18

Chapter – II

REVIEW OF EARLIER STUDIES

The discussions in the earlier chapter indicated that the primary education

gains tremendous importance to achieve objectives of the new educational policy

and right to compulsory elementary education in the age group of 6 to 14 years

children. The main aim of the study is assessing the functional status of the

primary education as well as to analyze the variations in the enrolment and

dropouts particularly in primary education. Besides this, the study is also focused

the impact of the education programmes on enrolment and dropouts scenario in

different dimensions. At this juncture, the review of earlier studies is the prime

requirement, to anlayse the approaches adopted by different studies of various

disciplines as well as to determine the overall functional status of primary schools.

Keeping the above aspects under consideration, an attempt is made in this chapter

to review the earlier studies pertaining to primary education aspects. The review

of the study is presented section wise and details are as follows:

I. Review of earlier studies pertaining to education aspect:

The studies such as Naik J P12 (1971), Tilak JBG13 (1991), Acharya

Poromesh14 (1994), Mehta Arun C15 (1995), Kingdom Geta16 (1996), Om

Prakash17 (2000), Sinha Karnika18 (2000), Khullar K. K.19 (2000), Agarwal S P

and Urmani Meena20 (2000), Tilak Jandhyala B.G.21 (2001), Mehver Chris22

12 Naik I O (1971): Elementary Education in India – A Promise to Keep, Allied Publishers, Mumbai, p – 42 – 53. 13 Tilak JBG (1991); Elementary Education in India – Problems and perspectives, Margin, vol. 27, July – September, pp. 357 – 407. 14 Acharya Poromesh (1994): Problems of UEE, Economic and Political Weekly, 29 (40) , Dec, 3rd, pp. 329 – 338. 15 Mehta Arun C (1995): Education for all in India: Some Recent insights in the light of Results of NFHS, Journal of Education and Social Change, 9 (2), p. 18 – 24. 16 Kingdom Geta (1996), Private Schooling in India: Site size nature and equity assets, Economic and Political Weekly, 31 (51), 2 Dec, p. 306 – 314. 17 Om Prakash (2000): Indian Education in 2000 AD, Dream and Reality, University News, 38 (10), 6, March, p. 1 – 4. 18 Sinha Karnika (2000), Problems of Education in Tribal Society, 18 (27), Jan – March, p. 74 – 78. 19 Khular K K (2000), State of Education in India: Where was the country gone wrong?, Tribute 604, p. 12 20 Agarwal S P and Urmani Meena (2000), Children’s Education in India: From Vedic times to 21`st century, Shipra Publications, New Delhi, p. 30 – 34.

19

(2000), Vaidyanatha A and PRG Nair23 (2001), Masumdar Tapa24 (2002),

Govinda P25 (ed) (2002), Jha Jyotsna and Dhir Jhingran26 (2002), K. Sujatha27

(2002), Rajan V Laxmi28 (2003), Kabur Naila G. B. Nambissan and R.

Subramanian29 (ed.) (2003), Sinha Amarjeet30 (2003), Jain Sunil31 (2004), Veera

Raghavan J32. (2004), Buragohan Tarun Jyothi33 (2005), Bassowlisa Rouse Caulia

Elena34 (2005), Parker Susan Co Rusal Cava Luis and Terirel Graciela35 (2005),

Hassan Shan Shad36 (2005), Latchanna G37 (2006), and Sungoh S.M.38 (2006) are

analyzed historical evolution of basic educational institutions, general education

and its impact on cultural aspects particularly to the elementary education in

different dimensions.

The studies of Om Prakash, Agarwal, Govinda and Ratan are discussed the

historical development of education and its impact in various aspects. Agarwal

assessed the historical transfer, nature of basic educational institutions from Vedic

21 Tilak Jandhyala B G (2001), Education Poverty in India, Review of Development and Change, 7(1), January – June, p. 1 – 44. 22 Mehver Chris (2000), Education for all Some Critical Reflections, Development and Co-operations, 93), May – June, p. 4 – 5 23 Vaidyanatha A and PRG Nair (2001), Elementary Education in Rural India – A Gross roots view, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 59 – 65. 24 Masumdar Tapa (2002), Elementary mistake, Telegraph, 18 June, p. 12. 25 Govinda P (ed) (2002), India Education Report – A profile of basic education, Oxford university Press, New Delhi, p. 38 – 44. 26 Jha Jyotsna and Dhir Jhingran (2002), Elementary Education for the poorest an other deprived groups, centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, p. 19 – 22. 27 K. Sujatha (2002), Education among scheduled tribes, India education report, oxford university press, New Delhi, p. 31 – 38. 28 Rajan V Laxmi (2003), Education in last Fifty Years, Yojana 47 (8), May, p. 18 – 23. 29 Kabur Naila G. B. Nambissan and R. Subramanian (ed.) (2003), Child labour and the right to education: needs Vs rights, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 14 – 20. 30 Sinha Amarjeet (2003), Basic education for all: the elusive quest for social justice in a dynamic democracy: The case of India, pp. 7 – 13. 31 Jain Sunil (2004), Education in India: a Crumpling Citadel, Margin 36(2),m January – March, p. 1 – 10. 32 Veera Raghavan J. (2004), Governance for Development – The Management Challenge in Education, India Journal of Public Administration, 50 (1), January – March, p. 138 – 50. 33 Buragohan Tarun Jyothi (2005), India’s nowhere children defy UEE, Margin 37 (2), January – March, p. 31 – 36. 34 Bassowlisa Rouse Caulia Elena (2005), Do returns to schooling differ by race and ethinism in India, Economic and Political Weekly, 40 (39), 24 September, p. 4243 – 50. 35 Parker Susan Co Rusal Cava Luis and Terirel Graciela (2005), Schooling in equality and language barriers, Economic Development and cultural change 54 (1), October, p. 74 – 94. 36 Hassan Shan Shad (2005), Effective schooling: A foundation stone, University news, 43 (47), 21, November, p. 73 – 76. 37 Latchanna G (2006): Economics of Tribal Primary Education, The Associated Publishers, Ambala, India, p. 69 – 100. 38 Sungoh SM (2006), Role of Educational Institutions in Promotion of Cultural Education, University News, 44 (5), January, p. 118 – 124.

20

period to 21st century particularly Gurukulas to modern educational institutions.

Further, the study pointed out the changes in the subjects, teaching methods,

student activities particularly relationships between student and teachers. Besides

this, the study is also critically examined its impact on the society due to changes

in the basic education system in varied historical periods. Similarly, the study of

Om Prakash is critically examined the functional status of the basic education

relating to the objectives of the new education policy. Besides this, the study is

traced out several deficiencies confronting in various spheres, particularly the

equality of education, accessibility, coverage of the programmes, etc. Further, the

study is suggested several measures for the execution in various spheres to

achieve the objectives of the education policy. Govinda also worked out similar

lines and focused several differences exist in the basic education system

particularly coverage, accessibility and functional status of the elementary

education system along with several amicable measures to attain short and long

term objectives in varied socio-economic situations. Rattan is also examined the

progress and development of education system over the period. Moreover, the

study highlighted the progress obtain in several education system since

independence. Further, the study is also identified several problems existing in the

education system as well as its impact on development. Apart from this, the study

is also suggested alternative ways and means for overall developments particularly

in basic education systems.

The studies of Poromesh, Mehata, Khullar, Chris, Sinha, Veeraraghavan,

Jyoti and Hussan are analyzed the problems, policy and status of the education

system, policy of education for all, challenges of education and effective school

aspects in varied dimensions. Poromesh study discussed the problem of UEE

particularly low coverage, low quality, lack of adequate infrastructural facilities,

factors contribute for differences in varied situations. Further, the study formulae

policy for mitigation of problem exist in UEE as well as to suggest several

measures to achieve targets of the education policy in short and long term

perspectives. Similarly, the study of Mehta assessed the educational programmes

implemented particularly to the enrichment of education for all. Further, the study

traced out various deficiencies exist in respect of coverage of the programmes,

accessibility, performance, funds utilization based on the results of the NFHS.

21

Apart from this, the study suggested several remedial measures particularly to

avoid deficiencies exist in the above mentioned aspects. Moreover, the study

recommends clear cut policy for the effective functioning of NFHS programmes.

Kullan is critically examined the state of the education in India relating to the

implementation of the various education programmes over the period. Moreover,

the study rightly pointed out that policy deficiencies exist in various educational

programmes and its impact on overall performance of the programmes. Apart

from this, the study identified factors responsible for lower performance of the

programmes particularly in policy implementation, funds usages, deficiencies in

infrastructural facilities, etc. Similarly, the study is also traced out failures in the

policy particularly in education for all. Moreover, the study identified the factors

responsible for the failure of the programmes at grass root level. The study also

suggested corrective measures for the effective functioning of the programmes.

Sinha also analyzed the present status of the basic education in respect of

education for all. Moreover, the study traced out several deficiencies particularly

in the coverage, quality, accessibility and infrastructural facilities. Besides this,

the study suggested several alternatives for the achievement of the objectives of

the new educational policy. Similarly, the study of Jain is also pointed out several

problems particularly in the elementary education which effects the quality and

purpose of the programmes. Moreover, the study describes the way and means to

improve the quality of education in the existing and future scenario.

