Revolutions in the Atlantic World - University of Alberta · simple consequence of a successful...

Revolutions in the Atlantic World18th and 19th C. change in America, France and Caribbean

France and St. DomingueCaribbean Island of Saint Domingue:

‐ important French colony (largest in Caribbean)

‐ slave‐based coffee, cotton, indigo, sugar plantations

‐ 18th century growing rapidly: by 1760s most profitable colony in Americas

‐ ultimately: ‘sugar’ dominated economy

“The Slave Islands…”

“. . . With the introduction of sugar cane (to Caribbean Islands) in the 18th c., theFrench slavery system was put in place: between 1713 and 1791, a million Africans arrived in the French Islands (Martinique, Guadeloupe, St. Dominque)”


Saint Domingue :

Total population 540,000:

‐ (approx) 450,000 ‘blacks’ (slaves)[Text says 500,000 c. 1790]

‐ 50,000 ‘whites’ (free)

‐ 40,000 ‘coloureds’ (free – gens de couleur)

Total sugar production c.1789:

‐ 86,000 tonnes/yr


Saint Domingue (Text):

‐ supplied 2/3 France’s ‘tropical’ imports

‐ generated nearly 1/3 all French foreign trade

‐ by late 18th c. sugar main product

As sugar industry provided increasing profit: ‐‐ exploitation slaves more severe

‐most oppressive slave regime in region

Sugar Production

France and Saint Domingue

Revolution in 1789:

‐ provided opportunity for ‘change’ in Colony

‐ not about slavery

White Planters:

‐ divided between ‘royalists – radicals’‐ latter sought more power by supporting ‘new government’

‐ hoped to curb growing class of ‘coloureds’and free blacks


Coloureds*, Free Blacks, (slave‐owning) urban merchants:

‐mostly ‘radicals’: wanted more rights (vis‐à‐vis whites), less racial discrimination‐merchants of ‘lower class’ than planters

‐ small group freed slaves

‐ together: portrayed all planters as royalists, aristocrats to good effect

*descendants of white‐male masters, black female slaves


The Ogé Rebellion 1790:

‐ wealthy, free ‘man of colour’

‐ failed effort of small group (300) coloureds,

free blacks to attack

white colonists

‐ Ogé executed,

several followers

also put to death


Consequences:

‐ further discussion of coloured rights in Paris ‐ 1792 law provided ‘equal’ voting rights

‐ white planters angry, unified

‐ slaves join in general instability


Slave uprisings:

‐ escalated over 1791

‐most agitating for freeing of ‘leaders’imprisoned and more ‘rights’ (another day off, ameliorated punishments etc)

‐ only scattered groups begin talking about ‘emancipation’

‐ Toussaint L’Ouverture seen as leader of ‘rebel army’: slaves fighting against ‘whites’for power

Toussaint L’Ouverture


War in Europe ‘spread’ to St. Domingue:

‐ Spanish (other part of Island) fighting French, British

‐ slaves had ‘choice’: some joined British, others Spanish

‐ offered opportunities to ‘negotiate’: L’ouverture offered to bring army on side with France

‐ lack of negotiation pushed him back with Spanish


The Terror (France):

‐ among revolutionary changes: abolition ofslavery in French territories/colonies 1794

‐ largely driven by fear of losing colony:weakened by white‐coloured conflict, slaves fighting with enemies

‐ L’Ouverture therefore continued to recognize colony as ‘French’


1794‐1799:

‐ L’Ouverture participated in new government in St. Dominque

‐ ‘black army’ continued to grow: tied military to political power

‐made enemies among planters and couloureds

‐ in defense, signed secret treaty with United States and Britain June 1978


Signing ofSecret Treaty1798


France 1799:

‐ Napoleon’s seizure of power ended anti‐slavery supporters in French government

‐ declared himself ‘ruler for life’

‐ problems in St. Domingue ultimately allowed him to attempt military conquest of Island, re‐establishment of slavery


1800: L’Ouverture declared ‘Commander‐in‐Chief’of Island

‐ instituted policies to restore plantation society: required labour and regenerated economy

‐ seen as attempt by island slaves to re‐introduce slavery


1801: New Constitution

‐ slavery, racial discrimination ‘abolished’forever: alienated both whites (who turned to Napoleon to re‐establish former regime) and coloureds, who lost privileges

‐mandatory labour, general ‘bourgeois values’enshrined: alienated slaves

[see ‘Constitution of 1801’, Resources]

