Rhetorical Handbook.docx

8/10/2019 Rhetorical Handbook.docx

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Style: The manner of expression of a particular writer, produced by choice of words, grammaticalstructures, use of literary devices, and all the possible parts of language use. Some general styles mightinclude scientific, ornate, plain, and emotive. Most writers have their own particular styles.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Diction: An authors choice of words. Since words have specific meanings, and since ones choice of words can affectfeelings, a writers choice of words can have great impact in a literary work.

Term and Pronunciation Definition Example Student NotesConnotation vs. denotation[kon-uh-tey-shuhn][dee-noh-tey-shuhn]

An idea or meaning suggested byor associated with a word or thingvs. Literal definition of a word.

A good example is the word "gold." The denotationof gold is a malleable, ductile, yellow element. Theconnotations, however, are the ideas associatedwith gold, such as greed, luxury, or avarice. Writersuse connotation to make their writing more vividand interesting to read.

Pedantic vs. simple[puh-dan-tik][sim-puh l]

Characterized by a narrow, oftenostentatious concern for booklearning and formal rules vs. pure,easy, plain, basic.

Pedantic: Though I employ so much of my time inwriting to you, I confess I have often my doubtswhether it is to any purpose. I know howunwelcome advice generally is; I know that thosewho want it most, like it and follow it least; and Iknow, too, that the advice of parents, moreparticularly, is ascribed to the moroseness, theimperiousness, or the garrulity of old age.

Lord Chesterfield, Letter toHis Son

Simple:In a flash Buck knew it. The time hadcome. It was to the death. As they circled about,snarling, ears laid back, keenly watchful for theadvantage, the scenes came to Buck with a

sense of familiarity. Jack London, Call of the WildMonosyllabic vs. polysyllabic[mon-uh-si-lab-ik][pol-ee-si-lab-ik]

One syllable vs. more than onesyllable.

Monosyllabic: Cats eat meat.Polysyllabic: Felines are carnivorous mammals.

Euphonious vs. cacophonic[yoo-foh-nee-uhs][kuh-kof-uh-nic]

Pleasing or agreeable to the ear vs.discordant, unpleasant sounding,jarring.

As when upon a tranced summer night/Thosegreen-robed senators of mighty woods,/Tall oaks,branch-charmed by the earnest stars,/Dream, andso dream all night without a stir.

A euphonious excerpt from KeatsHyperion

Dry clashed his harness in the icy caves/Andbarren chasms, and all to left and right/The bareblack cliff clanged round him, as he based/His feeton juts of slippery crag that rang. A cacophonic

Rhetorical Handbook


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excerpt from Tennysons Morte DArthurLiteral vs.figurative[lit-er-uh l][fig-yer-uh-tiv]

What you see vs. what you getfrom language, tone, symbol, etc.

Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening byRobert Frost is a good example of a piece that canbe interpreted literally or figuratively.

Active vs. passive[ak-tiv][pas-iv]

Subject of the sentence isperforming or causing the actionrather than a state of being vs.subject is the object of the action orthe effect of the verb.

Example (passive): The character is described asfoolish.

Revision (active): Dorine describes Tartuffe asfoolish.

Overstated vs. understated[oh-ver-steyt][uhn-der-steyt]

Exaggerated vs. expressed withrestraint, lack of emphasis.

Understatement: In Shakespeare's Macbeth,Macbeth, having murdered his friend Banquo,understates the number of people who have beenmurdered since the beginning of time by saying,"Blood hath been shed ere now."

Colloquial vs. formal***[kuh-loh-kwee-uh l][fawr-muh l]

Informal, conversational vs. formal,proper language.

Books are a load of crap.

Non-Standard Slang/Jargon[Slang][jahr-guhn]

Not adhering to the standard;usually associated with a languagevariety used by uneducatedspeakers or socially disfavoredgroups.

Legal jargon: affiant, indigent, ex parte

Internet slang: BTW, LOL, k

Sound Devices: Creating sound through the devices and language used in a piece.Term and Pronunciation Definition Example Student NotesAlliteration[uh-lit-uh-rey-shuhn]

The recurrence of initial consonantsounds. The repetition is usuallylimited to two words.