Veera Raghavan suggested managerial approach to achieve the objectives

of the national education policy. Further, the study identified several deficiencies

exist particularly in the primary education system along with rectification

measures. Jyothi study envisages that the coverage of the primary education

programmes is not upto the mark to face the challenges of the new education

policy. Further, the study focused the issues faced in the coming years as well as

its effect on universal education programme. Moreover, the study recommended

measures to gear up the several educational programmes. Hussan is critically

examined the existing functional status of the schooling and also identified several

deficiencies particularly in the quality, facilities available, performance, etc. After

the critical integration of the above mentioned parameters, the study advised a

model for effective schooling in the existing and future scenario.

22

The studies such as Sinha Karnika, Tilak, Sujatha, Kabur, Elena, Parket,

Sungoh are analysed the cultural dimensions such as tribals, poverty, child labour,

racism and ethinism, language barriers and private schooling assets etc influenced

on the achievements of the education programmes at grassroots level. The study

of Simhakarnika traced out problems exist in the tribal society particularly in

primary education. The study concluded that majority of the tribal schools

suffering with lack of staff, facilities, low enrolment and high dropout and in turn

the coverage of educational programmes are very poor. Moreover, the study

suggested several measures not only solved the problems arise in primary

education programmes in tribal villages but also to provide better coverage of the

primary education programmes among tribal villages. Similarly, the study of

Sujatha is also analyzed coverage of the primary education programmes in

different categories of the scheduled tribes. Further, the study also accessed the

response towards education programmes in different scheduled tribes in varies

socio-economic situations. Moreover, the study identified the scheduled tribes

having lower coverage along with causative factors. Apart from this, the study

suggested amicable measure for the achievement of better coverage of the primary

education programme among different categories of the scheduled tribes.

Tilak is critically examined the influence of poverty on the coverage of the

education programmes and other elements at grass root level. Further, the study

traced out the relationship between poverty and education programme’s

performance in varied socio-economic scenarios. Moreover, the study concluded

that poverty shows impact on the coverage, enrolment and dropout in primary

education. The study formulated various strategies for the mitigation of the

adverse effects arise in the above mentioned aspects. Similarly, the study of Kabur

assessed the influence of child labour on school going children in the varied

situation. Moreover, the study identified causative factors for the child labour in

the school going age children. Moreover, the study recommended several

measures for the mitigation of the impact of child labour and also divert to the

schools at grassroots levels. Elina is critically examined the race and etheism

affect on the performance of the primary education programmes in varied socio-

economic situations. Further, the study given viable rectification measures to

improve overall situations. Similarly, the study of Parker examined the

23

relationship between schooling and language. Moreover, the study traced out

several imbalances in the performance of the primary education programmes

among different linguistic groups. Sunghosh critically examined the role of

educational institutions in the promotion of cultural education. Moreover, the

study concluded that the cultural educational institutions are successfully

implemented all categories of the primary education programmes at grassroots

levels.

Naik, Tilak, Viadyanathan, Tata and Jingan analysed the elementary

education functional status, problems, perspectives in view of cultural dimensions.

The study of Naik examined the functional status of the elementary education

relating to objectives of the different plan periods. Further, the study traced out the

lagging areas reported in elementary education along with specific

recommendations for the overall improvement of the functional status of the

elementary education. Similarly, the study of Tilak is also identified the problems

faced in elementary education in respect of coverage of the programmes quality of

education, accessibility and functional status aspects. Besides this, the study given

several recommendations not only for implement of existing situation but also in

the future perspective in the above mentioned aspects. Vaidyanathan study

assessed the functional status of elementary education in rural areas of different

states in India. Further, the study determined several variations and imbalances in

the levels of the development of elementary education. Moreover, the study

formulate amicable policy for the removal of imbalances among region exist in

elementary education at grassroots levels. Tata is also determined structural

mistakes exist in the elementary education. Further, the study assessed the impact

of mistakes in the programmes of the elementary education in various spheres.

Moreover, the study is also suggested rectification measures for the improvement

of the overall situation in elementary education in short and long term

perspectives. Jha is also analysed the response for the elementary education

programmes among different poorest and deprived groups. Further, the study

identified several imbalances in response for the elementary education along with

rectification measures for the overall improvement of the situations.

24

II. Review of earlier studies pertaining to primary education:

The studies of Sen Amatya39 (1971), Colleta M and M Sultan40 (1989),

Lockshed Marlaine and Adiran Verspoor41 (1991), Mahipal42 (1996),

Ravindranathan M.N.43 (1996), Chatterjee Shekhar44 (1997), Atma Ram45 (1997),

Banerjee Rukmini46 (1997), Juneja Nalini47 (1997), Vasavi A R PG Chand, Vijaya

Sherry and R Shailesh Shukla48 (1997), Sinha Amarjeet49 (1998), Vasavi A R50

(2000), Jaganathan Shanti51 (2000), Thunga Muthee C.52 (2001), Krishna Kumar

Pritam, Manisha and Saxena Sadhana53 (2001), Ramachandran Vimala54 (2001),

Deshpande J.V.55 (2002), Yadav A K and M. Srinivasan56 (2002), Sood Akshay57

(2003), Ramachandran Vimala58 (2003), Narayan59 (2004), Yadav Rajendra Singh

39 Sen Amatya (1971): Primary Education in rural India participation and wastages, Agricultural Economic Research Centre, New Delhi, p. 19 – 24. 40 Colleta M and M Sultan (1989): Achieving and sustaining universal primary education: International Conference relevant to India, World Bank Policy, Planning and Research Working paper, 166, p. 8 – 15. 41 Lockshed Marlaine and Adiran Verspoor (1991): Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries, New York Oxford University Press, p. 8 – 14. 42 Mahipal (1996): Peoples participation in universalisation of primary education, Kurukshetra, (1 – 2), October – November, p. 87 – 94. 43 Ravindranathan M N (1996): A Sociological analysis of the problems of primary education in India, Journal of Indian Education, 21 (4), February, pp. 3 – 9. 44 Chatterjee Shekhar (1997): Primary Schools: Gap between promise and fulfillment, 3 March, p. 8. 45 Atma Ram (1997): Primary education call for composite efforts, Statesman, 2 July, p. 8. 46 Banerjee Rukmini (1997): Why don’t children complete primary school? A case study of low income, Economic and Political Weekly, 32 (32), August, pp. 20053 – 063. 47 Juneja Nalini (1997): Free and Compulsory education for all children – but why at our cost? University News, 35 (22), 2 January, p. 3 – 5. 48 Vasavi A R PG Chand, Vijaya Sherry and R Shailesh Shukla (1997): Blue print for rural primary education flaw viable, Economic and Political Weekly, 12th December, pp. 4321 – 38. 49 Sinha Amarjeet (1998): Primary schooling in India, Vikas Publication House, New Delhi, p. 63 – 71. 50 Vasavi A R (2000): The community gap in primary education, Seminar (493), September, p. 34 – 37. 51 Jaganathan Shanti (2000): Role of NGOs in primary education: A study of NGOs in India, World Bank Policy Working Paper, August, pp. 31 – 39. 52 Thunga Muthee C. (2001): A dismal scenario of primary education need for market approach, Yojana, 15 November, p. 15 – 17. 53 Krishna Kumar Pritam, Manisha and Saxena Sadhana (2001): Looking beyond the smoke sphere, DPEP (District Primary Education Programme) and Primary education in India, Economic and Political Weekly, 36 (7), 17 February, p. 560 – 68. 54 Ramachandran Vimala (2001): Community participation in primary education, Economic and Political Weekly, June, pp. 2439 – 43. 55 Deshpande J V (2002): Deteriorating primary education, Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (42), 19 October, pp. 4268 – 69. 56 Yadav A K and M. Srinivasan (2002): Is universalisation of primary education possible? Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, vol. 16, no. 1, January, pp. 14 – 18. 57 Sood Akshay (2003): Critical issues in primary education, Economic and Political Weekly, 38 (25), June, p. 2469. 58 Ramachandran Vimala (2003): Backward and forward linkages that strengthen primary education, Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 38, no. 10, March, p. 8 – 13.

25

and Panda Sushmeeta Kumar60 (2005), are discussed the primary education in

different dimensions such as participation in primary education, achievements and

sustainability, improvement in primary education, problem in primary education,

fulfillment levels of the primary education, level of development of primary

education in lower income and social groups, critical issues in primary education,

backward and forward linkages in primary education, private sector participation

in primary education, etc.

The studies of Sen Amartya, Mahipal, Ramachandran Vimala and Yadav

are discussed about community participation in primary education. Sen Amartya

assessed the involvement of the social groups in primary education particularly in

rural India. Further, the study focused on the wastages in the primary education

programme. The study suggested measures for the reduction of wastages as well

as to improve the levels of the community participation in primary education at

grassroots levels. Similarly, the study of Mahipal analysed the role of people’s

participation in the universalisation of primary education. However, the study not

only identified gaps in the people’s participation in the primary education

programme but also suggested alternative ways and means for the achievements in

the universalisation of primary education. Ramachandran Vimala is also examined

the community participation particularly in primacy education programmes.

