Richard l. Mccreery
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Raman Spectroscopy forChemical Analysis
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CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
A SERIES OF MONOGRAPHS OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY AND
ITS APPLICATIONS
Editor
J. D. WINEFORDNER
VOLUME 157
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
New York / Chichester / Weinheim / Brisbane / Singapore / Toronto
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Raman Spectroscopy forChemical Analysis
RICHARD L. McCREERY
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
New York / Chichester / Weinheim / Brisbane / Singapore / Toronto
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Copyright 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise,
except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without
either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the
appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be
addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York,
NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-mail: [email protected].
For ordering and customer service, call 1-800-CALL-WILEY.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
McCreery, Richard L.
Raman spectroscopy for chemical analysis / by Richard L. McCreery.
p. cm.— (Chemical analysis ; v. 157)
“A Wiley-interscience publication
Includes index
ISBN 0-471-25287-5 (alk. paper)
1. Raman spectroscopy. 2. Chemistry, Analytic. I. Title. II. Series.
QC454.R36.M33 2000
543’.08584 — dc21 99-086491
Printed in the United States of America.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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CONTENTS
PREFACE ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xv
CUMULATIVE LISTING OF VOLUMES IN SERIES xix
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE 1
1.1. History Preceding 1986 1
1.2. Technological Advances 5
1.3. Comparison to FTIR and NIR Absorption 10
1.4. Overview of the Book 12
CHAPTER 2 MAGNITUDE OF RAMAN SCATTERING 15
2.1. Theoretical Overview 15
2.2. Definition of Raman Cross Section 20
2.3. Magnitude of Raman Cross Sections 24
2.4. Raman Scattering Intensity 30
CHAPTER 3 COLLECTION AND DETECTION OF RAMAN
SCATTERING 35
3.1. Signal Magnitude and Collection Function 35
3.2. Instrumental Variables Comprising the Collection Function 37
3.3. Spectrometer Response Function 413.4. Multiplex and Multichannel Spectrometers 43
CHAPTER 4 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE IN RAMAN
SPECTROSCOPY 49
4.1. Definition and Measurement of SNR 49
4.2. Noise Sources 52
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vi CONTENTS
4.3. Signal-to-Noise Ratio Expressions 61
4.4. SNR Figure of Merit 65
4.5. SNR and Detection Limits 67
4.6. SNR for Multiplex Spectrometers 68
CHAPTER 5 INSTRUMENTATION OVERVIEW AND
SPECTROMETER PERFORMANCE 73
5.1. Major Spectrometer Components 74
5.2. Laser Wavelength 755.3. Dispersive vs. Nondispersive Spectrometers 78
5.4. Performance Criteria 79
5.5. Samples for Spectrometer Evaluation 83
CHAPTER 6 SAMPLING MODES IN RAMAN
SPECTROSCOPY 95
6.1. Sampling Overview 95
6.2. Performance Criteria 97
6.3. 180° Backscattering Geometry 99
6.4. 90° Sampling Geometry 114
6.5. Reducing the Laser Power Density at the Sample 1186.6. Path Length Enhancement 120
6.7. Polarization Measurements 122
CHAPTER 7 LASERS FOR RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY 127
7.1. Overview 127
7.2. ArC and KrC Ion Lasers 130
7.3. Helium–Neon Lasers 133
7.4. Neodymium–YAG (Nd:YAG) 134
7.5. Diode Lasers 137
7.6. Laser Wavelength Filtering 142
CHAPTER 8 DISPERSIVE RAMAN SPECTROMETERS 149
8.1. Overview 149
8.2. Dispersive Spectrometer Configurations 155
8.3. Detector Considerations 179
8.4. Single-Channel Detectors 180
8.5. Multichannel Detectors and CCDs 183
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CONTENTS vii
8.6. Recording Methods for Dispersive Spectrometers 203
8.7. Examples of Dispersive Raman Applications 215
CHAPTER 9 NONDISPERSIVE RAMAN
SPECTROMETERS 221
9.1. Tunable Bandpass Filters 221
9.2. Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy 225
9.3. Multichannel Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy 240
9.4. Extensions of FT-Raman for Longer Wavelength Operation 2459.5. FT-Raman Examples 246
CHAPTER 10 CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION 251