"I saw it there, but I saw nothing in it,except the rising of the boilingbubbles"

The Inferno, DanteOnomatopoeia

[ on-uh-mat-uh-pee-uh]

The use of words which in their

pronunciation suggest their meaning.Hiss, for example, when spoken, isintended to resemble the sound ofsteam or of a snake.

When the train starts, and the

passengers are settled/To fruit,periodicals and business letter/(Andthose who saw them off have left theplatform)/Their faces relax from griefinto relief,/To the sleepy rhythm of ahundred hours. Eliot,Dry Salvages

Syntax: The way in which linguistic elements (words and phrases) are arranged to form grammatical structure.Term Type and

PronunciationDefinition Example Student Notes

Order Basic[bey-sik]

Subject + verb + object Mary likes Dave.


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Interrupted[in-tuh-ruhpt]

A sentence that is interrupted by aparenthetical aside.

To embrace your hero in his destruction, howeverto let your heros life occur within you wheneverything is trying to diminish him, to imagineyourself into his bad luck, to implicate yourself not in

his mindless ascendancy, when he is the fixed pointof your adulation, but in the bewilderment of his tragicfallwell, thats worth thinking about.

Philip Roth,American PastoralInverted[in-vurt]

Begins with a part of speech otherthan the subject. These invertedsentence patterns are usedsometimes to delay revealing whatthe sentence is about andsometimes to create tension orsuspense. Still other times, thesepatterns can be used to connectideas between sentences moreclearly.

It was always pleasant crossing bridges in Paris.Ernest Hemingway

Listing A sentence with multiple phrasesthat create a list.

Never in his entire life, not as a son, a husband, afather, even as an employer, had he given way toanything so alien to the emotional rules by which hewas governed, and later he wondered if this strangeparental misstep was a not the lapse fromresponsibility for which he paid for the rest of his life.

Philip Roth,American PastoralCumulative/Loose[kyoo-myuh-luh-tiv]

Begins with subject and verb, andadds modifying elements at end.

She holds me in strong arms, arms that havechopped cotton, dismembered trees, scattered cornfor chickens, cradled infants, shaken the daylights outof half-grown upstart teenagers.

Periodic[peer-ee-od-ik]

Opens with modifiers; withholdssubject and verb until the end.

Unlike World Wars I and II, which ended decisivelywith the unconditional surrender of the United Statesenemies, the war in Vietnam did not end whenAmerican troops withdrew.

Parallelism-Antithesis[an-tith-uh-sis]

Establishes a clear, contrastingrelationship between two ideas byjoining them together orjuxtaposing them, often in parallelstructure.

Thats one small step for man, one giant leap formankind.

Neil Armstrong


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Parallelism-Chiasmus[kahy-az-muhs]

A crossing parallelism, where thesecond part of a grammaticalconstruction is balanced orparalleled by the first part, only in

reverse order.

Those gallant men will remain often in my thoughts

and in my prayers always.

MacArthur

Parallelism-Balanced[par-uh-le-liz-uhm]

Expresses parallel or like ideas--often compound.

The government of the people, for the people, by thepeople shall not perish from the earth.

SentenceTypes-Purpose

Declarative[di-klar-uh-tiv]

A declarative sentencedoesexactly what its name implies: Itdeclares or states something.

Tonight, the Lakers will play the Knicks.

Imperative[im-per-uh-tiv]

Commands, requests, or instructs.The subject is most often youunstated, but understood.

Come here right now.

Exclamatory[ik-sklam-uh-tawr-ee]

Expresses strong emotion. I hope we will never again undergo such an ordeal!

Interrogative[in-tuh-rog-uh-tiv]

Interrogatesit asks a question. Who was the contestant most recently fired by TheDonald?

SentenceTypes-Structure

Simple[sim-puh l]

Contains a least one subject and atleast one predicate; it can standalone because it expresses acomplete thought.

Tom and Phil made the pizza.

Compound[kom-pound]

Contains two or more independentclauses.

We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my

father's birthday party.

Complex[kom-pleks]

Contains one independent clauseand one or more dependentclauses.

Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to be65.

