Review Article Motivating Workers in Constructiondownloads.hindawi.com/archive/2014/703084.pdf · ,...

Review ArticleMotivating Workers in Construction

Jason E. Barg, Rajeev Ruparathna, Daylath Mendis, and Kasun N. Hewage

Faculty of Applied Science, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, 1137 Alumni Avenue,Kelowna, BC, Canada V1V 1V7

Correspondence should be addressed to Kasun N. Hewage; [email protected]

Received 22 October 2013; Accepted 8 June 2014; Published 9 July 2014

Academic Editor: Manoj Jha

Copyright © 2014 Jason E. Barg et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The study of the motivation of construction workers is limited to a relatively small body of knowledge. Although there isconsiderable research available regarding motivation and productivity, few researchers have provided a comprehensive analysison the motivation of construction workers. The research stated that productivity in construction has not improved comparedto other industry sectors such as manufacturing. This trend has been echoed in publications throughout the past five decades,and suggested that motivation is one of the key factors impacting productivity. This paper offers a comprehensive review of thepublished work that directly links the key words—construction and motivation. The findings have been presented in five themes,that is, motivationmodels, environment and culture, incentives and empowerment, and workermanagement.This paper concludeswith twomethods suggested by previous researchers to improve motivation of construction workers: (1) relevant worker incentives(intrinsic or extrinsic) and (2) improved management practices, specifically regarding communication with workers.

1. Introduction

During the past five decades, construction productivity hasremained low and has lagged behind other industries [1–5].Hazeltine [6] offered research from a 1963 study, which notedthat an average Canadian construction worker occupied only55% of his/her work day. Hewage and Ruwanpura [1] echoedthis figure based upon a three-year research study with 101Canadian construction workers. This research reported theactual working time (tool time) of a Canadian constructionworker as 51%. These numbers suggested that constructionoperations may be fundamentally flawed and require signif-icant action for improvement of productivity. Motivation ofworkers has been suggested as one of the major factors thatcan stimulate the productivity in the construction industry[1, 7–10]. Thus, the objective of this paper is to review andsummarize all the possible literatures related to constructionworker motivation in the past four decades.

This paper discusses and reviews in depth analysis onworker motivation in the construction industry. It summa-rizes information under four main areas, that is, (1) defini-tions of motivation, (2) theories of motivation, and (3) moti-vational themes in construction. The motivational themesin construction were further discussed under motivational

models, work environment/culture, incentives and empow-erment, and worker management.

2. Methodology

A literature review was initiated to collect peer-reviewedEnglish articles from the last four decades regarding workermotivation in construction.The literature selected originatedfrom peer-reviewed articles from the following journals andconference proceedings: (1) Building and Environment; (2)Cost Engineering; (3) 5th Post Graduate Conference onConstruction Industry Development; (4) Canadian Journalof Civil Engineering; (5) Engineering Management Journal;(6) International Journal of Project Management; (7) Journalof Construction Engineering and Management; (8) Journalof Engineering, Design, and Technology; (9) Journal ofGeospatial Engineering; (10) Journal of Labor Economics; (11)Journal of Management in Engineering; (12) Leadership andManagement in Engineering; (13) Applied Mechanics andMaterials (14) Project Management Journal; and (15) Journalof the ConstructionDivision. Additionally, two of the articlesare the result of theses.

Literature was chosen based upon its relevance to chosenkey words: motivation and construction. The titles and

Hindawi Publishing CorporationJournal of Construction EngineeringVolume 2014, Article ID 703084, 11 pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/703084

2 Journal of Construction Engineering

Table 1: Summary of the literature review according to relevance/classification.

Theme TotalMotivation model 9Environment and culture 7Incentive and empowerment 9Worker management 9Total 34

abstracts of the articles were scanned for the keywords.Altogether, 56 articles were found; 22 articles were separatedsince those did not directly linkmotivation and construction.The remaining 34 articles were on worker motivation withinthe context of construction. These articles were then furtheranalyzed under motivational themes and were separated intofour major categories: (1) motivation models; (2) environ-ment and culture; (3) incentives and empowerment; and (4)worker management. Each of these categories was definedand discussed in this paper. Table 1 highlights the findingsaccording to defined categories.