Further, the study identified several deficiencies in the areas such as coverage,

funds utilization, institutional support, performance and involvement of

institutional persons in varied situations. Moreover, the study suggested several

remedial measures to achieve effective community participation in primary

education programmes. Yadav discussed about reorganize the primary education

programmes to fulfill the fundamental right for education. Moreover, the study

suggested required framework and policy for the community participation to

achieve the objectives of the primary education as in new national policy.

59 Narayan (2004): Private sector participation in primary schooling, Gandhian Perspectives, 13 (1), July – December, p. 153 – 159. 60 Yadav Rajendra Singh and Panda Sushmeeta Kumar (2005): Education as fundamental right need for community participation in primary education, University News, 43 (25), 20 January, p. 11 – 23.

26

The studies of Coveta Locksheed, Ravidranathan, Atma Ram, Banerjee

Revemini, Nalini, Shukla, Vasavi, Thunga Muthu, Krishna Kumar, Desh Pande,

Yadav and Akshay are discussed the issues and problems faced in the primary

education in varied dimensions and situations. Coveta is critically examined the

achieving sustainability of universal primary education in India contrast to the

experiences of various developing and underdeveloped countries. Further, the

study suggested a policy framework for effective implementation of primary

education programmes based on the experiences of the various counties.

Similarly, the study of Lockshed Marlaine analysed the improvements achieved in

the primary education in Indian contrast to the achievement of the other

developing countries. Moreover, the study also suggested remedial measures to

attain further improvements in primary education based on the experiences of the

other developing countries. Ravindranathan analyzed the problem faced in the

primary education in sociological perspective parameters such as community,

economic strength, occupation, categories of the castes, backward areas and

poverty levels. Further, the study given viable solutions for the rectification of the

problems confronting in various spheres in the above mentioned parameters in

short and long term perspectives. Atma Ram study envisages the need for

composite effort particularly in the areas from community participation, voluntary

organizations and governmental organization. Moreover, the study given several

recommendations to integrate the efforts to develop primary education to achive

objectives of the universalisation of primary education and objectives of the new

educational policy. Banerjee Rukmini analyzed the reasons for low enrolment and

higher dropout rates exist in the lower income groups of varied situations. Further,

the study suggested alternative ways and means to improve the enrolment rates in

above mentioned income group categories.

The study of Nalini discussed the funds availability for the free and

compulsory education for all children. Moreover, the study suggested framework

for the involvement of different international funding agencies and private sector

participation in the primary education programmes in our country. Similarly, the

study of Sukhla prepared a blue print for primary education in rural areas based on

the variations in the performance of the programmes in different regions. Further,

they prepared a blue print giving approaches to eliminate gaps and deficiencies

27

exist in the primary education programmes. Vasavi study is identified gaps exist

tin the community participation in primary education in different socio-economic

and backward regions. Further, the study traced out the adverse effects araised due

to community participation gap in the primary education. Apart from this, the

study suggested measures for the improvement of the community participation in

primary education. Thungamuthu study analyzed the functional status of the

primary education programmes over the period. The achievements of the primary

education is not upto the mark and identified vide gap between targets and

achievements of the programmes. Further, the study suggested the marketing

managerial approach for the effective implementation of primary education

programmes. Krishna Kumar study analysed the performance of the details of

primary education programmes. Further, the study identified several deficiencies

which shows adverse effects particularly, coverage of the programme, fund

utilization, infrastructural facilities, managerial and monitoring system. Besides

this, the study suggested concrete recommendations for the effective functioning

of primary education programme. Similarly, the study of Desh Pande pointed out

that there is deteriations in the primary education particularly in coverage of

programme, enrolment and dropout aspects. Further, the study identified the

causative factors and its impact over the period. Moreover, the study suggested

measures for the improvement of overall situations at grassroots level. The study

of Yadav analysed the existing performance of the primary education

programmes. Moreover, the study concluded that it is not possible to achieve

universalisation of primary education without improvement in coverage of the

programme, infrastructural facilities, control of funds wastages, proper utilization

of funds, involvement and responsibility, etc. Similarly, the study of Sood Akshay

discussed the critical issues involved to obtain success of the primary education

programme. There is a paramount need to handle critical issues such as coverage

of the programmes, misappropriation of funds, maintain quality, proper utilization

of funds, improvement in accountability and responsibility etc effectively at

grassroots levels.

The study of Jaganath analyzing the role of NGO’s in primary education

programme. The findings of the study indicate that the performance of the NGO’s

is better which have good reputation in the society while some of the NGOs which

28

have no reputation in the society shows poor performance in the implementation

of the primary education programmes. Hence, the study concluded that to involve

prestigious NGO’s only in the primary education programmes. Similarly, the

study of Narayan critically examined the scope and ability to involve the private

sector participation in primary schooling. Moreover, the study suggested several

nodalities and norms to involve private sectors in primary education effectively.

Chatterjee is noticed several deficiencies in the primary schools particularly in the

quality, infrastructural facilities, funds utilization, release of funds, etc. As a

result, the objectives of the primary schools may effect at grassroots levels.

Further, the study suggested strong recommendation for the over all improvement

of the situation. Amarjeet study is also analyzed the functional status of the

primary schooling in India. Further, the study discussed the needy areas to be

strengthen to achieve targets of the primary education of five year plans in short

and long term perspective.

III. Review of earlier studies pertaining to women education:

Chanana Karuna61 (1990), Kanbargi. R and Kulakarni62 (1991), Bara D. R.

Bhangra and B. Minz63 (1991), Harish Chandran D64 (1992), Nayar Usha65

(1993), Raja Rani66 (1993), Nayar Usha67 68 (1995), Chanana Karuna69 (1996),

Battacharjee N70 (1999), Chinara Besmadhar71 (2000), Nayar Usha72 (2000),

61 Chanana Karuna61 (1990): Structure and Ideologies, Socialization and Education of the Girls Child in South Asia, The Indian Journal of Social Science, Vol. 3, no. 1, p. 20 – 28. 62 Kanbargi. R and Kulakarni (1991): Child work, schooling and Fertility in Rural Karnataka, Child Labour in the India Subcontinent, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 24 – 31. 63 Bara D. R. Bhangra and B. Minz (1991): Tribal Female Literacy: Factors in differentiation among Munda Religion Community, Social Action, vol. 41, October – December, p. 33 – 38. 64 Harish Chandran D (1992): Girls Education in India: A Situational Analysis, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, vol. VI, no. 2, p. 16 – 23. 65 Nayar Usha (1993): Universal Primary Education of Rural Girls in India, NCERT, New Delhi, p. 34–43. 66 Raja Rani (1993): Education of Girls in Rural India, in Ved Prakash (ed), School Education in Rural India, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, p. 82 – 91. 67 Nayar Usha (1995): Gender Issues in Primary Education, Indian Educational Review, 30(1), January, p. 9 – 18. 68 Nayar Usha (1995): Planning for Universalisation of Primary Education of Girls and Women’s Empowerment: Gender Study in Haryana, Journal of Indian Education, Vol. 21, no. 3., November, p. 22–29. 69 Chanana Karuna (1996): Gender inequality in primary schooling in India: The Human Rights Perspective, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, 10 (4), p. 16 – 27. 70 Battacharjee N (1999): The looking glass: Gender Socialization in a Primary School in Culture Socialization and Human Development, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 6 – 8. 71 Chinara Besmadhar (2000): Gender Disparity and Education in Post Independence India: A Situational Analysis, University News, 32 (5), 31 January, p. 1 – 7.

29

Karlekar Malvika73 (2000), Nayar Usha74 (2000), Wazir Rekha75 (2000), Khan

Mohsin Ali76 (2001), Krishnaji N77 (2001), Ramachandran Vimala Saihjee Aarti78

(2002), Shilpi and Sanwal79 (2002), Srinivasa N and Arunesh Dubey80 (2002) and

Sekhar Zeba A81 (2003), are analysed gender differences and improvement

aspects of the girls education in various dimensions such as regional, tribal, rural,

social, policy, planning and issue aspects of varied situations.