10.1. Overview 251
10.2. Frequency and Raman Shift Calibration 251
10.3. Instrument Response Function Calibration 269
10.4. Absolute Response Calibration 288
10.5. Summary of Calibration and Validation Procedures 289
CHAPTER 11 RAMAN MICROSCOPY AND IMAGING 293
11.1. Overview of Raman Microscopy 293
11.2. Single-Point Raman Microspectroscopy 295
11.3. Line Imaging 309
11.4. Two-Dimensional Raman Imaging 316
CHAPTER 12 FIBER-OPTIC RAMAN SAMPLING 333
12.1. Overview of Fiber-Optic Sampling 333
12.2. Fiber-Optic Basics 334
12.3. Fiber–Spectrometer Interface 337
12.4. Fiber-Optic Probes 342
12.5. Comparisons of Fiber-Optic Sampling Probes 35912.6. Waveguide Sampling for Analytical Raman Spectroscopy 364
12.7. Examples of Fiber-Optic Sampling 369
CHAPTER 13 RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY OF SURFACES 373
13.1. Overview 373
13.2. Surface Sensitivity 375
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viii CONTENTS
13.3. Sampling Considerations 379
13.4. Surface Raman Spectroscopy without Field Enhancement 382
13.5. Electromagnetic Field Enhancement 390
13.6. Examples of Analytical Applications 409
INDEX 415
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PREFACE
This book was inspired by the transition of Raman spectroscopy from a
technically demanding research technique to a useful and practical methodof chemical analysis. There are many fine texts and thousands of scientific
articles on research in Raman spectroscopy, primarily oriented toward under-
standing the Raman effect itself and using Raman scattering to probe molecular
structure and dynamics. These research efforts have reached a high level of
sophistication and have yielded valuable chemical and physical insights, but
they rarely resulted in practical techniques for chemical analysis until approx-
imately 1986. The impediments to broad applications of Raman spectroscopy
to chemical analysis were mainly technological rather than fundamental. The
instrumentation required to observe the weak Raman effect was too cumber-
some and expensive for routine analysis, and interference from fluorescence
precluded application to a broad range of industrial samples. As a result, the
advantages of Raman spectroscopy over more common infrared absorptiontechniques were not exploited in analytical problems.
Major technological and scientific innovation in the past 10 to 15 years
has significantly broadened the applicability of Raman spectroscopy, partic-
ularly in chemical analysis. Fourier transform (FT)–Raman, charge-coupled
device (CCD) detectors, compact spectrographs, effective laser rejection filters,
near-infrared lasers, and small computers have contributed to a revolution in
Raman instrumentation and made routine analytical applications possible. An
increase in instrumental sensitivity by factors as large as 105, plus decreases
in both interferences and noise resulted from this “revolution.” The number
of vendors of Raman spectrometers increased from 3 to 12 over a 10-year
period, and integrated commercial spectrometers led to turnkey operation and
robust reliability.
This book is intended to introduce a student or practitioner of analytical
chemistry to the technical elements and practical benefits of the “Raman revo-
lution.” It is not intended to describe “high-end” Raman techniques such as
nonlinear or time-resolved Raman spectroscopy, nor does it attempt to describe
the many theoretical treatments of Raman scattering. The book emphasizes the
concepts and technology important to applications of Raman spectroscopy in
chemical analysis, with attention to calibration, performance, and sampling
modes. While many recent innovations in analytical Raman spectroscopy are
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x PREFACE
technically sophisticated, their objectives are reliability, accuracy, reduction of
interferences, and ease of operation rather than ultimate spectral resolution or
sensitivity. The emphasis of both the theory and instrumentation discussions
in this book is the practical analysis that has resulted from recent technolog-
ical developments. Techniques such as nonlinear Raman (CARS, hyperRaman,
stimulated Raman, etc.), picosecond transient Raman, single-crystal Raman,
gas-phase Raman,and so forth are excluded not because they are unimportant,
but because they currently have limited use in routine chemical analysis.