3. Motivation Defined

Motivation has been defined as “providing a drive to actto satisfy needs or desires” [11]. Within the context ofwork, Pinder [12] stated that work motivation is a set ofenergetic forces that originate both within as well as beyondan individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior andto determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration.According to Jenkins et al. [13], motivation is intangible,a hypothetical construct that is used to explain humanbehaviour. Motivation is commonly sourced from intrinsicor extrinsicmotives [14]. Intrinsicmotivation involves peopledoing an activity because they find it interesting and derivespontaneous satisfaction from the activity itself. Extrinsicmotivation, in contrast, requires an instrumentality betweenthe activity and some separable consequences such as tangibleor verbal rewards; hence, satisfaction comes not from theactivity itself but rather from the extrinsic consequences towhich the activity leads [15].

4. Theories of Motivation

Theories of motivation are not discussed in detail, in thispaper, as such information is already available in the liter-ature. Hewage [16] provided one such review, which clearlyoutlined the origins of motivation theories as applied toconstruction workers. They are listed and briefly explainedas follows.

(1) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory [17] suggeststhat humans have needs that can be prioritized in ahierarchy. The lowest-order needs must be fulfilledbefore people become concerned with higher-orderneeds.

(2) Herzberg motivational theory [18] shows that anindividual’s satisfaction with the work is attributed to

the job itself, while dissatisfaction is attributed to thework environment.

(3) Adams’ equity theory [19] explains that people aremotivated based upon whether or not they believethey are being treated equitably. This belief is derivedfrom a comparison of friends and/or colleagues.

(4) Vroom’s expectancy theory [20] explains that behav-ior is a result from conscious choices among alterna-tives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure andminimize pain.

(5) Reinforcement theory [21] discusses that reinforcedbehavior will lead to repeated performance. Rein-forcements are factors that motivate.

(6) Alderfer’s ERG theory [22] categorizes Maslow’s hier-archy into existence needs, relatedness needs, andgrowth needs. It also suggests that the hierarchicalorder of needs will differ per individual, and multiplelevels of need can be fulfilled simultaneously.

5. Motivational Themes

As mentioned, literature review found thirty five articlesdirectly related to worker motivation within constructioncontext. Table 2 shows these journal articles categorizedaccording to their relevance/classification, as defined by theauthors.

5.1. Motivational Models. Motivational models provide anarrangement and structure for developing, communicating,and managing worker motivation. The following paragraphsdiscuss some of the motivational models available in theliterature.

In 1968, Porter and Lawler developed a motivationalmodel based on Vroom’s expectancy model. Porter andLawler developed a motivational model considering inter-related variables. The variables considered in Porter andLawler’s model included a motivational force predictor com-prised on effort reward expectancies and reward prediction,job effort and performance, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards,and job satisfaction [23].

Maloney [24] conducted a literature review in construc-tion worker motivation. At that time, he found no publishedwork on construction worker motivation and encouragedthat rigorous program be undertaken to enhance knowledgein this area. Maloney [25] stated that specific theories forconstruction worker motivation had not been developed.Subsequently, the same researcher suggested 5 areas forfurther research: (1) expectancy issues—data needed to becollected based upon a “worker’s perceived probability thathis expenditure of effort will result in his attaining thedesired level of performance;” (2) instrumentality issues—these are issues defined by a worker’s understanding of therelationship between performance and reward or punish-ment; (3) valence issues—the anticipated satisfaction that anindividual associates with the receipt of specific outcomes;(4) organizational constraints—management faults whichnegatively affect worker motivation; and (5) satisfaction—the

Journal of Construction Engineering 3

Table2:Literature

review

results:m

otivationof

workersin

constructio

n.

Num

ber

Journal

name

Writer(s)

Relevance/cla

ssificatio

nField/application

1JCEM

Malon

eyandMcFillen

[8]

Workere

nviro

nment/c

ulture

Jobstructuretomotivatew

orkers

2CM

ESm

ithersa

ndWalker[21]

Workere

nviro

nment/c

ulture

Creatin

gan

attractiv

eworkplace

environm

ent

3JCEM

Abdelham

idandEv

erett[26]

Workere

nviro

nment/c

ulture

Redu

cing

fatig

ue

4CJCE

Hew

agea

ndRu

wanpu

ra[1]

Workere

nviro

nment/c

ulture

Inadequacy

ofcommun

ication,

incentives,and

work

cond

ition

s5

JCEM

Nepaletal.[27]

Workere

nviro

nment/c

ulture

Workere

xpectatio

ns,basicneeds,andgoalsetting

6JCEM

Brockm

an[28]

Workere

nviro

nment/c

ulture

Interpersonalcon

flictsinconstructio

nenvironm

ent

7AMM

Ou[29]

Workere

nviro

nment/c

ulture

Cultivatin

ghygienefactorsin

constructio

nprojects

8JCD

Borcherding[7]