The studies of Chanana Karuna, Harish Chandran, Battacharjee, Chinara

Besmadhar, Nayar Usha are discussed gender inequality and disparities in girls

education in varied situations. Chanana Karuna discussed the gender inequality in

primary schooling in India at grassroots level. Further, the study determined the

causative factors for the gender equalities and its consequences in short and long

term perspectives in the society. Besides this, the study suggested several

alternative ways and means for the mitigation of the inequality in primary

schooling through provision of incentive for the girl students particularly for fess

weavers, free transport text books supply, etc. Similarly, another study of Karuna

is also analysed the structure and ideologies followed particularly in girls

education in varied socio-economic scenarios in south Asia. Moreover, the study

concluded that traditions and customs in varied socialization process structurally

the education opportunities even at primary level. Apart from this, the study given

wide empirical evidences in different countries in south Asia. Further, the study

72 Nayar Usha (2000): Education of Rural Girls and Women in India: Policy Initiatives and Future Directions, Man and Development, 22 (4), December, op. 49 – 57. 73 Karlekar Malvika (2000): Girls Access to Schooling: An Assessment in the Gender Gap in Basic Education,: NGO’s as Charge Agents, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 42 – 48. 74 Nayar Usha (2000): Education of Girls in India: An Assessment Year 2000, Assessment Education for All, MHRD, NIEPA, p. 34 – 41. 75 Wazir Rekha (2000): The Gender Gap in basic Education – NGO’s Change Agents, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 63 – 71. 76 Khan Mohsin Ali (2001): Women’s Education: Still A Distant Dream, Yojana, 45, December, p. 40 – 43. 77 Krishnaji N (2001): Poverty Gender Schooling: A Study of Two Districts in Andhra Pradesh in Elementary Education in Rural India, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 52 – 68. 78 Ramachandran Vimala Saihjee Aarti (2002): The New Segregation on Gender and Equity in Primary Education, Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (17), April, p. 1600 – 13 79 Shilpi and Sanwal (2002): Gender Discrimination: A Hurdle in Primary, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, vol. 16, no. 3, p. 12 – 19. 80 Srinivasa N and Arunesh Dubey (2002) Elementary Education Poverty and Gender Differentials in North – East India: Some Issues, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, vol. 16, no. 3, June, p. 33 – 48. 81 Sekhar Zeba A (2003): Schooling Opportunities for Girls as a Stimulus for Fertility Change in Rural Pakistan, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 51 (3), April,

30

given policy to adopt in different countries to cross social and structural barriers

as well as for the over all improvement of the situation. The study of Harish

Chandran discussed the girls education in India as per situation. The study

concluded that there is a wide imbalances are exist in girls education, particularly

region-wise and state wise. Moreover, the study recommended special packages to

be implemented exclusively showing in lower performance states in short and

long term perspectives. Similarly, the study of Battacharjee also analyzed the

gender differences in different social strata’s in respect of primary schooling

aspects. The study concluded that almost all the social strata’s reported relatively

lower performance contrast to the male segment particularly in school going

children, attendance, enrolment and dropouts. Moreover, the study suggested

alterative ways and means for the over all improvement situations in varied socio-

economic scenarios. Chinara Besmadhar study is discussed disparities exist in

gender gap in primary education since post independence period. Moreover, the

study traced out various causative factors and its impact on the society. After

critical examination of the situations, the study advised several policies to mitigate

the disparities exists in gender aspects at grassroots level. Similarly, the study of

Nayar Usha assessed the trends in the girls education based on the 200 years.

Moreover, the study traced out periodical achievements in different dimensions.

Apart from this, the study worked out success rates based on the achievements and

targets of the various educational programmes over the period.

The studies of Kanvargi, Bara, Nayar Usha, Raja Rani, Nayar Usha,

Krishnaji, Srinivasa and Sekhar Zeba discussed the girls education in different

social and empirical scenarios. The study of Kanvargi is analyzed the impact of

child work on primary schooling in rural Karnataka regions. The study concluded

that there is only alternative way is to strictly implement ban on child labour.

Moreover, the study suggested rehabilitation centers should be developed for child

labor exclusively and provide facilities to enroll in primary schools. Similarly, the

study of Bara is also focused the status of the female literacy in rural areas

particularly in the Munda religions. The percentage of female literacy is very low

due to lack of awareness and suitable programmes to attract for primary

schooling. Apart from this, the study concluded that there is a paramount need to

31

provide free primary school institutions to given path to the children to in primary

schools.

Nayar Usha is discussed the need for the universal primary education for

rural girls in short and long term perspectives. Moreover, the study assessed the

functional status of the girl education programmes in rural areas. The study

identified several deficiencies in girl education programmes alognwith the

rectification measures. Similarly, the study of Raja Rani analysed the trends of

girls education in rural India over the period. Further, the study concluded that the

existing trends are not able to achieve the objectives and targets of the new

educational policy. Moreover, the study envisages that the pre-primary education

programmes to be strengthen further at grassroots levels. Another study of Nayar

Usha suggested a plan and frame work for achieve universalisation of primary

education in Haryana. Moreover, the study formulated feasible and amicable

policy to cover girls enrolment particularly in primary education level. Similarly,

another study of Nayar Usha discussed the policy initiations to effective

implementation of girls education programmes particularly in rural areas based on

the future directions. Moreover, the study suggested needy areas to be strengthen

not only to achieve better coverage but also for effective implementation of the

girls education programmes in rural areas of the country.

Krishnaji study focused the poverty impact on gender schooling in the

districts of Andhra Pradesh. Moreover, the study assessed the impact of mid-day

meal programme on girls primary education. The study concluded that the mid-

day meal programme impact not upto the mark on girls primary education.

Similarly, the study of Srivastava is also assessed the imbalance of the poverty on

elementary education particularly in gender deficiencies in North – East India.

The study concluded that the poverty shows adverse effect on the primary

education and inturn majority of the rural children not able to attend the primary

schools at grassroots levels. Further, the study suggested several alternative

measures to mitigate the influence of poverty on girls education particularly at

primary level. Sahan Zuba study assessed the impact of schooling opportunities

for girls on fertility levels in rural Pakistan. The study concluded that the region

have better girl education shows decline in fertility levels over the period. Hence,

32

the girls education shows tremendous impact on control of population in Rural

Pakistan.

Geetha, Nayar Usham Malvika, Rekha Aarti, Ali and Shilpi are analsyed

the social factors, schooling access to girls, NGO’s role, gender discrimination,

impact in different scenarios over the period. The study of Geeta critically

examined the patterns of the girls schooling in the different social categories. The

study determined the lower level girl schooling is reported in backward and

scheduled caste and tribes particularly in backward and tribal regions. Moreover,

the study, identified causative factors as well as several rectification measures for

the improvement of the girl schooling in the above mentioned areas and

categories. Similarly, Nayar Usha study is also identified gender issues in primary

education. Apart from this, the study suggested feasible and amicable policy to

mitigate gender issues in primary education in short and long term perspectives.

Malavika is measures the access of the schooling and its impact on gender gap in

basic education. Further, the study analysed the NGO’s role in promotion of girls

primary education. The study concluded that better results can be obtained in the

areas which have better access to the schooling particularly enrolment. Moreover,

the NGO’s role played vital role in the achievements of the targets of girl

education programmes. Similarly, the study of Rekha analysed the NGO’s role in

primary education system. Moreover, the study identified several gaps and

deficiencies which create gender gap in primary education. Apart from this, the

study concluded that the NGO’s intervention should be further strengthen

particularly in the mobilization and operational aspects. Moreover, the study

suggested alternative ways and means to achieve better NGO’s intervention at

grassroots level.

Aarti study traced out several gender gaps in primary education

particularly in enrolment and dropouts among regions and social segregations.

Besides this, the study suggested strategies to eliminate imbalances exist in the

above mentioned aspects. Similarly, the study of Shilpi is found gender

discrimination in primary schooling as well as its stands hurdle to achieve targets

of the primary education programme. Moreover, the study suggested a policy

frame not only to reduce gender imbalances as well as to achieve targets of the

primary education programmes in short and long term perspective.

33

IV. Review of earlier studies pertaining case studies and empirical studies:

Rajan S. L. and A. Jaya Kumar82 (1992), Drezejean and M Saran83 (1993),

Hary Dhand84 (1996), Swarna Lathadas85 (1997), Duraisamy Malathy86 (1998),

Sinha A and Sinha87 (1998), Kandar Sangita88 (1999), Subramanian R89 (1999),

Jaffari SSA90 (2000), Banerji Rukmini91 (2000), Kulkarni Vijay Parikh Alka92

(2000), Dhankar Rohit De Torn93 (2000), Chakrabarti and Banerjea94 (2000), K.

