. These unfrozen layers are


25/31

called taliks.

Periglacial areas are also known for the presence of ground ice. Ground icecomes in a variety of differnt forms and each type has unique characteristicsand processes of formation. A number of geomorphic processes operate in

periglacial regions. One process that is quite active in periglacial regions isphysical weathering due to the crystallization of water. This process can createvast quantities of shattered angular rock on the periglacial landscape. Massmovement is common in periglacial regions of the world. The main processesthat resulting mass movement include solifluction, gelifluction, frost creep, androckfalls. Finally, erosion occurs in periglacial environment by way of nivation,eolian processes, and fluvial processes.

Three types of landforms are common in periglacial environments. The first is

patterned ground. Pattern gound comes in a variety of shapes including stripes,steps, circles, polygons, and nets. A number of processes are involved in theformation of these similar features. Periglacial environments are alsocharacterized by the presence of ice mounds. Palsas are low elongated moundswith cores of segregated ice and peat. The other type of ice cored hill is called a

pingo. These features are much larger than palsas and are formed by eithercryostatic pressure or artesian groundwater flow.

Places in the arid regions and coastal areas of the world are influence by wind.The speed of these winds is great enough to move soil particles that range in

size from clay to sand. Material is transport by wind by three processes:traction, saltation, and suspension. The power of wind produces a variety ofeolian erosional features. Some of these features include deflation hollows,

pans, and desert pavement. Wind also produces a variety of deposional features.Sand dune are the most noticable feature of deposition. Sand dunes come in avariety of forms that are produced by a range of processes.Another importantdeposit of eolian forces is loess. Many deposits of loess were formed in the pastwhen winds blew over glacial deposits during the pleistocene.

List of Key Terms

Ablation,Abrasion,Abyssal Fan,Accretion,Accumulation,Acidic,AcidicSolution,Active Layer,Aftershock,Aggradation,A Horizon,Alkaline,Allophane,Alluvial Fan,Alluvium,Alpine Glacier,Alpine Permafrost,Amphibole,Andesite,Anticline,Artes,Arkose,Artesian,Asthenosphere,Atmosphere,Atom,

Backwash,Bacteria,Bank-Caving,Bar,Barrier Beach,Basal Sliding,Basalt,Basalt Plateau,Basaltic Magma,Basement Rock,Basic,Batholith,

Bay,Bayhead Beach,Bay-Mouth Bar,Beach,Beach Drift,Bed,Bed Load,B Horizon,Bifurcation Ratio,Biogeochemical Cycling,Biological
http://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#ablationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#ablationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#abrasionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#abrasionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#abrasionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#abyssal_fanhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#abyssal_fanhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#abyssal_fanhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#accretionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#accretionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#accretionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#accumulationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#accumulationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#accumulationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#acidichttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#acidichttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#acidichttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#acidic_solutionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#acidic_solutionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#acidic_solutionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#acidic_solutionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#active_layerhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#active_layerhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#active_layerhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aftershockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aftershockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aftershockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aggradationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aggradationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aggradationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#a_horizonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#a_horizonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#a_horizonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alkalinehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alkalinehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alkalinehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#allophanehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#allophanehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alluvial_fanhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alluvial_fanhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alluvial_fanhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alluviumhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alluviumhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alluviumhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alpine_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alpine_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alpine_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alpine_permafrosthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alpine_permafrosthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alpine_permafrosthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#amphibolehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#amphibolehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#andesitehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#andesitehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#andesitehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#anticlinehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#anticlinehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#anticlinehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aretehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aretehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aretehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#arkosehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#arkosehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#arkosehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#artesian_waterhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#artesian_waterhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#artesian_waterhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#asthenospherehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#asthenospherehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#asthenospherehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atmospherehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atmospherehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atomhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atomhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atomhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#backwashhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#backwashhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bacteriahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bacteriahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bacteriahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bank_cavinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bank_cavinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bank_cavinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#barhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#barhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#barhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#barrier_beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#barrier_beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#barrier_beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basal_slidinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basal_slidinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basal_slidinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basalthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basalthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basalt_plateauhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basalt_plateauhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basalt_plateauhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basaltic_magmahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basaltic_magmahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basaltic_magmahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basement_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basement_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basement_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#batholithhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#batholithhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#batholithhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bayhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bayhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bayhead_beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bayhead_beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bayhead_beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bay_mouth_barhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bay_mouth_barhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bay_mouth_barhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#beach_drifthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#beach_drifthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#beach_drifthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bedhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bedhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bedhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bed_loadhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bed_loadhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bed_loadhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#b_horizonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#b_horizonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bifurcation_ratiohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bifurcation_ratiohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bifurcation_ratiohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biogeochemical_cyclinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biogeochemical_cyclinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biogeochemical_cyclinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biological_weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biological_weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biological_weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biogeochemical_cyclinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bifurcation_ratiohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#b_horizonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bed_loadhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bedhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#beach_drifthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bay_mouth_barhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bayhead_beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bayhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#batholithhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basement_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basaltic_magmahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basalt_plateauhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basalthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#basal_slidinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#barrier_beachhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#barhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bank_cavinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bacteriahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#backwashhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atomhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#atmospherehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#asthenospherehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#artesian_waterhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#arkosehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aretehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#anticlinehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#andesitehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#amphibolehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alpine_permafrosthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alpine_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alluviumhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alluvial_fanhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#allophanehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#alkalinehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#a_horizonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aggradationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#aftershockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#active_layerhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#acidic_solutionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#acidic_solutionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#acidichttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#accumulationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#accretionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#abyssal_fanhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#abrasionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/a.html#ablation