Compound-

Complex

Contains two or more independent

clauses and one or moredependent clauses.

After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we

were planning something, but we think he was reallysurprised.

Omission Ellipsis[i-lip-sis]

A rhetorical figure in which one ormore words are omitted.

The First Amendment provides that "Congress shallmake no lawabridging the freedom of speech."

U.S. Const. amend. I.Asyndeton[uh-sin-di-ton]

The omission of a conjunction froma list. In a list of items, asyndetongives the effect of unpremeditatedmultiplicity, of an extemporaneousrather than a labored account.

*We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet anyhardships, support any friend, oppose any foe toassure the survival and the success of liberty.

J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address

Addition/Repetition

Anadiplosis[an-uh-di-ploh-sis]

A rhetorical trope formed byrepeating the last word of onephrase, clause, or sentence at or

Pleasure might cause her read,reading might makeher know,/Knowledge might pity win, and pity graceobtain. -Philip Sydney


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Done foreffect

very near the beginning of the next.It can be generate in series for thesake of beauty or to give a sense oflogical progression.

Anaphora[uh-naf-er-uh]

Repetition of a word or phrase atthe beginning of successivephrases, clauses, or sentences.

To think on death it is a misery,/To think on life it isa vanity;/ To think on the world verily it is,/ To thinkthat here man hath no perfect bliss.-Peacham

Epistrophe[i-pis-truh-fee]

The repetition of the same word orwords at the end of successivephrases, clauses, or sentences.Counterpart to anaphora.

Where affections bear rule, there reason is subdued,honesty is subdued, good will is subdued, and allthings else that withstand evil, for ever are subdued.

WilsonPolysyndeton[pol-ee-sin-di-ton]

The use of a conjunction betweeneach word, phrase, or clause, andis thus structurally the opposite ofasyndeton. The rhetorical effect ofpolysyndeton, however, oftenshares with that of asyndetonafeeling of multiplicity, energeticenumeration, and building up.

[He] pursues his way, / And swims, or sinks, orwades, or creeps, or flies. --John Milton

PunctuationAdded/Repeated foreffect

ParentheticalAside[par-uhn-thet-ikal][uh-sahyd]

Consists of a word, phrase, orwhole sentence inserted as anaside in the middle of anothersentence.

Our leadera fearless man whom we all respectwas hiding in the library.

Colon[koh-luhn]

The punctuation mark (:) used todivide distinct but related sentencecomponents, such as clauses, inwhich the second elaborates on thefirst, or to introduce a list,quotation, or speech.

I walked close to the left wall when I entered, but itwas a empty: just the stairs curving up intoshadows.

William Faulkner, The Sound and the Fury

Semi-Colon

[sem-i-koh-luhn]

A punctuation mark (;) that

connects two independent parts ofa sentence.

The sun lit up the wall; I shielded my eyes from the

glare.

Dashes[dash]

A punctuation mark () used toindicate a sudden break in thought,to set off parenthetical material

Except for the Marabar Cavesand they are twentymiles offthe city of Chandrapore presents nothingextraordinary.

E.M. Forster,A Passage to India


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Genre: A literary genre is a recognizable and established category of written work employing such common conventionsas will prevent readers or audiences from mistaking it with another kind.

Term and

Pronunciation

Definition Example Student Notes

Allegory[al-uh-gohr-ee]

A form of extended metaphor in which objects andpersons in a narrative, either in prose or verse, areequated with meanings that lie outside the narrative itself.Many works contain allegories or are allegorical in part,but not many are entirely allegorical.

Edmund Spencer, The FaerieQueene

Autobiography[aw-tuh-bahy-og-ruh-fee]

The biography of a person written by that person. The Autobiography of MalcolmX, Malcolm X

Biography[bahy-og-ruh-fee]

An account of a persons life as written or told byanother. John Adams, DavidMcCullough

Chronicle[kron-i-kuh l]

An extended account of historical events withoutinterpretation or comment.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Diary[dahy-uh-ree]

A daily written record of (usually personal) experiencesand observations.

The Diary of Anne Frank, AnneFrank

Essay[es-ey]

A short literary composition on a single subject, usuallypresenting the personal view of the author; analytic orinterpretive.