Sujatha95 (2000), Vasavi A R wit K Chamaraj96 (2000), Ramachandran Vimala97

(2001), Reddy P R98 (2001), Jabbi M K and C. Rajyalakshmi (2001)99, Nambissan

Geetha100 (2001), Pande Anuradha101 (2001), Yadappanavar A V102 (2002), Datta

82 Rajan S. L. and A. Jaya Kumar (1992): Impact of Noon-meal programme on primary education, An explanatory study in Tamil Nadu, Economic and Political Weekly, October, pp. 642 – 655. 83 Drezejean and M Saran (1993): Primary education and economic development in China and India, Discussion paper, D&P 47, London School of Economic, London, processed p. 18 – 24. 84 Hary Dhand (1996): The case study method for elementary and secondary school class rooms, Journal of India education, vol. 22, no. 2, August, pp. 16 – 23. 85 Swarna Lathadas (1997): Early childhood education in Assam with special reference to Balwadi and Anganwadi, Journal of Indian Education, vol. 33, May, pp. 21 – 27. 86 Duraisamy Malathy (1998): Children’s schooling in rural Tamilnadu – Gender disparity and role of access, parental and household factors, Journal of educational planning and administration, 12(2), p. 32–41. 87 Sinha A and Sinha (1998): Primary schooling in north India, A field investigation, Primary Schooling in India, New Delhi, p. 11 – 18. 88 Kandar Sangita (1999): Education and Health for all by 2000 Ad. Project for Maharashtra, Manpower Journal 35 (3), October – December, pp. 119 – 42. 89 Subramanian R (1999): The District Primary Education Programme: The Decentralisation challenges, paper presented at a workshop needs Vs rights, social policy from a child – central perspectives, New Delhi, July, pp. 43 – 49. 90 Jaffari SSA (2000): A gender biased educational pattern in slums of Uttar Pradesh, Nagar Lok 32 (1), January – March, p. 58 – 66. 91 Banerji Rukmini (2000): Poverty and primary schooling filed studies from Mumbai and Delhi, Economic and Political Weekly, 35 (10), 4 March, p. 795 – 802. 92 Kulkarni Vijay Parikh Alka (2000): Community Participation and Universalisation of Education: A case study, Yojana 44 (10), October, p. 25 – 28. 93 Dhankar Rohit De Torn (2000): Primary education in Rajasthan, Man and Development, 22 (4), December, p. 58 – 63. 94 Chakrabarti and Banerjea (2000): Primary Education in Himalchal Pradesh: A case study of Kinrmur district, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, vol. XIV, no. 14, p. 42 – 48. 95 K. Sujatha (2000): Education of Indian scheduled tribes: A study of community schools in the district of Visakhapatnam, International Institute of Educational Planning, Paris, pp. 11 – 17. 96 Vasavi A R wit K Chamaraj (2000): Community – school inter links, preliminary report of a socio-anthropological study of primary education in five districts of Karnataka, national Institute of Advanced Studies, pp. 19 – 27. 97 Ramachandran Vimala (2001): Community participation in primary education: Innovation in Rajasthan, Economic and Political Weekly, 36 (25): 23 January, pp. 2244 – 250 98 Reddy P R (2001): Primary education in Manipur: A study of two districts, Social Welfare 48 (1), August, pp. 28 – 34. 99 Jabbi M K and C. Rajyalakshmi (2001): Education of marginalsied social grades in Bihar, Elementary Education in Rural India, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 3 – 9. 100 Nambissan Geetha (2001): Social diversity and regional disparities schooling: A study of rural Rajasthan, Elementary Education, in Rural India, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 56 – 61. 101 Pande Anuradha (2001): Education of Rural children in UP, Himalayas, Elementary Education in Rural India, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 53 – 58.

34

Sumanth103 (2002), Botelho Abanto104 (2002), Yadav Anil K, Srivastava Madhan

and Pal Chaitali105 (2002), D. Anuradha et. al.106 (2002), Dc. Anuradha, Claire

Noronha and Meera Samson107 (2002), Kumar Rana et. al.108 (2003), Leclereq

Francosis109 (2003), Lassivile Gerard and Tanjee, Peng110 (2003), Sanjay Kumar

Kopaar B J and Bala Subramanyam S111 (2003), Balagopalan S Ramya

Subramanyan112 (2003), Akila R113 (2004), Rao D Pulla114 (2004), Najith Kumar

and George K K115 (2009), Asadullah Mohmad Niaz and Chaudhury Nazmul116

(2009), are analysed several case studies in respect of impact of various primary

education programmes, status of primary education in regional, local and country

level in different socio-economic stratas in varied empirical situations.

The study of Rajan assessed the impact of noon-meal programme on

primary education in Tamil Nadu. Moreover, the study examined the perception

102 Yadappanavar A V (2002): Case Study: Factors influencing elementary schools, Social Welfare 48 (10), January, p. 10- 14. 103 Datta Sumanth (2002): The determinants of children’s educational attainment: A socio economic empirical study on tribals of Tripura, Indian Social Science Review 3 (2), July – December, p. 267 – 87. 104 Botelho Abanto (2002): Primary education and language in Goa: Colonial legacy and post colonial conflicts, Journal of Social and Economic Development, 4(2), July – December, pp. 213 – 34. 105 Yadav Anil K, Srivastava Madhan and Pal Chaitali (2002): Constructing development index for primary education in India: An interstate comparison, Margin, 35 (1), October – December, pp. 55 – 69. 106 D. Anuradha et. al. (2002): Private schools for less privileged some insights from a case study, Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (2), 25 December, pp.5230 – 236 107 Dc. Anuradha, Claire Noronha and Meera Samson (2002): Primary education in Himachal Pradesh: Examining a success story in Indian Educational Report, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp. 13 – 19. 108 Kumar Rana et. al. (2003): State of Primary education in West Bengal, Economic and Political Weekly, 38 (22), 31 May, pp. 2159 – 164. 109 Leclereq Francosis (2003): Education guarantee scheme and primary schooling in Madhya Pradesh, Economic and Political Weekly, 38 (19), 10 may, pp. 1855 – 869. 110 Lassivile Gerard and Tanjee, Peng (2003): Student learning in public and private primary schools in Madagaskar, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 51 (3), April, pp. 699 – 717. 111 Sanjay Kumar Kopaar B J and Bala Subramanyam S (2003): Primary education in rural areas: an alternative model, Economic and Political Weekly, 38 (34), 23 August, p. 3533 – 536. 112 Balagopalan S Ramya Subramanyan (2003): Dalit and Adivasi children in Schools: Some preliminary research themes and findings, IDS Bulletin, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 6 – 15. 113 Akila R (2004): Reaching global goals in primary education gender concerns for Tamil Nadu, Economic and Political Weekly, 39 (25), 19 June, pp. 2617 – 622. 114 Rao D Pulla (2004): Status of primary education among scheduled tribes in Andhra Pradesh, IASS, Quarterly, 23 (2), October – December, pp. 97 – 112. 115 Najith Kumar and George K K (2009): Kerala’s education system from inclusion to exclusion? Evidence on the role of school autonomy parental participation, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 58 (1), p. 25 – 57. 116 Asadullah Mohmad Niaz and Chaudhury Nazmul (2009), Reverse gap in schooling in Bangladesh: Insights from urban and rural households, Journal of Development Studies, 45 (8), September, pp. 1360 – 380.

35

of the parents and students regarding benefits, advantages and disadvantages

functional status of the programmes. Besides this, the study also determined the

contribution of the mid-day meal in case of enrolments and declining trends in

dropout rates among different regions in Tamil Nadu. Similarly, the study of

Swarnalatha Das is also assessed the functional status of the Balwadi and

Anganwadi programmes in Assam. Apart from this, the study assess the coverage

of the programme among different socio-economic regions in Assam. Besides

this, the study assessed the benefits derived from the programmes as well as its

impact on primary education at grass root levels. Moreover, the study traced out

some deficiencies exists in the programme along with remedial measures.

Sangita study is assessed the coverage and functional status and

accessibility of the education and health facilities as per norms in state of

Maharashtra. Moreover, the study identified several gaps in respect of coverage,

accessibility particularly in primary education among regions. Moreover, the

study suggested amicable measures for the elimination of the gaps as well as for

effective implementation of the programmes in the state of Maharashtra.

Similarly, the study of Subramanian critically examined the functional status of

the district primary education programmes. Besides this, the study suggested

several policy measures for the decentralization to achieve better performance at

grassroots levels. The study of Sujatha assessed the functional status of the

community schools of the scheduled tribes in the district of Visakhapatnam. The

performance of the community schools are not up to the mark due to lack of

mobilization, facilities, inaccessibility. Further, the study given several

recommendations to strengthen the basic facilities as well as to improve the

functional status of the community schools. Similarly, the study of Vasavi is also

assessed community links of primary schools in the five districts of Karnataka.

The study traced out several variations in between primary schools and

community level, among regions, social, economical stratas at grassroots level.

Further, the study determined causative factors and its impact on primary

education programmes in the above mentioned aspects. Moreover, the study given

policy measures for the mitigation of variation as well as effective implementation

of the primary education programme in short and long term perspectives.

Ramachandran Vimala is assessed the component of community participation in

36

primary education programmes in the state of Rajasthan. Moreover, the study

identified gaps in the community participation among regions and social stratas.

The study concluded that better community participation achieved better results in

the implementation of the primary educational programmes in irrespective of

regions and social stratas. Moreover, the study chalked out a model to achieve

optimum community participation in the primary education programmes at

grassroots level.

The study of Yaddappavavar examined the factors influencing elementary

schools to achieve better performance. Moreover, the study concluded that lack of

coordinating, mobilization, accessibility, infrastructural facilities etc., effects the

performance of the elementary schools at grass roots level. Similarly, Datta

Sumanth study also assessed the attainment of children education in tribal areas of

the Tripura. Moreover, the study concluded that the community participation

create better attainment towards primary education, particularly, in Tribal areas.

Besides this, the study suggested several alternative ways and means to achieve

better community participation particularly in tribal areas. The study of Francosis

assessed the education guarantee scheme achievements in primary schools in

Madhya Pradesh. Moreover, the study appraised the contribution of education

guarantee scheme in primary schooling in respect of enrolment aspects. Moreover,

the study suggested several remedial measures of the effective implementation of

employment guarantee schemes in varied empirical situation. Similarly, the study

of Rao is assessed the performance of the various primary education programmes

implementation in the tribal areas of Andhra Pradesh. Moreover, the study

concluded that several variations are reported in the implementation of primary

education programme among tribal areas and scheduled tribes. Besides this, the

study suggested several amicable solutions for attain better performance to various

primary education programmes at grassroots level.