26/31

Weathering,Biosphere,Biotite,Blowout,Body Wave,Bottomset Bed,Boulder,Bowen Reaction Series,Braided Stream,Breaker,Breccia,

Calcification,Calcium Carbonate,Caldera,Caldera Volcano,Caliche,Calving,Canadian Shield,Canyon,Carbonation,Cation,Cave,Cavitation,Cenozoic,Chalk,Chelate,Chelation,Chemical Weathering,C Horizon,Cinder Cone,Cirque,Cirque Glacier,Clastic,Clay,Cleavage,ClosedTalik,Coal,Cold Glacier,Composite Volcano,Compound,Conduction,Conglomerate,Coniferous Vegetation,Contact Metamorphism,Continental Crust,Continental Drift,Continental Glacier,ContinentalMargin,Continental Plate,Continental Rise,Continental Shelf,Continental Shelf Break,Continental Slope,Continuous Permafrost,Convection,Core,Craton,Creep,Cretaceous,Crevasse,CriticalEntrainment Velocity,Crust,CryostaticPressure,Cuspate Foreland,

Debris Flow,Decomposition,Deflation Hollow,Delta,Density,Deposition,Depositional Landform,Depression,Desert Pavement,Detachment,Diorite,Dip,Discontinuous Permafrost,Dissolved Load,Disturbance,Dolomite,Drainage Basin,Drainage Density,Drumlin,Dune,Dune Field,Dyke,Dynamic Metamorphism,

Earthquake,Earthquake Focus,Ecosystem,Eddy,Element,Eluviation,Energy,Entrainment,Eon,Epicenter,Epoch,Equilibrium,Era,Erosion,Erosional Landform,Erratics,Esker,Eukaryotic,Evaporation,

Evapotranspiration,Evaporite,Evolution,Extrusive Igneous Rock,

Fault, Faulting,Feldspar,Felsic Magma,Ferricrete,Fetch,Firn,FirnLimit,Fissure,Flocculation,Flood,Floodplain,Fluid Drag,Fold, Folding,Foliation,Food Chain,Foreset Bed,Forminifera,Freeze-Thaw Action,Friction,Frost Creep,FrostWedging,

Gabbro,Gelifluction,Glacial,Geologic Time Scale,Glacial Drift,GlacialMilk,Glacial Polish,Glacial Retreat,Glacial Surge,Glacier,Glaciofluvial,Gneiss,Graben Fault,Granite,Granitic Magma,Granitic Pluton,Grasslands,Gravel,Gravity,Ground Ice,Groundwater,GroundwaterFlow,Gypsum,