Francis Bacons essays

Fiction[fik-shuhn]

A literary work based on the imagination and notnecessarily on fact.

Harry Potter, J.K. Rowling

Non-fiction[Non-fik-shuhn]

A work that draws its information from history or fact,rather than the imagination.

John Adams, DavidMcCullough

Parody[par-uh-dee]

A literary form in which the style of an author or particularwork is mocked in its style for the sake of comic effect.

The clowns in Dr. Faustus

Prose[Prohz]

Writing distinguished from poetry by its greater variety ofrhythm and its closer resemblance to the patterns ofeveryday speech.

Any fiction or nonfiction isprose

Satire[sat-ahy

uhr]

A literary work that exposes and ridicules human vices orfolly. Historically perceived as tending toward didacticism,it is usually intended as a moral criticism directed againstthe injustice of social wrongs.

Jonathan Swift's Gulliver'sTravelssatirizes the Englishpeople, making them seemdwarfish in their ability to dealwith large thoughts, issues, ordeeds. A literary mode basedon criticism of people andsociety through ridicule.

Sermon[sur-muhn]

An oration by a prophet or member of the clergy. Sinners in the Hands of anAngry God, JonathonEdwards


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Stream-Of-Consciousness[streem-uhv-kon-shuhs-nis]

A technique that records the multifarious thoughts andfeelings of a character without regard to logical ornarrative sequence. The writer attempts by the stream ofconsciousness to reflect all the forces, external and

internal, influencing the psychology of a character at asingle moment.

A piece of dangling driftwoodcaught his attention and hiseyes followed it down thecurrent. How slowly it

appeared to move! What asluggish stream!Occurrence at Owl Creek

Bridge, Ambrose Bierce

Rhetorical Strategies: Strategies that aid the attempt to sway the mind of the audience.Term and Pronunciation Definition Example Student Notes

Allusion[uh-loo-zhuhn]

An indirect or passing reference tosome event, person, place, or artisticwork, the nature and relevance of whichis not explained by the writer but relies

on the readers familiarity with what isthus mentioned.

You must borrow me Gargantua'smouth first. 'Tis a word too great forany mouth of this age's size.

-Shakespeare

Ambiguity[am-bi-gyoo-i-tee]

Something of doubtful meaning; anexpression whose meaning cannot bedetermined from its context and mayhave more than one meaning.

The open-ended conclusion toHawthornes Young Goodman Brown

Anachronism[uh-nak-ruh-niz-uhm]

The representation of someone asexisting or something as happening inother than chronological, proper, orhistorical order.

In Julius Caesar, a clock strikesthough there were no clocks inCaesars day.

Aphorism

[af-uh-riz-uhm]

A brief statement that expresses an

observation on life, usually intended asa wise observation.

The book of Nature is the book of

FateSo far as a man thinks, he is free.Ralph Waldo Emerson, Fate

Audience[aw-dee-uhns]

The people the author is speaking to(listeners, readers, onlookers).

A writer might use colloquial languagewhen composing for an audiencemade up of teenagers.

Invective[in-vek-tiv]

Abuse (tongue-lashing, diatribe,condemnation)

I cannot but conclude the bulk of yournatives to be the most pernicious raceof little odious vermin that nature eversuffered to crawl upon the surface ofthe earth.

Swift


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Juxtaposition[juhk-stuh-puh-zish-uhn]

Placing two things side by side, usuallyto show contrast.

A juxtaposition in Romeo and Julietoccurs between the realistic, informalMercutio and the love-sick, unrealisticRomeo.

Malapropism[mal-uh-prop-iz-uh m]

An incorrect usage of a word, usuallywith comic effect.

He is the very pineapple ofpoliteness.Then, sir, she should have asupercilious knowledge in accounts;--and as she grew up, I would have herinstructed in geometry, that she mightknow something of the contagiouscountriesand likewise that shemight reprehend the true meaning ofwhat she is saying.

The Rivals, Sheridan

Rhetorical Question

[ri-tawr-i-kuh lkwes-chuhn]

A question posed by the speaker or

writer not to seek an answer but insteadto affirm or deny a point simply byasking a question about it.

for if we lose the ability to perceive

our faults, what is the good of livingon?