Incentivea

ndem

powerment

Feelingaccomplish

ment/impact

9JCEM

Malon

eyandMcFillen

[8]

Incentivea

ndem

powerment

Disc

iplin

eversusrew

ard

10JG

ELam

andTang

[30]

Incentivea

ndem

powerment

Short-term

andlong

-term

motivationschemes

11LM

EPricee

tal.[31]

Incentivea

ndem

powerment

Incentives

andph

ysical/basicneeds

12JCEM

Cox

etal.[32]

Incentivea

ndem

powerment

Workforce

needs:praise

13EM

JDoloi[33]

Incentivea

ndem

powerment

Motivationalfactorsurvey

14CI

DTh

walaM

onese[34]

Incentivea

ndem

powerment

Motivationald

rivers

15JEDT

Chileshea

ndHaupt

[35]

Incentivea

ndem

powerment

Motivationalfactors

16IJP

MDwivedulaa

ndBredillet[36]

Incentivea

ndem

powerment/m

otivationalm

odel

Influ

encing

motivation

17JCEM

Malon

ey[24]

Motivationmod

elNeedform

odel

18JCEM

Malon

eyandMcFillen

[37]

Motivationmod

elRe

search

needs

19JCEM

Malon

ey[25]

Motivationmod

elPo

sitive/negativ

efactorsthatinflu

ence

motivation

20JCEM

Malon

eyandMcFillen

[38]

Motivationmod

elLink

employee

andem

ployer

goals

21JCEM

Malon

ey[39]

Motivationmod

elCausesa

ndho

wmotivationischanneled

22BE

Olomolaiye

andPrice[40

]Motivationmod

elAp

plicationandmod

eling

23JCEM

Malon

ey[41]

Motivationmod

elMotivationinflu

encesp

erform

ance

24JCEM

Thom

asetal.[42]

Motivationmod

elMotivationtheory

25Th

esis

Hew

age[16]

Motivationalm

odel

Com

mun

icationto

workers

26JCD

Hazeltine[6]

Workerm

anagem

ent

Disc

over,learn,and

applymotivationalbasics

27JCEM

Malon

eyandMcFillen

[8]

Workerm

anagem

ent

Areas

ofinflu

ence

thatmotivate

28PICE

MansfieldandOdeh[43]

Workerm

anagem

ent

Principles

tofollowbasedon

twodecadeso

freview

29Th

esis

Gon

zalez[44

]Workerm

anagem

ent

Motivationprograms

30IJP

MMansfieldandOdeh[43]

Workerm

anagem

ent

Keyareasm

anagersm

ustp

ayattentionto,tomotivate

31JM

ERo

jasa

ndAramvareekul

[45]

Workerm

anagem

ent

Improvingprod

uctiv

ityisam

anagem

entissue

32JCEM

Cox

etal.[11]

Workerm

anagem

ent

KBI-Ke

ybehavioralindicatorsusage

33IJP

MTabassiand

Bakar[46

]Workerm

anagem

ent

Training

,motivation,

andperfo

rmance

34IJP

MTabassietal.[47]

Workerm

anagem

ent

Training

andmotivationon

team

work

BE=Bu

ildingandEn

vironm

ent;CE

=CostE

ngineerin

g;CI

D=5thPo

stGradu

ateCon

ferenceon

Con

structio

nIndu

stryDevelo

pment;CJCE

=Ca

nadian

Journalo

fCivilEn

gineering;

EMJ=

Engineering

Managem

entJou

rnal;IJPM

=InternationalJou

rnal

ofProjectM

anagem

ent;JCEM

=Journalo

fCon

structio

nEn

gineeringandManagem

ent;JCD

=Journalo

fthe

Con

structio

nDivision

;JED

T=Journalo

fEn

gineering,DesignandTechno

logy;JGE=JournalofG

eospatialEng

ineerin

g;JLE=JournalofL

abor

Econ

omics;JM

E=JournalofM

anagem

entinEn

gineering;LM

E=LeadershipandManagem

entinEn

gineering;

AMM

=Ap

pliedMechanics

andMaterials;

PICE

=Proceeding

softhe

Institutio

nof

CivilE

ngineers;P

MJ=

ProjectM

anagem

entJou

rnal.


Reward

Will my effort improve my performance?

Will performance lead to rewards?

Will rewards satisfy my individual goals?

PerformanceEffort

Figure 1: Vroom’s expectancy model of motivation.

level to which a worker’s needs are met, by their job. Maloney[25] believed that these areas are the starting points for thedevelopment of motivational theories/frameworks for theconstruction industry. The same researcher linked Vroom’sexpectancy theory (Figure 1) to construction worker moti-vation, suggesting that Vroom’s model could be a possibletool for future evaluation of construction worker motivation.Maloney [25] also suggested that worker’s level of motivationis influenced by either positive or negative factors. Increaseof positive factors and the decrease of negative factors willultimately increase productivity.