The audience for this book should include graduate students, practicing
chemists, and Raman spectroscopists who seek information on recent instru-mentation developments. It is not a comprehensive review but more of a
textbook intended as an introduction to modern Raman spectroscopy. In most
cases, the techniques discussed are available in commercially available spec-
trometers, and the book should be useful to chemists who are implementing
Raman spectroscopy in industrial or academic laboratories. Although a large
number of useful Raman applications involve custom-built instrumentation,
the book emphasizes configurations and components used by current vendors
of integrated Raman spectrometers.
Since commercial spectrometers can be constructed in a variety of config-
urations, instruments from different manufacturers often differ significantly
in applicability and performance. Specific manufacturers are mentioned in
the text to identify a particular approach or optical configuration. Available
commercial units differ widely in performance and are often optimized forparticular sample types. Mention of a manufacturer in the text does not imply
an endorsement but may be useful to the reader in order to appreciate differ-
ences in design objectives. There is no “best” manufacturer or configuration,
but certain designs are more applicable to certain situations, depending on
the sample and analytical objective. It will become obvious that the sample
dictates the choice of spectrometer type, and no single Raman system covers
all possible applications.
The book is divided into roughly three general areas on theory and instru-
mentation. Chapters 1 to 4 cover the origin and magnitude of Raman scattering
and the major factors determining the signal/noise ratio. Chapters 5 to 10
discuss instrumental components and configurations and methods of calibra-
tion. Chapters 11 to 13 address the widely studied specialty areas of Ramanmicroscopy, fiber-optic sampling, and Raman spectroscopy of surfaces. In
most chapters , many examples of applications to Raman spectroscopy to
analytical problems are provided.
Notes on Conventions
The definitions of several symbols and certain conventions are not used
uniformly in the Raman spectroscopy literature, and some choices were
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PREFACE xi
required to retain internal consistency in this book. Raman shifts are plotted
from left (low shift) to right (high shift), in opposition to the usual practice for
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) frequencies. Furthermore, the Raman shift
axis shows only Stokes-shifted bands unless noted otherwise. The differential
Raman cross section is assigned the symbol ˇ instead of d/d often used
in the literature. As explained in Chapter 2, ˇ has specific significance and is
a more convenient symbol for equations. Modern CCD Raman spectrometers
count photons rather than measure power, and it is more convenient to define
power and intensity as photons per second and power density as photons per
square centimeter per second (Chapter 2). The sampled volume discussed inseveral texts is explicitly defined herein as the detected area, A D, times the
sampling depth, dz. There are several additional and more minor differences
in definitions between this book and certain treatments from the literature, and
a complete list of symbols is provided to reduce possible confusion.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I thank my wife and children for their support and under-
standing during the long process of writing this book. Much of the technicalinformation was provided by graduate students in my research group, both
past and present. I appreciate their willingness to acquire data not directly
related to their research projects. Many technical discussions with practicing
spectroscopists were very valuable to the effort, particularly those with Bruce
Chase, Chris Frank, Rick Van Duyne, Jack Spencer, Fritz Allen and Jun Zhao.
Valuable collaborations with the technical staff at Chromex provided many of
the illustrative examples in the book, as well as some innovations in instrument
design. Finally, I appreciate the efforts of Margaret Dodd and Anna McCreery
with preparation of the manuscript and figures.