-Marcus AureliusSensory Detail[sen-suh-ree dee-teyl]

An item used to appeal to the sense(sight, taste, touch, etc.).

Just then in the room over us/Therewas a pushing back of chairs,/Assome who had sat unawares/So late,now heard the hour, and rose.

"My Sister's Sleep," Dante GabrielRossetti

Shift[Shift]

A general term in linguistics for anyslight alteration in a words meaning, orthe creation of an entirely new word by

changing the use of an expression.Tone[Tohn]

The writers attitude toward his readerand his subject; his mood or moral view.

A writer can be formal, informal, playful,ironic, and especially, optimistic orpessimistic. While both Swift and Popeare satirizing much the same subjects,there is a profound difference in theirtone.

The tone of John Steinbeck's shortnovel Cannery Rowis non-

judgmental. Steinbeck neverexpresses disapproval of the antics ofMack and his band of bums. Rather,he treats them with unflaggingkindness.

Point of View[Point-uhv-vyoo]

A way the events of a story areconveyed to the reader, it is the


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vantage point from which the narrativeis passed from author to the reader.

In the omniscient point of view, the

person telling the story, or narrator,knows everything thats going on in thestory.

In the first-person point of view, thenarrator is a character in the story.Using the pronoun I, the narrator tellsus his or her own experiences butcannot reveal with certainty any othercharacters private thoughts.

In the limited third-person point of view,

the narrator is outside the storylike anomniscient narratorbut tells the storyfrom the vantage point of one character.

Third Person Omniscient: The

prince's servant waited in the hallway,relieved at not having to take anyrisks.

First Person: I slowly pushed openthe door.

Third Person Limited: The prince

slowly pushed open the door.

Theme-Thesis[thee-sis]

The message conveyed by a literarywork.

The theme of Shakespeare's Othellojealousy is a common one.

Voice[Vois]

The textual features, such as dictionand sentence structure, that convey awriters or speakers persona.

The poet Sylvia Plath's voice, forexample, might be called that of avictimized daughter, wife, and mother.

Figures of SpeechFigurative language-means saying one thing but meaning another

Literal language-means saying exactly what you mean.Term andPronunciation


Analogy[uh-nal-uh-jee]

The comparison of two things, which are alike inseveral respects, for the purpose of explaining orclarifying some unfamiliar or difficult idea or object byshowing how the idea or object is similar to somefamiliar one. While simile and analogy often overlap,the simile is generally a more artistic likening, donebriefly for effect and emphasis, while analogy servesthe more practical purpose of explaining a thoughtprocess or a line of reasoning or the abstract in terms

Knowledge always desires increase: it islike fire, which must first be kindled by someexternal agent, but which will afterwardspropagate itself. -Samuel Johnson


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of the concrete, and may, therefore, be moreextended.

Apostrophe[uh-pos-truh-fee]

The direct address of a person or personified thing,either present or absent. Its most common purpose in

prose is to give vent to or display intense emotion,which can no longer be held back.

O value of wisdom that fadeth not awaywith time, virtue ever flourishing, that

cleanseth its possessor from all venom! Oheavenly gift of the divine bounty,descending from the Father of lights, thatthou mayest exalt the rational soul to thevery heavens! Thou art the celestialnourishment of the intellect.

Richard de Bury

Clich[klee-shey]

An expression so often used that its original powerhas been drained away.

Whereer you find the cooling westernbreeze,/In the next line it whispers throughthe trees;/If crystal streams with pleasingmurmurs creep./The readers threatened(not in vain) with sleep.

Essay on Criticism, Pope

Conceit[kuhn-seet]

An elaborate, usually intellectually ingenious poeticcomparison or image, such as an analogy ormetaphor, in which say a beloved is compared to aship, planet, etc.

See! How she leans her cheek upon herhand:/O! That I were a glove upon thathand/That I might touch that cheek.

Shakespeares Romeo and JulietEpithet[ep-uh-thet]

An adjective or adjective phrases appropriatelyqualifying a subject (noun) by naming a key orimportant characteristic of the subject.

Blind mouths! that scarce themselves knowhow to hold / A sheep hook.