The study of Saran analysed relationship between primary education

development and economic development in China and India over the period.

Moreover, the study concluded that the regions which have better primary

education shows better economic development i.e. vice-versa. Hence, the study

recommended that to give top priority for development of primary education

37

particularly in backward and developed counties. Similarly, the study of Nazmul

is also find reverse gap in schooling in Bangladesh. Moreover, the study analysed

rural household characteristics to contribute for primary education development in

rural and urban areas. Further, the study concluded that the primary level

education development create strong platform to achieve economic development

at grassroots level. Alka is discussed the community participation in the

universalisation of education. This study is also concluded that community

participation is the prime requirement to achieve goals of the various primary

education programme at grassroots level. Besides this, the study is suggested

several measures to achieve effective community participation in primary

education development programmes. Similarly the study of Rajyalakshmi is also

concluded that the primary education contributed to change the views and also

recognized the importance of education in various social groups in Bihar. Another

study of Balasubramanyam suggested a comprehensive and integrated model for

implementation of primary education programme in rural areas. Further, the study

suggested a feasible framework and policy to execute model plan in varied

empirical situations in short and long term perspective. The study of Balagopalam

is also analyzed the household characteristics of the children in primary schools of

Dalit and Adivas. Based on this study, the study suggested a mobilization plan and

community participation plan to promote primary education programme. Naijith

Kumar study is also focused the parental participation and contribution in the

restructuring of the primary educational programmes in the varied empirical

situations. Moreover, the study suggested issues should be inclusive and exclusive

in the implementation of primary education programmes.

Malathy study analysed the children’s schooling in rural Tamil Nadu in

view of accessibility, gender disparity and household factors. The study concluded

that community participation, mobalisation, accessibility, staff support are the

prime requisite conditions to promote children’s schoolings at grassroots level.

Similarly, the study of Benerjii Rukmini analysed the poverty impact on primary

education in the Mumbai and Delhi metropolitan regions particularly in slum

areas. The study concluded that the poverty is one of the most influencing factors

to contribute for low enrolment and higher rate of dropout. Moreover, the study

suggested the mid day meal, Anganwadi and Balwadi programmes should be

38

implemented effectively to improve the overall situation particularly in slum

areas. Nambisan study is also traced out disparities in regional and social

categories in schooling in rural Rajasthan. Moreover, the study concluded that

there is a special attention and specific plan should be required to mitigate

variation in primary schooling. Several amicable measures are suggested for

effective implementation of primary education programmes in varied empirical

situations in short and long term perspective. Lassivle study is also analyzed

learning process in public and private primary schools in Madagaskar. The study

concluded that there is a vide variations reported in respect of teaching methods,

learning process, quality in between public and private primary schools. Apart

from this, the study suggested amicable measures to improve the quality of public

schools at grassroots level. Hary Dhand study discussed the case study method for

primary and secondary class room teaching training. The unique feature of this

method is to improve the teaching to understand all the categories of the children

and inturn the quality of teaching will be improved substantially. Similarly,

Abanto study is also suggested suitable language for teaching of children to pre-

primary and primary education. Sinha study also assessed the functional status of

the primary schools in north India. There are wide variations exist in the

functioning of schools among regions and social categories. Besides this, the

study given viable policy framework for effective functioning of primary schools

as well as to eliminate variations in the functioning of schools among regions and

social categories.

Kumar Rana critically examined the state of primary education in West

Bengal. The study identified several gaps, variations, deficiencies exist in the

functional status of the primary education programmes among region and social

categories. Besides this, the study suggested a policy framework to avoid all the

deficiencies gaps and variations as well as to effective implementation of primary

education programmes. Similarly, Dhankar Rohit also assessed the functional

status of primary education in Rajasthan. Moreover, the study assessed the

performance of the primary education programmes among region and social

groups. Besides this, the study identified several zones which have lower

performance in the implementation of the primary education programmes.

Further, the study suggested several action programmes exclusively suitable for

39

lower performance zone for the improvement of the functional status of the

primary education programmes. Based on this, the best suitable model plan is

suggested for the improvements of the achievement of the primary education

programmes at grassroots level. Reddy is also done similar exercise in primary

education in Manipur state. Pande is critically examined education process of rural

children in the UP Himalayan regions. There are vide variations exists in the

implementation of primary education programmes due to lack of mobilization,

community participation, infrastructural facilities, inaccessibility of primary

schools, among regions. Moreover, the study suggested measures for the

strengthening of the primary education programmes to attain better success.

V. Review of earlier studies pertaining to enrolment and dropout aspects:

Ramanamma A and Usha Baubawale117 (1978), Setha Ram AS and

Ushadevi118 (1985), Zaidi S M119 (1991), Editor120 (1993), Ambasnt N K and K B

Rath121 (1995), Krishna Swami S and Rajnalkar122 (1995), NSSO123 (1997), Jaya

Chandran Usha124 (1998), Filmer D and Laut Pritchett125 (1999), Gold haber

Dan126 (1999), Kinjoosep Alderman Harold and Brazer Peter F127 (1999), Tilak

JBG128 (2000), Raja Kutty S129 (2002), Sengupta Pyrali and Guha Joba130 (2002),

117 Ramanamma A and Usha Baubawale (1978): Sociological implications of school dropouts in Maharasthra, Social Change, June, Vol. 8(2), pp. 9 – 18. 118 Setha Ram AS and Ushadevi (1985): Integral dimensions of school participation: A study of dropouts, Institute of Social and Economic Change, Bangalore, pp. 33 – 49. 119 Zaidi S M (1991): Problems of wastage in school education: Dropouts of elementary level, Journal of educational planning and administration, vol. 5, no. 12, pp. 6 – 10. 120 Editor (1993): Preschool education reduces the dropouts, Times of India, December, pp. 6 121 Ambasnt N K and K B Rath (1995): A study of the effect of household community and school factors on the enrolment, retention and achievement of scheduled tribe children at primary level, Indian Educational Review, 30 (1), January, pp. 11 – 16. 122 Krishna Swami S and Rajnalkar (1995): Role of family dynamics in school withdrawal of girls, Journal of Education and Social Change, vol. 9, no. 2 and 3, pp. 19 – 25. 123 NSSO (1997): A note on economic activities and school attendance by children of India, Sarvekshana, October – December, p. 31 – 43. 124 Jaya Chandran Usha (1998): Socio-economic determinants of school attendance in India, pp. 2 – 9. 125 Filmer D and Laut Pritchett (1999): Education and enrolment and attainment in India – household, wealth, gender, village and state effects, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, vol. 3 and 2, p. 2–8. 126 Gold haber Dan (1999): An endogenous model of public school expenditure and private school enrolment, Journal of Urban Economics 46 (1), July, pp. 106 – 28. 127 Kinjoosep Alderman Harold and Brazer Peter F (1999): Can private school subsidies increase enrolment for the poor? Queta Urban fellowship programme, World Bank Review, 15 (1), September, pp. 443 – 65. 128 Tilak JBG (2000): Why do some children never go to school in rural India? Kurukshetra, October, pp. 8 – 12.

40

Vasavi A R and Archana Mehendale131 (2003), Lloyd Cyntha B Metecerm and

Sathar Zeba A132 (2005), are analyzed enrolment, dropouts and retention aspects

in respect of sociological, community, household, socio-economic, family, areas,

gender gaps accessibility dimensions in varied empirical situations.

The study of Ramanamma is critically examined dropout patterns in

respect of sociological implications in the state of Maharasthra. The study

concluded that socio-logical parameter is showing higher influence on dropouts

rather than economic parameters. Moreover, the study suggested measures for the

reduction of dropouts to eliminative sociological implications exist in the various

socio-economic regions. Similarly, the study of Ambasant analyzed effect of

household, community and school factors on the enrolment, retention aspects

particularly in scheduled tribe children. The study traced out various relationship

in enrolment pattern in the above mentioned aspects. The study concluded that the

low community participation, schools which have showing lower performance are

reported lower enrolments among institutions wise and category-wise of

scheduled tribes. Moreover, the study suggested a framework suitable different

areas and different scheduled tribe categories to improve the enrolment ratio at

grassroots level. Jayachandran Usha discussed socio-economic determinants on

school attendance in India. The study traced out variations in attendance pattern

among regional, social and economic conditions. Moreover, the study highlighted

a special focus should be required to implement primary education programme

particularly for the improvement of the attendance. Besides this, the study

suggested suitable alternatives ways and means as per region-wise, social

category–wise to improve attendance in primary schools. Similarly, the study of

Krishnaswamy analyzed role of family dynamics in withdraw of girls in primary

schools. The study concluded that the enrolment of girls in the primary schools are

129 Raja Kutty S (2002): Primary education in rural areas: access, enrolment and retention, Kurukshetra, 50 (12), October, p. 11 – 20. 130 Sengupta Pyrali and Guha Joba (2002): Enrolment dropout grade development girl children in West Bengal, Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (17), 27 April, p. 1621 – 37. 131 Vasavi A R and Archana Mehendale (2003): Art of school children: contexts and experiences of educational deprivation, Journal of educational planning and Administration, vol. XVII, no. 1, January, pp. 18 – 23. 132 Lloyd Cyntha B Metecerm and Sathar Zeba A (2005): The effects of gender difference in primary school access type and quality in the decision to enroll in rural Pakistan, Economic Development Cultural Change, 53 (3), April, pp. 685 – 710.