xiii
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
˛ polarizability
A D sample area monitored by spectrometer, cm2
˛F scattering coefficient of fibers, dB/m
L scattering and absorption coefficient at laser wavelength, cm1
R scattering and absorption coefficient at laser wavelength, cm1
˛o polarizability in the absence of vibrations
ˇ differential Raman cross section (d/d), cm2 molecule1 sr1
B observed intensity due to background, e
P B rate of background accumulation, e sec1
ˇ° frequency independent differential Raman cross section, cm6 sr1
molecule1
b sample thickness, cm
ˇS differential Raman cross section for a surface species, cm2
molecule1 sr1
c speed of light, cm sec1
C collection function for Raman spectrometer, usually cm2 sr e
photon1 cm1
D number density, molecules cm3
d distance between mirrors, cm
DS surface number density, molecule cm2
d increment of observation angle
dz path length increment, cm
υ CCD gain, e /ADU (analog-to-digital converter unit)
υa spectrometer depth of field, cm
υ spectral resolution, cm1
molar absorptivity, M1, cm1
blur diameter, cm
E electric field, V cm1
EG grating efficiency into first order
f/# aperture ratio (f number)
f1 focal length
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xvi LIST OF SYMBOLS
FS figure of merit for Raman signal
FSNR figure of merit based on signal-to-noise ratio, using power
density, cm3 sr e (photon)1
F0
SNR cm3 sr e (photon)1
CCD gain, e /ADU (analog-to-digital converter unit)
mirror velocity in an interferometer, cm sec1
h Planck’s constant
I0 incident laser intensity, W
I R Raman intensity, W
k Boltzman constant
K geometric factor depending on observation geometry, units vary
with the situation
wavelength, cm
L specific intensity, photons sec1 cm2 sr1
La specific intensity of analyte, photons sec1 cm2 sr1
0 laser wavelength, nm or cm
M molar concentration, mol/liter
m diffraction order
frequency of light, Hz
NC number of channels along spectral axis of a multichannel detectorn refractive index
0 laser frequency
N R number of resolution elements in a given spectrum
frequency expressed in wavenumbers
j vibrational frequency of mode j, expressed in wavenumbers; also
Raman shift, in cm1
p frequency of an electronic transition, cm1
P polarization, V cm1
P D incident laser power density, photons sec1 cm2
P0 incident laser intensity, in photons sec1
P R scattered Raman intensity, photons sec1
d rate of dark signal accumulation, e sec1
S average flux of e generated by photons reaching the detector,
photons sec1
Q quantum efficiency of detector, e photon1
Qj jth normal vibrational mode
Q°j amplitude of Qj
RF reflectivity of focusing mirror
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LIST OF SYMBOLS xvii
j integrated Raman cross section, cm2 molecule1
S Raman signal, in electrons, e
0j integrated Raman cross section, with intensity stated as photons
sec1
Sa Raman signal, due to analyte band of interest, e
S mean value of Raman signal, e
PS signal rate, dS/dt, e sec1
PSa rate of analyte signal accumulation, e sec1
Si signal in ith channel (e)
S0
i signal in ith channel, in analog-to-digital units (or counts)Sbiasi bias electrons in ith channel
Sdark i dark electrons in ith channel
B standard deviation of the background (or blank)
bk standard deviation of a blank “sample”
d standard deviation of dark signal, sometimes called dark noise
F flicker noise
r readout noise
S standard deviation of analyte Raman signal
y standard deviation of peak height
°j frequency-independent cross section of mode j, cm6 molecule1
SNR signal noise ratio
sr steradian RC reflectivity of collimating mirror
T transmission of optics or spectrograph, unitless
T absolute temperature, K
tg global image acquisition time
t M total spectrum acquisition time, sec.
TS spectrometer transmission
ts single-channel measurement time, or time of observation for a
single Raman shift
Tl line focus image acquisition time
TP transmission of polarization scrambler
Tp point-to-point image acquisition time
v vibrational quantum number
W D total width of detector
w0 radius of beam waist, cm
WP width of pixel or exit slit
z depth into sample
solid angle of collection
D solid angle observed by the spectrometer at the sample
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CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
A SERIES OF MONOGRAPHS ON
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY AND ITS APPLICATIONS
J. D. Winefordner, Series Editor
Vol. 1. The Analytical Chemistry of Industrial Poisons, Hazards, and Solvents.