John MiltonEuphemism[yoo-fuh-miz-uhm]

The expression of an unpleasant or embarrassingnotion by a more inoffensive substitute.

pass away" instead of "die"

Hyperbole[hahy-pur-buh-lee]

Exaggeration used for emphasis. Hyperbole can beused to heighten effect, to catalyze recognition, or tocreate a humorous perception.

My vegetable love should grow/Vaster thanempires, and more slow;/An hundred yearsshould got to praise/ Thine eyes and onthine forehead gaze;/Two hundred to adore

each breast,/But thirty thousand to the rest.Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress"Imagery[im-ij-ree]

The collection of images within a literary work used toevoke atmosphere, mood, tension.

Images of crowded, steaming sidewalksflanking streets choked with lines ofshimmering, smoking cars suggestoppressive heat and all the psychologicaltensions that go with it.

Verbal Irony[vur-buh l ahy-ruh-nee]

The contrast is between the literal meaning of what issaid and what is meant.

A character may refer to a plan as brilliant,while actually meaning that (s)he thinks theplan is foolish.

Situational Irony[sich-oo-ey-shuhnalahy-ruh-nee]

The result of an action is the reverse of what theactor expected.

Macbeth murders his king hoping that inbecoming king he will achieve greathappiness. Actually, Macbeth never knows


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another moment of peace, and finally isbeheaded for his murderous act.

Extended Metaphor[ik-sten-did ]

[met-uh-fawr]

Ametaphor that is drawn-out beyond the usual wordor phrase to extend throughout astanza or an entire

poem, usually by using multiple comparisonsbetween the unlike objects or ideas.

Tennyson's "Crossing the Bar,"demonstrates the effectiveness of this

device: metaphorically, he compares asandbar in the Thames River over whichships cannot pass until high tide, with thenatural time for completion of his own life'sjourney from birth to death.

Metonymy[mi-ton-uh-mee]

Another form of metaphor, very similar tosynecdoche, in which the thing chosen for themetaphorical image is closely associated with (butnot an actual part of) the subject with which it is to becompared.

The orders came from the White House.In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.

Genesis 3:19This land belongs to the crown.

Oxymoron[ok-si-mohr-on]

A paradox reduced to two words, usually in anadjective-noun (eloquent silence) or adverb-adjective (inertly strong) relationship, thatis used foreffect, to emphasize contrasts, incongruities,hypocrisy, or simply the complex nature of reality.

I do here make humbly bold to presentthem with a short account of themselves andtheir art. -Jonathan SwiftThe bookful blockhead, ignorantly read,with loads of learned lumber in his head.

-Alexander PopeParadox[par-uh-doks]

A statement that seems untrue on the surface, but istrue nevertheless.

What a pity that youth must be wasted onthe young.-George Bernard Shaw

Personification[per-son-uh-fi-key-shuhn]

The metaphorical representation of an animal orinanimate object as having human attributesattributes of form, character, feelings, behavior, andso on. As the name implies, a thing or idea is treatedas a person.

The ship began to creak and protest as itstruggled against the rising sea.Wisdom cries aloud in the streets; in themarkets she raises her voice

-Psalm 1:20Pun[Puhn]

A play on words, sometimes on different senses ofthe same word and sometimes on the similar senseor sound of different words.

Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find mea grave man.

Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet

Simile

[sim-uh-lee]

A figure of speech in which two essentially unlike

things are compared, often in a phrase introduced bylike or as.

My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun.

Shakespeare

Synaesthesia[sin-is-thee-zhuh]

A condition in which one type of stimulation evokesthe sensation of another, as when the hearing of asound produces the visualization of a color. Asensation felt in one part of the body as a result ofstimulus applied to another, as in referred pain. Thedescriptions of one kind of sense impression by usingwords that normally describe another.

Emily Dickinson, in "I Heard a Fly BuzzWhen I Died," uses a color to describe asound, the buzz of a fly:/with blue, uncertainstumbling buzz.
http://www.poeticbyway.com/gl-m.html#metaphorhttp://www.poeticbyway.com/gl-s.html#stanzahttp://www.poeticbyway.com/xtennyson.htm#crossinghttp://www.poeticbyway.com/xtennyson.htm#crossinghttp://www.poeticbyway.com/gl-s.html#stanzahttp://www.poeticbyway.com/gl-m.html#metaphor


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Synecdoche[si-nek-duh-kee]

A figure of speech in which a part of somethingstands for the whole or the whole for a part.