41

very low. Further, the study reported that the withdrawals of girls from the schools

are also very high. The families having education even though they are poor,

withdrawal of girls are very low. The study concluded that counseling of family

members is only alternative to reduced the withdrawals as well as to improve

enrolment rates of the girls.

The study of NSSO discussed the impact of economic activities on school

attendance of the children. The areas which belongs to working class community

reported irregular in attendance. Further, the study suggested measures to avoid

discrimination in the school attendance. Similarly, the study of Filmer assessed

the enrolment patterns in the view of household, gender, wealth aspects.

Moreover, the study measured the impact of household gender and household

variations in enrolment. Further, the study assessed the variations and its influence

at the village and state level and in-turn worked out its effect overall targets of the

enrollment at grassroots level. The study of Gold Haber Dan worked out

endogenous model to traced out relationship between expenditure patterns of the

public and private schools. Moreover, the study concluded that private schools

enrolment shows better progress even through they reported lower expenditure

contrast to the public schools expenditure. Similarly, the study of Kinjoosep

measured the contribution of the subsidies in the improvement of enrolment of the

poor children. The study concluded that the involvement of NGO’s is the prime

requirement to improve enrolment of the poor children particularly in public

primary schools. Tilak study is also discussed the reasons for the children never

go to school in rural India. The study identified the occupations of the households

which have never go to school children, particularly in downward classes. Further,

the study suggested measures for the improvement of the enrolment in the

respective households.

Raja Kutty study is measured relationship between access and enrolment.

The study concluded that they have inaccessible primary schools reported the poor

enrolment in almost all the regions. Further, the study suggested alternative ways

and means not only to create accessibility for primary schools but also to attain

improvement in the enrolment ratio at grassroots levels. Similarly, the study of

Lloyd Cyntha is also measured the accessibility role in respect of enrolment in

42

rural Pakistan. The similar conclusion is drawn that the influence of accessibility

is very high in enrolment patterns. Moreover, the study concluded that the

accessibility of primary school is gains paramount importance to achieve targets

of the primary education development programmes. Vasavi study discussed the

family conditions of the out of school children in varied empirical situations.

Further, the study concluded that accessibility of the primary schools,

mobilization and counseling of the families only alternative to attract children to

the schools.

The study of Sitharamu is critically examined the dropout patterns in

respect of accessibility, family conditions, social conditions, regional and local

conditions, etc. The study conclude that almost all the above mentioned factors are

highly contributed to raise the dropouts over the period. Further, the study

suggested several measures for the reduction of dropouts at grassroots levels.

Similarly, the study of Zaidi is also analyzed the relationship between wastages

and dropouts in varied socio-economic and cultural scenarios. The study

concluded that well monitoring institutions which have less wastages shows the

lower level dropouts. Moreover, the study suggested ways and means to reduce

wastages as well as dropout rates in varied socio-economic and cultural scenarios.

Editor of the Times India pointed out that the pre-school education reduced the

dropout rates at grassroots level. Further, the study suggested several strategies to

improve pre-school facilities with in the provision of primary schools. The study

of Sengupta graded several regions on the basis of enrolment, dropout rates for the

girls students in West Bengal. The study concluded that almost all the regions

reported low level girl enrolments as well as high level dropout rates. The study

also identified causative factors along with remedial measures in different socio-

economic and cultural regions.

43

VI. Review of earlier studies pertaining to quality aspects:

Nambissan Geeta133 (2000), Venkateswarlu Nandula134 (2000), Maha Patra

SS135 (2002), Mythili N136 (2002), Stella Anthony and Gnanan A137 (2002), Desh

Pande J V138 (2002), Mehravandana and Bish P Seema139 (2004), and Sandhya

Sangaj140 (2008) are analyses quality particularly in the primary and elementary

education in varied dimensions in different empirical socio-economic and cultural

scenarios.

The study of Nambissan Geeta analysed the quality of education among

tribal children and primary schools. The study concluded that the quality of

education among tribal children and schools are not upto the mark due to lack of

staff and supervision, inaccessibility and in absence of basic facilities. Moreover,

the study suggested recommendations to improve overall situation in primary

schools. The study of Venkateswarlu examined the scope for introduction of

online education in elementary education. Further, the study suggested a model to

induce online systems particularly to primary and elementary education. Maha

Patra study is identified several indicators to determine the quality in the primary

education. Moreover, the study graded the several primary schools based on the

suggested parameters. Majority of the institutions showing lower quality due to

lack of effective coordination. Apart from this, the study suggested measures for

the improvement of the quality in education through strengthening of the weak

parameters. Similarly, Mythili study is examined the perceptions of the

community on quality of education in rural primary schools in Karnataka. The

133 Nambissan Geeta (2000): The social context of learning and the schooling of Dalit and Tribal children in quality in elementary education, Ecumenical Christian Centre, While Field Bangalore, p. 62 – 69. 134 Venkateswarlu Nandula (2000): Convergence for synergy – elementary education, Yojana, 44 (11), November, pp. 10 – 14. 135 Maha Patra SS (2002): Quality function deployment in an educational institution, Productivity 43 (3), October – December , pp. 418 – 25. 136 Mythili N (2002): Community pressure for higher quality of education – Rural primary school in Karnataka, Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (17), 27 April, pp. 1621 – 37. 137 Stella Anthony and Gnanan A (2002): Policy development in quality assurance: Conflict of interest and substantive changes, University News, 41 (10), 10 march, pp. 3 – 4. 138 Desh Pande J V (2002): Deteriorating primary education, Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (42), 19 October, pp. 4268 – 269. 139 Mehravandana and Bish P Seema (2004): Student perceptions of classroom learning environment, Research Journal Social Sciences 12 (2 – 3), pp. 11 – 22. 140 Sandhya Sangaj (2008) Improving the quality of elementary education, CLIP initiative of Andhra Pradesh, SSA, Journal of Indian Education, vol. XXXIII, No. 4, February, pp. 13 – 16.

44

study concluded that quality in majority of the schools are not satisfactory and

there is a paramount need to improve quality. Further, the respondents given vital

suggestions for the improvement of the quality of education. Moreover, the study

worked out clear cut policy for execution to maintain better quality in primary

schools at grassroots level. Similarly, Stella Anthony is also discussed policy

development to ensure better quality in primary and elementary education.

The study of Desh Pande established deteriorating trend in primary

education in respect of quality, enrolment and dropouts. Moreover, the study

discussed the causative factors contribute for decline in primary education.

Besides this, the study suggested remedial measures for the overall improvement

of the situation at grassroots level. Similarly, the study of Mehera Vandana

analyzed the student perception in classroom learning environment. Further, the

study traced out several deficiencies and gaps exist in classroom learning along

with rectification measures. Sandya is critically examined existing quality of

elementary education in Andhra Pradesh. Apart from this, the study traced out

causative factors shows impact on quality of education. Based on this, the study

suggested policy, control framework and alternative ways and means for the

improvement of the quality of the education.

VII. Review of earlier studies pertaining to planning and policy aspects:

Diwari Rashmi141 (1992), Tilak J B142 (1995), Datta Ray Sunanda K143

(2000), Chaudhri Sukanta144 (2001), Singh Ajay K145 (2002), Keene Thomas J and

Shaiger Douglas O146 (2002), Singh Ram Binod147 (2002), Pillai Neena148 (2003),

141 Diwari Rashmi (1992): An analytical review of schemes of incentives at the primary stage of education, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, vol. 56, no. 3, July, pp. 22 – 27. 142 Tilak J B (1995): Elementary education in India – Problems and perspectives, Margin, vol. 27, July – September, pp. 387 – 407. 143 Datta Ray Sunanda K (2000): Restructuring education policy: Idea of Universal Primary schooling, Tribune, 2 (9), January, pp. 10. 144 Chaudhri Sukanta (2001): When will we budget for education: Financing our school on the cheap, Asian Age, 6 May, p. 12. 145 Singh Ajay K (2002): Online education in India, Pranjana, 5 (2), July – December, pp. 121 – 22. 146 Keene Thomas J and Shaiger Douglas O (2002): The promise and fit falls of using impressive school accountability measures, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16 (4), Fall, pp. 91 – 114. 147 Singh Ram Binod (2002): Education: The Gandhian Approach,. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 45 (4), October – December, pp. 1095 – 1104. 148 Pillai Neena (2003): Restructuring the state run educational institutions, University News 41 (3), 3 February, pp. 9 – 10.

45

Rama Chandran Vimal149 (2003), Joshi A and Singh V P150 (2003), Mukherjee

Dhurjati151 (2003), Ghose Bhaskar152 (2005), Tilak Jandyala E G153 (2006), Rao V

S154 (2006), Gunnar Ston Victoria et. al155 (2009) are analysed programme feed

back, problems, policy, expenditure policy, accountability, approaches backward

and forward linkages, coverage of the programmes, priorities, allocation policy,

outcomes, etc.