Maloney and McFillen [38] presented an article thatstressed contractors to make factors with high valencescontingent upon performance in order to make the workexperience more rewarding and satisfying to workers. In alater article, Maloney [49] expanded by providing a simpleprinciple to be followed by construction managers; that is,link what is desired by the organization (specific behavior)to what is desired by the employees (specific rewards).

Olomolaiye and Price [40] agreed with Maloney [25] andnoted the unavailability of a serious attempt to formulatea theory for construction operative (worker) motivation.Olomolaiye and Price [40] presented a review of constructionworker motivation by addressing previous conceptual andempirical studies. The same author suggested that furtherstudy is required to establish the relationship between workermotivation and productivity in order to build theories forconstruction worker motivation. Maloney [41] presented afive-part framework from which performance can be ana-lyzed. Worker motivation was addressed to be one of themajor factors in this framework.The same researcher definedindividual motivation level to perform a task as a function ofthree variables: (1) likelihood that if an individual exerts theeffort, he will be able to perform the task; (2) likelihood thatif an individual performs the task, he will receive a specificreward or outcome for that performance; and (3) anticipatedsatisfaction that an individual associates with the reward oroutcome. Maloney [41] used this definition to link motiva-tion to performance. The flow chart proposed by Maloney[41] enables to assess the performance of an organizationconsidering multiple criteria. If the worker performance isunsatisfactory, the proposed flowchart enables identifyingorganizational issues based on available data and takingsequential actions. As an example, if the work environmentis not free from organizationally imposed constraints, theflow chart is proposed to improve the job management.

Additionally, this method assesses work environment con-sidering whether the workers possess necessary skills, ability,and knowledge, whether the workers possess the necessarymotivation, and whether current estimates for the perfor-mance levels are realistic to determine which actions arenecessary.

Thomas [42] analyzed Vroom’s expectancy theory modelin the context of construction. Expectancy theory explainsvariations in performance, in terms of the effort, whicha worker is willing to exert to complete a task. There-fore, if a worker is willing to exert a determined attempt,has the capability, receives correct direction, and removesall obstacles, the work will be accomplished well. Fur-thermore, according to Thomas [42], the resulting per-formance could be observed based on effectiveness, effi-ciency, productivity, profitability, innovation, and quality ofwork.

The expectancy theory model for motivation introducedby Hewage and Ruwanpura [1] was developed based uponthe theories of Maslow [17], Adams [19], Vroom [20], andSmithers and Walker [21]. The model was later validatedwith 101 construction workers. This model is representedgraphically in Figure 2.

Hewage’s [16] theoretical model for motivation (Figure 2)considers 23 factors (Table 3) that affect the motivationlevel of a construction worker. Motivation level accord-ing to each factor is assessed based on effort to perfor-mance expectancy, performance to outcome expectancy, andvalence, using a 7-point scale. Consequently, motivation levelfor each factor can range from 1–343. For simplicity, thecubic root of the motivation level value was considered forcomparison purposes. The summation of the motivationlevel of each factor would give the final motivation level.Hewage [16] used the aforementioned model to investigatethe motivation level of construction workers in Calgary.Data collection for this study was done through a series ofquestionnaire surveys and interviews involving more than100 construction workers. The most important factors formotivationwere safety procedures in the site, tools and equip-ment, and the respect received from their coworkers andsupervisors.

According to Hewage and Ruwanpura [1], 45% of theseworkers expressed lack of communication as one of themain issues affecting worker motivation. In view of thisissue, the researchers offered the “Information Booth” as apossible communication aid [50]. The Information Boothallows the user to retrieve almost all the real-time informa-tion and audio-visual information needed for constructionsite operations. The pilot test of the Information Boothproved successful where worker satisfaction and productivityincreased after the use [50].

Dwivedula and Bredillet [36] proposed a model forworker motivation in a project environment. The modelconsiders five major categories, namely, employee develop-ment, work climate, perceived equity, work objectivity, andjob security. The subcriteria under the five main categoriesare listed below. These criteria are vital in improving themotivation in the project environment.


Performance

Opportunity

Outcome

Reinforcement theory

Equity theory Level of satisfaction

New needsSelf-

actualizationEsteemSocialSafety

Physiological

Effort

Ability/ skills

NeedsSelf-

actualizationEsteemSocialSafety

Physiological

Intrinsic Extrinsic

Believe effort leads to performance

Believe performance leads to outcome

Value of outcome

Expectancy Instrumentality

M L = ∑(E−→P) × (P −→ O) × V

Figure 2: Hewage’s expectancy theory of motivation [16].