Okay team. Get those blades back on theice. [part for whole]Get in here this instant or Ill spank yourbody. [whole for the parti.e. body for

rear end]Put Beethoven in and turn up the volume.[Composer substituted for record]

Understatement[uhn-der-steyt]

Expressing an idea with less emphasis or in a lesserdegree than is the actual case. The opposite ofhyperbole. Understatement is employed for ironicemphasis.

Henry and Catherine were married, thebells rang, and everybody smiled. Tobegin perfect happiness at the respectiveages of twenty-six and eighteen is to dopretty well. -Jane Austen

Argument/Persuasion Terms: Methods and techniques that help the construction of an argument.Term andPronunciation


Argument[ahr-gyuh-muhnt]

A way of reasoning where a subject isproved correct/incorrect.

In Arthur Millers The Crucible, one of hisarguments is that hysteria often initiates falseaccusations.

Ethos (ethical)[ee-thos]

A rhetorical appeal to an audiencebased on the speaker/writer'scredibility.

I am a husband, a father, and a taxpayer. Iveserved faithfully for 20 years on the schoolboard. I deserve your vote for city council.

Pathos (emotion)[pey-thos]

The emotional appeal to an audiencein an argument.

Bob Dole wants to hurt the elderly by cuttingMedicare.

Logos (rational)[loh-gos]

Rhetorical appeals based on logic orreasoning.

We do not have enough money to pay forimprovements to our railroads. And withoutimprovements, this transportation system willfalter and thus hinder our economy. Therefore,

we should raise taxes to pay for betterrailroads.

Claim[Kleym]

To make an assertion; to state astrue.

Everyone should buy a computer.

Deductive Reasoning(syllogism)[di-duhk-tiv][ree-zuh-ning](sil-uh-jiz-uh m)

Reasoning that utilizes elements ofpersuasion by asserting a claim;consists of a major premise, a minorpremise, and a conclusion.

All humans are mortal [major premise], I am ahuman [minor premise], therefore, I am mortal[the conclusion].

Inductive Reasoning[in-duhk-tiv ree-zuh-

Reasoning that begins by citing anumber of specific instances or

Fair trade agreements have raised the qualityof life for coffee producers, so fair trade


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ning] examples and then shows howcollectively they constitute a generalprinciple.

agreements could be used to help otherfarmers as well.

Evidence/Data

[ev-i-duhns]

Support from a claim/assertion. Good jobs require technological proficiency.

Warrant[wawr-uhnt]

An assumption that there is aconnection between evidence andclaim.

Getting left behind by the technologicalrevolution is bad for everyone.

Logical Fallacies: Process of reasoning with an error that makes the argument invalid.Logical Fallacy andPronunciation

Definition Example

Ad hominem Argument[ahd hoh-mi-nem]

An attack on another person instead of theirpoint of view.

Green Peace's strategies aren'teffective because they are alldirty, lazy hippies.

Begging the question The situation that results when a writer orspeaker constructs an argument on anassumption that the audience does not accept.

The Bible is the word of God. Theword of God cannot be doubted,and the Bible states that the Bibleis true. Therefore, the Bible mustbe true.

Doubtful authority The authority is not an expert, their colleaguesdisagree, or the reference to the authority is outof context of the situation.

Either/or reasoning An argument that something complex can belooked at in only two different ways.

We can either stop using cars ordestroy the Earth.

False analogy Comparing two things that are irrelevant andthat do not pose a valid comparison.

Hasty generalization Not enough support for the inductive reasoningused. Even though it's only the first day,I can tell this is going to be aboring course.

Circular Argument This restates the argument rather than actuallyproving it.

George Bush is a goodcommunicator because he speakseffectively.