‐ 1801: massive uprising against L’Ouverture

provided ‘door’ for Napoleon’s return


1802:

‐ Napoleon restored slavery to Guadeloupe and Martinique

‐ promised that St. Domingue would be exempted but still sent military force to re‐establish French control

‐ constant reports of new slave regimes in neighbouring islands convinced St. Domingue’s slaves that ‘they were next’


April 1803:

‐ French troops sick and starving

‐ forced to trade munitions with local women for food

‐ new insurrection in last French stronghold put end to war

‐ L’Ouverture’s successor created new flag for ‘Hayti’ (original name)

Indpendence declared Jan. 1, 1804 “first Black Republic”

US, France and Saint Domingue

(Text) notes that Haiti then “joined the US as the second independent nation in the Western Hemisphere” – as if this were the significance of the whole story ‐‐ and as if the ‘revolution’ was the simple consequence of a successful slave rebellion.

Not At All.

In fact, the US did not recognize Haiti for another 60 years, and it had been more ‘involved’ in the so‐called ‘revolution’ than is immediately obvious.


Story makes apparent that:

‐ St. Domingue was slave‐based colony with complex set of racial, political issues

‐ unlike America, only in latter parts of struggle was there attempt to ‘separate’ from France

‐ French revolutionary slogans etc were NOT what drove L’Ouverture (or any other political faction on the island)



‐ it was French political instability that opened up possibilities for colonists to negotiate their independent interests

‐ it was the vulnerability of the various regimes in the 1790s, including Robespierre’s‘Terror’ and Napoleon’s career‐climbing in a reactionary assembly that variously allowed these ‘interests’ to gain the upper political hand



‐ attempt was NOT one of ‘revolution’ but reform, in which slavery was transformed into mandatory labour and racial discrimination subsumed to class differences

‐ ultimately, it was the failure of France to complete its revolution that assured the negotiations for a new St. Domingue society would fail



‐ the very nature of the Atlantic World that pulled ‘Atlantic’ interests into Europe and European conflicts into the Atlantic – was a strong and persistent force into the 19th c.

‐ But what of the other ‘Atlantic World’ player here, the US? In what way was this story also about them?


United States Position on Saint Domingue?

‐ belief in ‘ideals’

of Revolutions but

US had large

slave populations

‐ feared support

would lead to

rebellions at homeSlave Population c. 1780


Initial Position: ‘compromise’

‐ encouraged ‘negotiation’ between Planters, coloureds and slaves

‐ refugees in US caused concern: many white, brought slaves with them – feared ‘politics’

‐ subject to same hostility as French refugees

‐many returned home

US, France and Saint DomingueReversals of Position:

‐ 1797 new President, John Adams: anti‐slavery

‐ reversed policy on St. Domingue: economy improving, wanted new government, L’Ouverture as ally


‐ L’Ouverture continued to identify as ‘French’

‐ consequently, US provided aid and entered into the ‘secret’ Treaty 1798

So: US support, yes but because of US economic and political interests, not to support Slave Revolt


‐ 1800 Thomas Jefferson President: Jefferson and many supporters important slave holders

‐ aid to L’Ouverture cut, island ‘isolated’: fear of rebellion spreading

‐ became outright hostility when L’Ouverture’ssuccessor executed whites who assisted in Napoleon’s reconquering of island, re‐instituting of slavery

‐ while Haiti became Independent 1804, US refused to recognize it

US and Revolutions in Atlantic World: HaitiSummary:

‐ US reactions to political instability in Saint Domingue shaped by commercial interests, lingering political strife with Britain,anddomestic investment in slavery

‐ initial response of ‘fence‐sitting’ reflected strong interests of slave holders and of industrialists dependent on slave‐produced products (cotton, tobacco at home, sugar in Saint Domingue)


‐ reversals in policy reflected changing US politics: slavery expanding in US just as Haiti declared independence

‐ story Haiti as much a story of anti‐colonial struggle as US: celebrated L’Ouverture didlead slaves to more freedom but did so within context of French colonialism – it was his successor who finally achieved ‘independence’as well as the end of slavery


‐ concept with which we began lectures this week of ‘victory’ of popular voice over hereditary authority and human exploitation (slavery) needs to be very much re‐considered and nuanced if it is to reflect complicated reality of late 18th –early 19th c. Atlantic World

‐major ‘player’ in this World – United States –not the supporter of freedom and democracy at turn of 19th century we often think it was!

Revolutions in the Atlantic World - University of Alberta · simple consequence of a successful...

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