Table 3: Prioritized motivational factors (data obtained from Hewage [16]).

Motivational factors Applicable theory1 Bonus or rewards ET, HT, RT2 Amount of salary ET, EQT, RT3 Friendliness and helpfulness of the coworkers ET, HT, MT, AT4 Amount of freedom in your work ET, MT, AT5 Chance for getting a promotion ET, RT, HT6 Chances to learn new things ET, HT7 Respect receive from the coworkers & supervisors ET, MT, AT8 Opportunity for challenging work ET, EQT, HT9 Tools and equipment ET, EQT10 Chances to accomplish something worth ET, MT, RT, HT, AT11 Chances to do the things which you do best and like most ET, RT, HT12 Type of physical surroundings (washrooms, lunch rooms, etc.) ET, EQT, HT13 Team to work with ET, MT, EQT, AT14 Supervisor’s understanding of the quality and technical details ET, EQT, HT15 Supervisor’s direction and support ET, EQT, HT16 Safety procedures in site ET, MT, EQT, HT, AT17 Chances to take part in decision making ET, MT, HT, AT18 Opportunities to develop skills and abilities ET, HT19 Job security ET, MT, EQT, HT, AT20 Opportunity to work entire period in site before moving to a new one ET, EQT, RT21 Seeing the ultimate results of work ET, MT, HT, AT22 Supervisor’s positive feedback after successfully completing a task ET, MT, RT, HT, AT23 Holidays and free time (lunch and coffee breaks) during work ET, RT, HT, EQTWhere MaslowTheory (MT), Alderfer’s Theory (AT), Ex-pectancyTheory (ET), Reinforcement Theory (RT), Equity Theory (EQT), Herzberg’s Theory (HT).


(1) Employee development:

(a) job advancement;(b) variety of knowledge;(c) participative decision making;(d) high level of knowledge;(e) developing competencies;(f) sense of achievement.

(2) Work climate:

(a) variety of tasks;(b) social interaction;(c) feedback from work;(d) significant job;(e) communication flow.

(3) Perceived equity:

(a) adequate pay;(b) adequate recognition;(c) freedom at work;(d) feedback from colleagues.

(4) Work objectivity:

(a) complete piece of work;(b) clarity of goal.

(5) Job security:

(a) job security.

The above discussion highlights that motivational mod-els reviewed were developed considering various attributes.Table 4 summarizes the motivational models found in thepublished literature.

5.2. Work Environment/Culture. This section addressesworker motivation in the context of the constructionenvironment and culture. Maloney [39] discussed theworking environment in the perspective of job content andcontext. Contextual factors include supervision, materialresources, compensation practices, and work environment,while job content refers to variety of activities involved,the skills demanded, and the challenge provided. The sameauthor found that one-third of workers have the growth needsrelated to the profession and therefore would be motivatedby enriched jobs or change of job content. Maloney [39] alsosuggested that contractors should be aware of workers thatare concerned with contextual factors and would thereforebe motivated by factors that improve the work environment.

Smithers and Walker [21] further expanded the effect ofcontextual factors onmotivation.The same author conducteda study in Melbourne, Australia, and found that long hours,chaos, nonrecognition for work completed, and colleagues’aggressive management style contributed to demotivation

in construction worksite. Smithers [21] concluded by sug-gesting construction companies to choose more profitableprojects and improve management style, in order to reduceworker stress and increase motivation. Further study hassuggested that fatiguemay also be a catalyst for demotivation.Abdelhamid and Everett [26] presented their study on thephysiological demands of construction work. They foundthat 20–40% of craft workers routinely exceeded publishedguidelines for acceptable levels of physical performancein industrial settings. The same researchers suggested thatfatigue may lead to lack of motivation but did not providevalidation for this suggestion, as this was beyond the scope oftheir article.

Hewage and Ruwanpura [1] demonstrated a comprehen-sive study of 101 construction workers that led to a greaterunderstanding of various factors that influence worker moti-vation: (1) incentives—bonus, rewards, and salary; (2) work-ing team—relationship and respect with/from coworkersand supervisors; (3) working conditions—freedom, physicalsurroundings, and opportunities to learn new things; (4)management and supervision—positive reinforcement andjob security; (5) intrinsic motives—chances to accomplishworthwhile things, do things you like, make decisions, andbuild skill. These factors were rated by construction workers,which supplied substance for Hewage and Ruwanpura [1]“expectancy model” of Motivation, as displayed in Figure 2.