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Slippery Slope This is a conclusion based on the premise that ifA happens, then eventually through a series ofsmall steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z willhappen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if

we don't want Z to occur, A must not be allowedto occur either. Example:

If we ban Hummers because theyare bad for the environment,eventually the government will banall cars, so we should not ban

Hummers.

Non-sequitur[non sek-wi-ter]

A conclusion that has no visible connection tothe support for the claim.

Since Egyptians did so muchexcavation to construct thepyramids, they were well versed inpaleontology.

Oversimplification[oh-ver-sim-pluh-fah-ka-shun]

Reducing an idea too much so it loses the pointtrying to be made.

Political slogans such as "Taxationis theft" fall in this category.

Modes of Rhetoric: Manners of expressing language.Type of Writing Terms Definition Example Student Notes

Expository[ik-spoz-i-tawr-ee]

Informs, instructs or presents ideasand general truths.

Classification[klas-uh-fi-key-shuh n]

Identifies the subject as part of alarger group with shared features.

An essay describing how EdgarAllan Poes writing could beclassified as Dark Romantic.

Cause and Effect[kawz-uhnd-i-fekt]

Arguing from the presence/absenceof the cause to the (non) existence ofthe result.

An essay evaluating how thehistorical context affected thewriting style of a particularauthor.

Comparison/contrast[kuhm-par-uh-suhn][kon-trast]

The subject is shown more clearly bypointing out similarities or differences.

An essay comparing andcontrasting the writing style oftwo authors.

Definition[def-uh-nish-uhn]

Places the subject in a group, andthen differentiates the subject fromother sections of the group

Defining the writing style of anauthor.

Analysis[uh-nal-uh-sis]

The discussion of a subject based oncontent and style.

An essay that analyzes anexcerpt or piece from aparticular author.

Description[di-skrip-shuh n]]

Depicts images verbally in space andtime arranges those images in alogical pattern.

An essay describing theappearance of something.

Narration Organizes the events or actions in An actual story with plot,


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[na-rey-shuhn] time or relates them in space. Tellswhat happened, when it happened,and where it happened.

climax, and resolution.

Persuasion/Argument Convinces an audience by proving or

refuting a point of view usinginduction or deduction.

A piece (pamphlet, article, etc.)

persuading the reader to votefor a particular candidate.

Portions of the above definitions, pronunciations and examples came from the following websites:http://home.cfl.rr.com/eghsap/apterms.html;www.wikipedia.org;www.wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn;http://dictionary.reference.com;www.educationplanner.com/education_planner/essaya_article.asp ;www.uttyler.edu/meidenmuller/commtheory/studentwork/amandasmith.htm;http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_a.htm;http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/terms/3terms.html#Tone; http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.html;
http://home.cfl.rr.com/eghsap/apterms.htmlhttp://home.cfl.rr.com/eghsap/apterms.htmlhttp://www.wikipedia.org/http://www.wikipedia.org/http://www.wikipedia.org/http://www.wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwnhttp://www.wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwnhttp://www.wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwnhttp://dictionary.reference.com/http://dictionary.reference.com/http://dictionary.reference.com/http://www.educationplanner.com/education_planner/essaya_article.asphttp://www.uttyler.edu/meidenmuller/commtheory/studentwork/amandasmith.htmhttp://www.uttyler.edu/meidenmuller/commtheory/studentwork/amandasmith.htmhttp://www.uttyler.edu/meidenmuller/commtheory/studentwork/amandasmith.htmhttp://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_a.htmhttp://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_a.htmhttp://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/terms/3terms.html#Tonehttp://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/terms/3terms.html#Tonehttp://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/terms/3terms.html#Tonehttp://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.htmlhttp://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.htmlhttp://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.htmlhttp://www-as.phy.ohiou.edu/~rouzie/fall151/analysis.htmlhttp://www.poeticbyway.com/gl-e.htmlhttp://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.htmlhttp://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/terms/3terms.html#Tonehttp://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_a.htmhttp://www.uttyler.edu/meidenmuller/commtheory/studentwork/amandasmith.htmhttp://www.educationplanner.com/education_planner/essaya_article.asphttp://dictionary.reference.com/http://www.wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwnhttp://www.wikipedia.org/http://home.cfl.rr.com/eghsap/apterms.html

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