Second Edition. By the late Morris B. Jacobs
Vol. 2. Chromatographic Adsorption Analysis. By Harold H. Strain (out of print )
Vol. 3. Photometric Determination of Traces of Metals. Fourth Edition
Part I: General Aspects. By E. B. Sandell and Hiroshi Onishi
Part IIA: Individuals Metals, Aluminum to Lithum. By Hiroshi Onishi
Part IIB: Individuals Metals, Magnesium to Zirconium. By Hiroshi Onishi
Vol. 4. Organic Reagents Used in Gravimetric and Volumetric Analysis. By John
F. Flagg (out of print )Vol. 5. Aquametry: A Treatise on Methods for the Determination of Water . Second
Edition (in three parts). By John Mitchell, Jr. and Donald Milton Smith
Vol. 6. Analysis of Insectidies and Acaricides. By Francis A. Gunther and Roger
C. Blinn (out of print )
Vol. 7. Chemical Analysis of Industrial Solvents. By the late Morris B. Jacobs and
Leopard Scheltan
Vol. 8. Colorimetric Determination of Nonmetals. Second Edition. Edited by the late
David F. Boltz and James A. Howell
Vol. 9. Analytical Chemistry of Titanium Metals and Compounds. By Maurice Codell
Vol. 10. The Chemical Analysis of Air Pollutants. By the late Morris B. Jacobs
Vol. 11. X-Ray Spectrochemical Analysis. Second Edition. By L. S. Birks
Vol. 12. Systematic Analysis Surface-Active Agents. Second Edition. By Milton J. Rosen
and Henry A. GoldsmithVol. 13. Alternating Current Polarography and Tensammetry. By B. Breyer and
H. H. Bauer
Vol. 14. Flame Photometry. By R. Hermann and J. Alkemade
Vol. 15. The Titration of Organic Compounds (in two parts). By M. R. F. Ashworth
Vol. 16. Complexation in Analytical Chemistry: A guide for the Critical Selection of
Analytical Methods Based on Complexation Reactions. By the late Anders
Ringbom
Vol. 17. Electron Probe Microanalysis. Second Edition. By L. S. Birks
xix
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xx CUMULATIVE LISTING OF VOLUMES IN SERIES
Vol. 18. Organic Complexing Reagents: Structure, Behaviour, and Application to
Inorganic Analysis. By D. D. Perrin
Vol. 19. Thermal Analysis. Third Edition. By Wesley Wm. Wendlandt
Vol. 20. Amperometric Titrations. By John T. Stock
Vol. 21. Reflectance Spectroscopy. By Wesley Wm. Wendlandt and Harry G. Hecht
Vol 22. The Analytical Toxicology of Industrial Inorganic Poisons. By the late Morris
B. Jacobs
Vol. 23. The Formation and Properties of Precipitates. By Alan G. Walton
Vol. 24. Kinetics in Analytical Chemistry. By Harry B. Mark, Jr. And Garry A. Rechintz
Vol. 25. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. Second Edition. By Morris Slavin
Vol. 26. Characterization of Organometallic Compounds (in two parts). Edited by
Minoru Tsutsui
Vol. 27. Rock and Mineral Analysis. Second Edition. By Wesely M. Johnson and John
A. Maxwell
Vol. 28. The Analytical Chemistry of Nitrogen and Its Compounds (in two parts). Edited
by C. A. Streuli and Philip R. Averell
Vol. 29. The Analytical Chemistry of Sulphur and Its Compounds (in three parts). By
J. H. Karchmer
Vol. 30. Ultramicro Elemental Analysis. By Gunther Tolg
Vol. 31. Photometric Organic Analysis (in two parts). By Eugene Sawicki
Vol. 32. Determination of Organic Compounds: Methods and Procedures. By Frederick
T. Weiss
Vol. 33. Masking and Demasking of Chemical Reactions. By D. D. Perrin
Vol. 34. Neutron Activation Analysis. By D. De Soete, R. Gijbels, and J. Hoste
Vol. 35. Laser Raman Spectroscopy. By Marvin C. Tobin
Vol. 36. Emission Spectrochemical Analysis. By Morris Slavin
Vol. 37. Analytical Chemistry of Phosphorous Compounds. Edited by M. Halmann
Vol. 38. Luminescence Spectromoetry in Analytical Chemistry. By J. D. Winefordner,
S. G. Schulman and T. C. O’Haver
Vol. 39. Activation Analysis with Neutron Generators. By Sam S. Nargolwalla and
Edwin P. Przybylowicz
Vol. 40. Determination of Gaseous Elements in Metals. Edited by Lynn L. Lewis, Laben
M. Melnick, and Ben D. Holt
Vol. 41. Analysis of Silicones. Edited by A. Lee Smith
Vol. 42. Foundations of Ultracentrifugal Analysis. By H. Fujita