Nepal et al. [27] demonstrated that schedule pressureleads workers to lose the motivation towards work. Theirstudy indicated that while a moderate degree of schedulepressure may help to increase productivity—possibly byincreasingworker alertness and attention—schedule pressureabove a certain level leads workers to cut corners, increasesthe amount of out-of-sequence work and the number ofdefects, and causes workers to lose their motivation to work.

Ou [29] studied methods to cultivate hygiene factors in aconstruction project setup. Ou [29] identified improvementof the ability of self-protection, improvement of the workingenvironment, establishment of stable working relationshipmethods, and improvement of the salary management as amethod to upgrade hygiene factors in the construction workenvironment.

Brockman [28] studied consequences of interpersonalconflicts in construction project environment. The sameauthor stated that interpersonal conflicts reduce motivationof the construction workers.

5.3. Incentive and Empowerment. This paper defines incen-tives as any factor, action, position, result, or communicationthat influences a worker to perform a set task in a desiredmanner. Borcherding [7] published research that stressed theimportance of workers feeling a sense of accomplishment andpersonal impact on the project. Borcherding [7] argued thatthese are motivational factors which, when felt by workers,increase motivation and thus productivity.

Maloney and McFillen [49] conducted a study thatprovided two conclusions: (1) expectancy theory provides aworkable conceptual base for understanding the motivationof construction workers and (2) application of expectancytheory principles to construction work pinpoints significant


Table 4: Summary of motivational models.

Motivational models AttributesPorter and Lawler’s Model [48] Effort, performance, satisfactionMaloney [41] Efforts, performance, rewardsThomas et al. [42] Job content, incentives, efforts, performance, satisfactionHewage and Ruwanpura [1] Expectancy, performance, valence

Cox et al. [32] Confidence, incentives, quality of work, safety performance, praise, a feeling ofbeing a member, job security

Dwivedula and Bredillet [36] Employee development, work climate, perceived equity, work objectivity, and jobsecurity

areas for action if construction workers are to be moti-vated towards higher productivity. This article stated thatexpectancy theory can be divided into three areas:

(1) performance definition;(2) performance facilitation;(3) performance encouragement.

Maloney and McFillen [49] suggested that performancedefinition and encouragement are the major factors thatcontractors need to focus on to improve performance. Boththese areas focus onworker incentive. If workers have definedprecise and manageable goals along with a likely, well-timed,equitable, and worthwhile reward, they will have adequateincentive to motivate them to perform well.

Lam and Tang [30] published on the motivation ofemployees in construction. The authors offered a viewpointwith both short-term and long-term motivation schemes.Short-term motivation schemes address the worker’s physi-ological needs, safety needs, and belongingness needs, whilelong-term motivation schemes consider the worker’s needsof esteem and self-realization. Price et al. [31] presentedempowerment as the key tool to motivate the workforce. Theresearchers suggested that culture, training, and knowledgemanagement lead to worker empowerment through incen-tive, thus motivating the workforce and ultimately improvingconstruction performance.

Incentives for individual workers are manifested in var-ious forms. One of the primary forms is money, as statedby Cox et al. [32]. The researchers’ most noted point refersto workforce needs. Cox et al. [32] found that a workermust first receive praise before he feels as if he is a memberof the team/crew and once he feels like a member of theteam, he then begins to acquire feelings of job security. Byunderstanding this point, contractors can adequately adjustthe worksite culture and introduce monetary incentives tomotivate the workforce. It is also found that job securityand work appreciation and reward ranked as top incentivesamong workers, in the Australian construction industry,according to Doloi [33]. Table 5 presents entire ranking ofattributes that affect worker motivation.

These findings represent an important resource foremployers in increasing employees output.Thwala andMon-ese [34] stressed the importance of incentives in order tomeet employer goals and employee needs. They referredto two types of incentives, that is, extrinsic and intrinsic,

Table 5: Project attributes ranking (data obtained from Doloi [33]).

Project attributes RankJob security 1Work appreciation and reward 2Work environment 3Employer’s recognition 4Prospect of promotion 5Geographical position 6Contract of employment 7Incentivized scheme 8Financial security 9Obligation to family support 10Social status 11Superannuation 12Dependence 13Management pressure 14Marital status 15Opportunity for advancement 16Fringe benefit 17Employer’s profile 18Gender 19Challenging occupation 20Penalty clause 21Level of education 22Car 23Age group 24Split income 25

which are explained in the “Motivation Defined” section ofthis paper. The same authors also emphasized the powerof incentives which is immense and pervasive and theimportance ofmanaging incentive programs closely to ensureeffectiveness. Chileshe [35] conducted a study in the SouthAfrican construction industry and found that two specificincentives, personal health and quality of life, were the keymotivational factors for workers. Dwivedula and Bredillet[36] briefly referred to motivation in construction and statedthat employee empowerment is the key to a greater clientfocus.