Diwan Rashmi reviewed the schemes and incentives implemented at

primary stage of education. Further, the study traced out several deficiencies and

gaps exist in various spheres as well as to assess benefits derived from the

programmes. After the critical examination of the feed back, the study formulated

policy for effective implementation of the programmes and also eliminate existing

deficiencies and gaps exist in various spheres at grassroots level. Tilak is also

identified problems exist in elementary education. Moreover, the study formulated

effective policy not only to achieve targets of the primary education programmes

in short and long term perspectives. Similarly, the study of Datta Ray Sundaran

analyzed existing education policy in view of universal primary schooling.

Besides this, the study restructured education policy not only for better results but

also to achieve targets of the universal primary schooling in short and long term

perspective in varied socio-economic and cultural scenarios. The study of

Chaudhri Sukanta examined the financial allocation and expenditure pattern for

primary and elementary education programmes. Further, the study critically

analyzed the expenditure patterns and timing of the release of the grants over the

period. Apart from this, the study traced out several gaps and deficiencies exist in

the financial allocations and expenditure patterns. Moreover, the study suggested

149 Rama Chandran Vimal (2003): Backward and forward linkages that strengthen primary education, Economic and Political Weekly, 38 (10), 8 March, pp. 959 – 69. 150 Joshi A and Singh V P (2003): Navodaya an Assessment, Yojana, 47, February, pp. 36 – 40. 151 Mukherjee Dhurjati (2003): Education for all by 2010: Will it become a reality? Young Indian, 13 (27), February, pp. 5 – 7. 152 Ghose Bhaskar (2005): Education and its priority in development policy, Indian Journal of Public Administration, 41 (3), July – September, pp. 327 – 31. 153 Tilak Jandyala E G (2006): On allocating 6 per cent of GDP to education, Economic and Political Weekly, 41 (7), 16 February, 2pp. 613 – 18. 154 Rao V S (2006): Value – based administration of educational institutions, The Indian Heritage, University News 44 (5), 30 January, pp. 118 – 24. 155 Gunnar Ston Victoria et. al (2009) Does local school control raise student outcomes? Evidence on the role of school autonomy parental participation, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 58(1), pp. 25 – 52.

46

effective policy and plan for release of grants and for effective expenditure plan in

various sphere.

The study of Singh Ajay analyzed the scope and functional statues of the

online education in India. Further, the study determined the viability for

introduction of online education in elementary education. Besides this, the study

chalked out clear cut plan and policy for effective implementation of online

education exclusively for elementary education. Similarly, the study of Keene

Thomas analyzed the accountability in implementation of primary education

programmes and operation of primary schools. Moreover, the study discussed the

importance of the accountability for the success of the education programmes at

grassroots levels. Apart form this, the study suggested amicable measures for the

improvement of the accountability in implementation of education programmes

and operation of primary education institutions. Singh Ram is critically examined

the benefits of the Gandhian approach in particularly in primary education.

Moreover, the study suggested several measures which are more vital to success

primary education programmes in varied social, economic and cultural scenarios.

Pillai Neema discussed the functional status of the state run educational

institutions. Further, the study identified some operational gaps and deficiencies

which effect the functional status of the state run educational institutions. Besides

this, the study suggested the policy and plan to restructuring the state run

educational institutions to achieve better performance in short and long term

perspective. Similarly, the study of Ramachandran Vimal critically examines

backward and forward linkages to attain primary education. Moreover, the study

determined the direct and indirect backward and forward linkage through

strengthening of primary education in varied dimensions. Further, the study

clearly presented the benefits derived from universal education in various sectors

in short and long term perspective in global scenario. Similarly, the study of

Mukherjee is also analyzed the functional status of the primary educational

programmes based on the objectives and targets of the five year plan in the

country as a whole. The study identified several gaps and deficiencies exist in

various spheres which effect the outcome of the programme at grassroots level.

Moreover, the study suggested viable policy to achieve targets of the primary

47

education programmes in phased manner. Similarly, the study of Ghose Bhaskar

is also analyzed the operational aspects and functional status of the primary

education programmes over the period. Further, the study suggested a amicable

plan given to feasible priorities for the effective implementation of primary

education programmes and for effective functioning of educational institutions.

Tilak Jandyala examined the financial allocation for educational

programme in related to GDP. Moreover, the study discussed the need and

benefits derived from education sectors if 6 % GDP can invest for education.

Similarly, the study of Rao introduced the concept of value based administration

for educational institutions for effective functioning and attain better quality.

Moreover, the study suggested clear cut policy to attain better benefits to control

wastages in various spheres at grassroots level. The study of Joshi is critically

examined Navodaya concept for the introduction to state run primary educational

institutions for effective functioning and attain for better quality. Further, the

study chalked out the plan and policy to implement Navodaya concept in state run

educational institutions in phased manner. The study Gunnar Ston analyzed the

performance of the educational institutions based on parental participation.

Further, the study suggested model frame and policy for the effective involvement

of parental participation for attain better quality in primary education in short and

long term perspectives.

VIII. Review of earlier studies pertaining to infrastructural facilities:

Sundar Ramamani156 (1999), Kamal Rekha157 (2001), Atma Ram158

(2002), Ganchi D A159 (2006) and Jena Manipanda160 (2009), are analysed the

facilities available in the elementary schools and in primary educational

programmes.

156 Sundar Ramamani (1999): Accessibility and attainment in education and health care, Margin, 31 (3 – 4), April – June and July – September, pp. 45 – 58. 157 Kamal Rekha (2001): Accessing primary education: going beyond the classroom, Economic and Political Weekly, 36 (2), January, pp. 255 – 62. 158 Atma Ram (2002): Education management adequate facilities and infrastructure the primary needs, Statesman, 2 April, p. 4. 159 Ganchi D A (2006) A tri-layer cultural infrastructure for education imperatives for the globalizing, Indian University News, 44 (5), 30 January, pp. 53 – 59. 160 Jena Manipanda (2009): Schools without toilets undermine Orissa’s education, Social Welfare, 55 910), January, pp. 22 – 23.

48

The study of Sundar Ramamani analyzed accessibility and facilities

available in basic education and health care institutions. Moreover, the study

identified the levels of accessibility for education and health institutions among

different regions. The study concluded that there is a wide gap in accessibility

levels among regions. Apart from this, the study discussed the availability and

levels of the utilization of the facilities in basic education and health institutions

among regions. Besides this, the study suggested several measures for the

improvement of the accessibility levels as well as for the provision of facilities

and also improve the levels of the utilization of the facilities at grassroots levels.

Similarly, the study of Kamal Rekha critically examined the accessibility levels of

the primary schools among different socio-economic and cultural regions.

Moreover, the study emphasized variations in the accessibility levels and its

impact on enrolment among different regions. Moreover, the study suggested

alternative ways and means not only to improve the accessibility levels but also

improve enrolment through strengthening of basic facilities in the primary

educational institutions. The study of Atma Ram measures the adequacy and

inadequacies and infrastructure facilities available in primary schools. The study

focused the availability of the facilities such as building facilities, classroom

facilities, facilities available for implementation of primary education

programmes, etc. The study traced out several deficiencies and gaps in the

availability of above mentioned facilities as per region wise and institution wise.

Apart from this, the study chalked out policy frame not only to provision of new

facilities but also to strengthen the existing facilities at grassroots levels.

Ganchi study suggested a model framework to provide basic needs and

facilities to every institution in the phased manner to meet the existing and future

demands in short and long term perspectives. Moreover, the suggested model is

viable and feasible to execute in primary schools. The study of Jena Manipanda

analyzed the facilities evaluate in the schools particularly toilets in Orissa. The

study concluded that majority of the schools not having toilets at all. It indicates

the inadequate facilities exist in the primary schools. Moreover, the study

suggested amicable measures for the provision of toilets in every primary school.

49

The discussions in the review of earlier studies envisages that a lot of

research was carried out by various disciplines for the development of primary

education at grassroots level. Almost all the studies focused thrust areas of the

primary education. However, majority of the studies confined to single

dimensional issues only. The interdisciplinary and integrated studies particularly

to the programmes implementation, feedback, impact on enrolment and dropouts

are very limited. Moreover, the majority of the studies analyzed the only at macro

level situations. The district and black level studies are very scanty. At present, the

Central and State Governments implementing a massive primary education

programmes since one and half decade. Moreover, huge funds are allocated for

these programmes. At this situation, micro level empirical and interrelated studies

are paramount need to trace out deficiencies and gaps exist in various spheres in

the indicators of primary education in different socio-economic and cultural

scenario. Keeping the above aspects under consideration, the study focused on the

above mentioned gaps at certain extent. Further, the study analyzed the scenario of

primary education in India and Andhra Pradesh to trace out variations gaps exist

in the indicators of primary education. Particularly, access of primary schools,

access of the infrastructural facilities, enrolment and dropout patterns, levels of

implementation of primary education programmes, etc. The details of the study

are presented in the succeeding chapter.