Vol. 43. Chemical Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy. By Peter R. Griffiths
Vol. 44. Microscale Manipulations in Chemistry. By T. S. Ma and V. Horak
Vol. 45. Thermometric Titrations. By J. Barthel
Vol. 46. Trace Analysis: Spectroscopic Methods for Elements. Edited by J. D. Wine-
fordner
Vol. 47. Contamination Control in Trace Element Analysis. By Morris Zief and James
W. Mitchell
Vol. 48. Analytical Applications of NMR. By D. E. Leyden and R. H. Cox
Vol. 49. Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen. By Michael L. Hitchman
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CUMULATIVE LISTING OF VOLUMES IN SERIES xxi
Vol. 50. Analytical Laser Spectroscopy. Edited by Nicolo Omenetto
Vol. 51. Trace Element Analysis of Geological Materials. By Roger D. Reeves and
Robert R. Brooks
Vol. 52. Chemical Analysis by Microwave Rotational Spectroscopy. By Ravi Varma and
Lawrence W. Hrubesh
Vol. 53. Information Theory As Applied to Chemical Analysis . By Karl Eckschlager
and Vladimir Stepanek
Vol. 54. Applied Infrared Spectroscopy: Fundamentals, Techniques, and Analytical
Problem-solving. By A. Lee Smith
Vol. 55. Archaeological Chemistry. By Zvi Goffer
Vol. 56. Immobilized Enzymes in Analytical and Clinical Chemistry. By P. W. Carr
and L. D. Bowers
Vol. 57. Photoacoustics and Photoacoustic Spectroscopy. By Allan Rosenewaig
Vol. 58. Analysis of Pesticide Residues. Edited by H. Anson Moye
Vol. 59. Affinity Chromatography. By William H. Scouten
Vol. 60. Quality Control in Analytical Chemistry. Second Edition. By G. Kateman and
L. Buydens
Vol. 61. Direct Characterization of Fineparticles. By Brain H. Kaye
Vol. 62. Flow Injection Analysis. By J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen
Vol. 63. Applied Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis. Edited by Hassan
Windawi and Floyd Ho
Vol. 64. Analytical Aspects of Enviromental Chemistry. Edited by David F. S. Natusch
and Philip K. Hopke
Vol. 65. The Interpretation of Analytical Chemical Data by the Use of Cluster
Analysis. By D. Luc Massart and Leonard Kaufman
Vol. 66. Solid Phase Biochemistry: Analytical and Synthetic Aspects. Edited by William
H. Scouten
Vol. 67. An Introduction to Photoelectron Spectroscopy. By Pradip k. Ghosh
Vol. 68. Room Temperature Phosphorimetry for Chemical Analysis. By Tuan Vo-Dinh
Vol. 69. Potentiometry and Potentiometric Titrations. By E. P. Serjeant
Vol. 70. Design and Application of Process Analyzer Systems. By Paul E. Mix
Vol. 71. Analysis of Organic and Biological Surfaces. Edited by Patrick Echlin
Vol. 72. Small Bore Liquid Chromatography Columns: Their Properties and Uses.
Edited by Raymond P. W. Scott
Vol. 73. Modern Methods of Particle Size Analysis. Edited by Howard G. Barth
Vol. 74. Auger Electron Spectroscopy. By Michael Thompson, M. D. Baker, AlecChristie, and J. F. Tyson
Vol. 75. Spot Test Analysis: Clinical, Enviromental, Forensic and Geochemical
Applications. By Ervin Jungreis
Vol. 76. Receptor Modeling in Enviromental Chemistry. By Philip K. Hopke
Vol. 77. Molecular Luminescence Spectroscopy: Methods and Applications (in three
parts). Edited by Stephen G. Schulman
Vol. 78. Inorganic Chromatographic Analysis. Edited by John C. MacDonald
Vol. 79. Analytical Solution Calorimetry. Edited by J. K. Grime
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xxii CUMULATIVE LISTING OF VOLUMES IN SERIES
Vol. 80. Selected Methods of Trace Metal Analysis: Biological and Enviromental
Samples. By Jon C. VanLoon
Vol. 81. The Analysis of Extraterrestrial Materials. BY Isidore Adler
Vol. 82. Chemometrics. By Muhammad A. Sharaf, Deborah L. Illman, and Bruce
R. Kowalski
Vol. 83. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry. By Peter R. Griffiths and James
A. de Haseth
Vol. 84. Trace Analysis: Spectroscopic Methods for Molecules. Edited by Gary Christian
and James B. Callis
Vol. 85. Ultratrace Analysis of Pharmaceuticals and Other Compounds of Interest.