5.4. Worker Management. One of the prominent themes inconstruction worker motivation research is the need for


construction managers to change their approach on moti-vating their workforce. Many managers do not understandmotivational concepts and therefore lack the appropriateapproach to increasing productivity. Hazeltine [6] statedthat construction work appears to need little enrichmentand it is one of the few satisfying types of work left inthe automated world today. The same researcher suggestedthat the satisfactions are already found within constructionand need further development by management. Specifically,management should be developed towards healthy workerattitudes, administering praise, and building respect and forthe satisfaction of self-fulfilled needs.

Over a decade later, Maloney and McFillen [8] echoedthis theme by stressing the importance of the role ofmanaging work-crew variables. In order to motivate con-struction crews, Maloney and McFillen [8] suggested thatcontractors need to positively manage five issues: (1) stabilityof employment, (2) work-crew staffing, (3) team building,(4) goal setting, and (5) incentives. By doing this, workerperformance and satisfaction can be increased [8]. Mansfieldand Odeh [51] conducted a review that brought togethersome of the motivational studies from the US constructionindustry. From this study, the researchers concluded thatbetter handling of “people” is always a key factor in anyproject success. The same researchers also pointed out thatmanagers should adhere to early human relations ideas,combined with motivational theories, in order to create amotivating work environment.

Hancock [52] stated that the authoritarian approachto management is outdated and ineffective. In conclusion,Hancock [52] clearly provided the groundwork for the roleof managers in motivating the workforce. Hancock [52]proposed that managers must understand (1) some elementof human behavior and motivation theory; (2) factors thatinfluence behavior, (3) motivators and demotivators, (4)uniqueness of the industry/project when designing moti-vation programs, and (5) needs of construction workers.Mansfield and Odeh [43] addressed twenty points that theauthors believed are necessary for managers to achieve bettermotivation among their subordinates. The same authorscategorized these points into industry characteristics, types ofindividuals, and significantmotivators.These points are listedbelow.

Industry characteristics:

(1) short-term employment reduces chances of em-ployee/company identification;

(2) construction environments can make perfor-mance outcomes unpredictable;

(3) unusual problems act as a spur to ingenuity;(4) construction contracts (and their types) have to

be matched to project risk situations;(5) labor availability (in short supply) can limit

initiatives;(6) management effectiveness can diminish on

multicontract and complex projects.

Types of individuals:

(1) rational-economicman:motivated by economicincentives;

(2) social man: motivated by social needs and inter-action with fellows;

(3) self-actualized man: motivated by autonomyand independence;

(4) complex man: motivated by economic, social,and autonomous needs;

(5) psychological man: motivated by a mixture ofcomplicated factors.

Significant motivators:

(1) employee attitudes can be positively influencedthrough staff-orientation programs and an over-all atmosphere of trust;

(2) achievement challenges are easily built intoproject work;

(3) appreciation for effort should be clearly ex-pressed through a variety of means;

(4) responsibility reduces boredom and frustration,if work is properly allocated;

(5) money acts as a strong or weak motivator,according to economic circumstances;

(6) advancement possibilities are reduced for em-ployees where work is short-term or overspe-cialized;

(7) participation in decision making can generate astrong commitment from employees;

(8) competition stimulates innovation and affectsgreater output;

(9) social relationships at work are improved bycompany-sponsored events and courses.

Rojas and Aramvareekul [45] stated that constructionworkers considered that labor productivity is under theircontrol rather than at the mercy of the construction environ-ment or external conditions. The survey respondents relatedto the abovementioned research also suggested that man-agement could influence positively improving productivity.This information suggested that workers at all levels havetaken responsibility for productivity.Thus,managers can takeinfluential steps to motivate the workforce.

Cox et al. [11] provided KBI’s (key behavioral indicators)where managers can determine whether or not their employ-ees are motivated, satisfied, committed, and loyal. Cox et al.[11] found that the employees who perform more work thanexpected, respond promptly to problems, solve problems,complete task at hand on schedule, and plan their own workcan be judged as motivated.

Tabassi and Bakar, [46] identified the lack of motivationas a barrier to the worker training in construction. Tabassi etal. [47] studied the effect of training andmotivation on team-work improvement and task efficiency within constructionfirms. They stated that the motivation influences workers toundertake training programs.