Halite,Hanging Valley,Headland,Headwaters,Helical Flow,HoloceneEpoch,Horn,Horst Fault,Humus,Hydration,Hydrocarbon,Hydrolysis,Hydrosphere,

Ice,Ice Age,Ice Lense,Ice Wedge,Igneous Intrusion,Igneous Rock,Illuviation,Infiltration,Inner Core,Inorganic,Insolation Weathering,

Interglacial,Intrusive Igneous Rock,Ion, Island Arc,Isostacy,Isostatic
http://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biological_weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biological_weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biospherehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biospherehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biospherehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biotitehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biotitehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#biotitehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#blowout_depressionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#blowout_depressionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#blowout_depressionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#body_wavehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#body_wavehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#body_wavehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bottomset_bedhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bottomset_bedhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bottomset_bedhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#boulderhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#boulderhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bowen_reaction_serieshttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bowen_reaction_serieshttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#bowen_reaction_serieshttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#braided_streamhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#braided_streamhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#braided_streamhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#breakerhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#breakerhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#breakerhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#brecciahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#brecciahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/b.html#brecciahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calcificationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calcificationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calcium_carbonatehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calcium_carbonatehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calcium_carbonatehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calderahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calderahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calderahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#caldera_volcanohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#caldera_volcanohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#caldera_volcanohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calichehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calichehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calichehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calvinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#calvinghttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#canadian_shieldhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#canadian_shieldhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#canadian_shieldhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#canyonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#canyonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#canyonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#carbonationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#carbonationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#carbonationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cavehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cavehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cavehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cavitationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cavitationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cavitationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cenozoichttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cenozoichttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chalkhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chalkhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chalkhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chelatehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chelatehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chelatehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chelationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chelationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chelationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chemical_weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chemical_weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#chemical_weatheringhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#c_horizonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#c_horizonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#c_horizonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cinder_cone_volcanohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cinder_cone_volcanohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cirquehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cirquehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cirquehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cirque_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cirque_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cirque_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#clastic_sedimentary_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#clastic_sedimentary_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#clastic_sedimentary_rockhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#clayhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#clayhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#clayhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cleavagehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cleavagehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cleavagehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#closed_talikhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#closed_talikhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#closed_talikhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#closed_talikhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#coalhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#coalhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#coalhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cold_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cold_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cold_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#composite_volcanohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#composite_volcanohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#composite_volcanohttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#compoundhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#compoundhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#compoundhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#conductionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#conductionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#conductionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#conglomeratehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#conglomeratehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#coniferous_vegetationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#coniferous_vegetationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#coniferous_vegetationhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#contact_metamorphismhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#contact_metamorphismhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#contact_metamorphismhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_crusthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_crusthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_drifthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_drifthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_drifthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_glacierhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_marginhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_marginhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_marginhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_marginhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_platehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_platehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_platehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_risehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_risehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_risehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_shelfhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_shelfhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_shelfhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_shelf_breakhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_shelf_breakhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_slopehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_slopehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continental_slopehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continuous_permafrosthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continuous_permafrosthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#continuous_permafrosthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#convectionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#convectionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#corehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#corehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#corehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cratonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cratonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cratonhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#creephttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#creephttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#creephttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cretaceoushttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cretaceoushttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cretaceoushttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#crevassehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#crevassehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#crevassehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#critical_entrainment_velocityhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#critical_entrainment_velocityhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#critical_entrainment_velocityhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#critical_entrainment_velocityhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#crusthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#crusthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#crusthttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cryostatic_pressurehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cryostatic_pressurehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cryostatic_pressurehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cryostatic_pressurehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cryostatic_pressurehttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cuspate_forelandhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cuspate_forelandhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/c.html#cuspate_forelandhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#debris_flowhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#debris_flowhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#decompositionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#decompositionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#decompositionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#deflation_hollowhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#deflation_hollowhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#deflation_hollowhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#deltahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#deltahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#deltahttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#densityhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#densityhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#densityhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#depositionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#depositionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#depositionhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#depositional_landformhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/physgeoglos/d.html#depositional_landformhttp://www.physi

rock .........................assignament

Documents

Transcript of rock .........................assignament