Edited by S. AhujaVol. 86. Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry: Basic Concepts, Instrumental Aspects,
Applications and Trends. By A. Benninghoven, F. G. Rudenauer, and H. W.
Werner
Vol. 87. Analytical applications of Lasers. Edited by Edward H. Piepmeier
Vol. 88. Applied Geochemical Analysis. By C. O. Ingamells and F. F. Pitard
Vol. 89. Detectors for Liquid Chromatography. Edited by Edward S. Yeung
Vol. 90. Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectroscopy: Part 1: Methodology,
Instrumentation, and Performance; Part II: Applications and Fundamentals.
Edited by J. M. Boumans
Vol. 91. Applications of New Mass Spectrometry Techniques in Pesticide Chemistry.
Edited by Joseph Rosen
Vol. 92. X-Ray Absorption: Principles, Applications, Techinques, of EXAFS, SEXAFS,
and XANES. Edited by D. C. KonnigsbergerVol. 93. Quantitative Structure-Chromatographic Retention Relationships. By Roman
Kaliszan
Vol. 94. Laser Remote Chemical Analysis. Edited by Raymond M. Measures
Vol. 95. Inorganic Mass Spectrometry. Edited by F. Adams, R. Gijbels, and R. Van
Grieken
Vol. 96. Kinetic Aspects of Analytical Chemistry. By Horacio A. Mottola
Vol. 97. Two-Dimensional NMR Spectroscopy. By Jan Schraml and Jon M. Bellama
Vol. 98. High Performance Liquid Chromatography. Edited by Phyllis R. Brown and
Richard A. Hartwick
Vol. 99. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry. By Ron Jenkins
Vol. 100. Analytical Aspects of Drug Testing. Edited by Dale G. Deustch
Vol. 101. Chemical Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds. Edited by Tuan Vo-
DinhVol. 102. Quadrupole Storage Mass Spectrometry. By Raymond E. March and Richard
J. Hughes
Vol. 103. Determination of Molecular Weight. Edited by Anthony R. Cooper
Vol. 104. Selectivity and Detectability Optimization in HPLC. By Satinder Ahuja
Vol. 105. Laser Microanalysis. By Lieselotte Moenke-Blankenburg
Vol. 106. Clinical Chemistry. Edited by E. Howard Taylor
Vol. 107. Multielement Detection Systems for Spectrochemical Analysis. By Kenneth
W. Busch and Marianna A. Busch
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Vol. 108. Planar chromatography in the Life Sciences. Edited by Joseph C. Touchstone
Vol. 109. Fluorometric Analysis in Biomedical Chemistry: Trends and Techinques
Including HPLC Applications. By Norio Ichinose, George Schwedt, Frank
Michael Schnepel, and Kyoko Adochi
Vol. 110. An Introduction to Laboratory Automation. By Victor Cerda and Guillermo
Ramis
Vol. 111. Gas Chromatography: Biochemical, Biomedical, and Clinical Applications.
Edited by Ray E. Clement
Vol. 112. The Analysis Chemistry of Silicones. Edited by A. Lee Smith
Vol. 113. Modern Methods of Polymer Characterization. Edited by Howard G. Barth and
Jimmy W. MaysVol. 114. Analytical Raman Spectroscopy. Edited by Jeanette Graselli and Bernard
J. Bulkin
Vol. 115. Trace and Ultratrace Analysis by HPLC. By Satinder Ahuja
Vol. 116. Radiochemistry and Nuclear Methods of Analysis. By William D. Ehmann and
Diane E. Vance
Vol. 117. Applications of Fluorescence in Immunoassays. By Ilkka Hemmila
Vol. 118. Principles and Practice of Spectroscopic Calibration. By Howard Mark
Vol. 119. Activation Spectrometry in Chemical Analysis. By S. J. Parry
Vol. 120. Remote Sensing by Fourier Transform Spectrometry. By Reinhard Beer
Vol. 121. Detectors for Capillary Chromatography. Edited by Herbert H. Hill and Dennis
McMinn
Vol. 122. Photochemical Vapor Deposition. By J. G. Eden
Vol. 123. Statistical Methods in Analytical Chemistry. By Peter C. Meier and RichardZund
Vol. 124. Laser Ionization Mass Analysis. Edited by Akos Vertes, Renaat Gijbels, and
Fred Adams
Vol. 125. Physics and Chemistry of Solid State Sensor Devices. By Andreas Mandelis
and Constantinos Christofides
Vol. 126. Electroanalytical Stripping Methods. By Khjena Z. Brainina and E. Neyman
Vol. 127. Air Monitoring by Spectroscopic Techniques. Edited by Markus W. Sigrist
Vol. 128. Information Theory in Analytical Chemistry. By Karel Eckschlager and Klaus
Danzer
Vol. 129. Flame Chemiluminescence Analysis by Molecular Emission Cavity Detection.