6. Discussion

This study provides a comprehensive review of workermotivation in the construction industry. Published journalarticles are the main source of information used in this study.Three categories, definitions for motivation, theories formotivation, andmotivational themes, are used as the basis forthe review. Motivational themes are further discussed undermotivational models, work environment/culture, incentivesand empowerment, and worker management. There is astrong history of researchers who explored motivationaltheories in a wide variety of formats, including case studies.Yet, too few have focused their work specifically on theconstructionworker.There are currently noCanadian studieslooking at construction worker motivation. Similarly, there isno validated and published research work in Canada devotedto examining construction worker efficiencies, productivity,and communication needs. Canadian construction indus-try is referring to outdated and irrelevant publications ofUSA for productivity, working efficiencies, and overtimecalculations.

The first step to measure and evaluate worker motiva-tion on construction projects was to develop a theoreticalframework with the use of Vroom’s expectancy theory [20],Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory [17], equity theory [19],and reinforcement theory [21].

As per Cox et al. [11], motivation has been defined asproviding a drive to act to satisfy needs or desires. It is one ofthe key factors that influence productivity. Many researchersprovided models and theories which can be applied tomotivate workers in the construction industry. Constructionperformance has lagged behind other industries for fewdecades, yet no significant fundamental management orattitude shift has occurred for a change.Motivational theoriesand models have been suggested as a primary factor to bestudied and applied in order to influence better performance.For some reason, this suggestion has not been materializedin the construction industry, and many managers ignoredthe fundamentals ofworkermotivation.Management’s abilityto implement a method of motivation to avoid the actualcause of demotivation should be developed. This statementwas validated by many research studies which showed nosignificant improvement in tool time of construction workersin the previous four decades [1, 5, 6, 50].

Jarkas et al. [53] studied factors affecting the productivityand motivational factors of master craftsmen in Kuwait.Through an industry wide survey, they ranked the criticalmotivational factors that affect the productivity. Out of the 10most critical factors they identified that 2 factors were relatedto incentives (i.e., payment delay and lack of a financialincentive scheme), 5 were factors related to work environ-ment and culture (i.e., rework, the extent of change ordersduring execution, delays in response to RFI, overcrowdingand operatives interface, and quality level of drawings) and 4were factors related to management (i.e., incompetent super-visors, unrealistic scheduling and performance, and shortageof materials on site). However, Shin et al. [54] revealedthat economic motivators are more important than othercriteria.

Furthermore, Alarcon et al. [55] conducted a surveyto identify factors affecting the productivity of the Chileanconstruction industry. They identified 19 demotivators and22 motivators that are affecting the direct and indirectemployees. Therefore, when improving the motivation ofthe construction workers, it is important to reinforce themotivators and reduce the demotivators.

Finally, previous researchers have suggested that chang-ing the management style (primarily regarding communi-cation) and providing relevant incentives have the greatestpotential to initiate a shift towards better performance andproductivity in the industry. The opportunity awaits a cham-pion.

7. Conclusion

Although there are multiple studies on motivational theoriesand human behaviour, very few are focused specifically onconstruction worker motivation. There are no works in thepublished literature, which focus solely on the motivation ofthe Canadian construction workers. There are very limitedvalidated studies examining worker efficiencies, productivity,and the skills of the commercial construction workers inCanada.

This review found fifty two published articles thataddressed worker productivity in close context to construc-tion. Twenty two of these works were not presented in thispaper because they did not directly relate to constructionworker motivation. The thirty articles that did address thistopic were tabulated, categorized, and reviewed. Of thesearticles, nine addressed motivation models, five addressedworker environment/culture, nine addressed worker incen-tive and empowerment, and seven addressed worker man-agement. The findings show that the body of work regard-ing construction worker motivation is limited and that nomotivationalmodel has beenwidely used, in the constructionindustry. After reviewing the literature, this paper con-cludes that the previous work suggests two primary meth-ods for improving the motivation of construction workers:(1) relevant worker incentives (intrinsic or extrinsic) and(2) improved management practices, specifically regardingcommunication with workers. The first of these points isdirectly linked to the second.The majority of key factors thatinfluence motivation can be directed, controlled, or deliveredby management.

Finally, future research should address the ability of man-agement to implement motivational programs in the con-struction industry.Workermotivationmodels have been pre-viously presented but lack widespread adoption and imple-mentation bymanagement. Subsequent research should showthat practical application of motivationmodels will not comefrom the construction worker but from those with authorityto set project definition and direction.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper.


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