Edited by David Stiles, Anthony Calokerinos, and Alan Townshend
Vol. 130. Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. By Jiri Dedina and
Dimiter L. TsalevVol. 131. Selective Detectors: Enviromental, Industrial, and Biomedical Applications.
Edited by Robert E. Sievers
Vol. 132. High Speed Countercurrent Chromatography. Edited by Yoichiro Ito and
Walter D. Conway
Vol. 133. Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission Spectrometry. By Sven A. E. Johansson, John
L. Campbell, and Klas G. Malmqvist
Vol. 134. Photothermal Spectroscopy Methods for Chemical Analysis. By Stephen
E. Bialkowski
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Vol. 135. Element Speciation in Bioinorganic Chemistry. Edited by Sergio Caroli
Vol. 136. Laser-Enhanced Ionization Spectrometry. Edited by John C. Travis and Gregory
C. Turk
Vol. 137. Fluorescence Imaging Spectroscopy and Microscopy. Edited by Xue Feng Wang
and Brain Herman
Vol. 138. Introduction to X-Ray Powder Diffractometry. By Ron Jenkins and Robert
L. Snyder
Vol. 139. Modern Techinques in Electroanalysis. Edited by Petr Vanysek
Vol. 140. Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis. By Reinhold Klockenkamper
Vol. 141. Spot Test Analysis: Clinical, Enviromental, Forensic, and Geochemical
Applications, Second Edition. By Ervin JungreisVol. 142. The Impact of Stereochemistry on Drug Development and Use. Edited by
Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein and Irving W. Wainer
Vol. 143. Macrocyclic compounds in Analytical Chemistry. Edited by Yury A. Zolotov
Vol. 144. Surface-Launched Acoustic Wave Sensors: Chemical Sensing and Thin-Film
Characterization. By Michael Thompson and David Stone
Vol. 145. Modern Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry. Edited by T. J. Platzner
Vol. 146. High Performance Capillary Electrophoresis: Theory, Techinques, and
Applications. Edited by Morteza G. Khaledi
Vol. 147. Solid Phase Extraction: Principles and Practice. By E. M. Thurman
Vol. 148. Commercial Biosensors: Applications to Clinical, Bioprocess and Enviro-
mental Samples. Edited by Graham Ramsay
Vol. 149. A Practical Guide to Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. By
David J. Butcher and Joesph SneddonVol. 150. Principles of chemical and Biological Sensors. Edited by Dermot Diamond
Vol. 151. Pesticide Residue in Foods: Methods, Technologies, and Regulations. By
W. George Fong, H. Anson Moye, James N. Seiber, and John P. Toth
Vol. 152. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry. Second Edition. By Ron Jenkins
Vol. 153. Statistical Methods in Analytical Chemistry. Second Edition. By Peter C. Meier
and Richard E. Zund
Vol. 154. Modern Analytical Methodologies in Fat and Water Soluble Vitamins . Edited
by Won O. Song, Gary R. Beecher and Ronald R. Eitenmiller
Vol. 155. Modern Analytical Methods in Arts and Archaeology. Edited by Enrico
Ciliberto and Guiseppe Spoto
Vol. 156. Shpol’skii Spectroscopy and Others Site Selection Methods: Applications in
Enviromental Analysis, Bioanalytical Chemistry and Chemical Physics . Edited
by C. Goojier, F. Ariese and J. W. Hofstraat
Vol. 157. Raman Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis. By Richard L. McCreery